Chapter 1: Introduction

1 Linear Time-Invariant Systems

Example 1 : Massspring system

m
mg

y = 0
y
k
Figure 1: massspring system.
m y =

forces
= f(t) f
k
f

= y friction force; f
k
= ky (restoring) spring force. Thus,
m y + y + ky = mg.
Dening states x
1
= y, x
2
= y, we obtain

x
1
x
2

=

0 1

k
m

m

x
1
x
2

0
1

g
If our interest is in the displacement y, then
y = x
1
=

1 0


x
1
x
2

1
thus,
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
with
A =

0 1

k
m

B =

0
1

C =

1 0

D = [0]
2
2 Nonlinear Systems
We are interested in nonlinear systems that can be modeled by a
nite number of rst-order ordinary dierential equations:
x
1
= f
1
(x
1
, , x
n
, t, u
1
, , u
p
)
.
.
.
x
n
= f
n
(x
1
, , x
n
, t, u
1
, , u
p
)
(1)
Dening vectors
x =

x
1
.
.
.
x
n

, u =

u
1
.
.
.
u
p

, f(t, x, u) =

f
1
(x, t, u)
.
.
.
f
n
(x, t, u)

we will write equation (1) as follows:

x = f(x, t, u). (2)
Similarly, the system output is obtained via the so-called read out
equation
y = h(x, t, u). (3)
Special Cases:
Unforced Systems (u is identically zero).
x = f(x, t, 0) = f(x, t). (4)
Autonomous systems (f(x, t) is not a function of time).
x = f(x) (5)
3
Example 2 : Consider a hardening spring where the force strength-
ens as y increases:
f
k
= ky(1 + a
2
y
2
).
in this case we obtain:
m y + y + ky + ka
2
y
3
= f(t).
resulting in the following state space realization

x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
k
m
x
1

k
m
a
2
x
3
1


m
x
2
+
f(t)
m
which is of the form x = f(x, u). In particular, if u = 0, then

x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
k
m
x
1

k
m
a
2
x
3
1


m
x
2
or x = f(x).
4
Magnetic Suspension System
The equation of the motion of the ball is
m y = f
k
+ mg + F (6)
m is the mass of the ball,
f
k
is the friction force,
g the acceleration due to gravity, and
F is the electromagnetic force due to the current i.
We now look for a model for the magnetic force F. The energy
stored in the electromagnet is given by
E =
1
2
Li
2
L : Inductance of the electromagnet (7)
L = L(y)

1 + y
. (8)
Thus, E = E(i, y) =
1
2
L(y)i
2
, and the force F = F(i, y) is given
by
F(i, y) =
E
y
=
i
2
2
L(y)
y
=
1
2
i
2
(1 + y)
2
. (9)
Assuming that the friction force f
k
= k y
m y = k y + mg
1
2
i
2
(1 + y)
2
. (10)
Also
v = Ri +
d
dt
(Li) (11)
5
`
_
i
`
_
+

v(t)
m

Figure 2: Magnetic suspension system.

where
d
dt
(Li) =
d
dt

i
1 + y

=

y

i
1 + y

dy
dt
+

i

i
1 + y

di
dt
=
i
(1 + y)
2
dy
dt
+


1 + y

di
dt
. (12)
Substituting (12) into (11), we obtain
v = Ri
i
(1 + y)
2
dy
dt
+

1 + y
di
dt
. (13)
and dening x
1
= y, x
2
= y, x
3
= i:
x
1
= x
2
x
2
= g
k
m
x
2

x
2
3
2m(1 + x
1
)
2
x
3
=
1 + x
1

Rx
3
+

(1 + x
1
)
2
x
2
x
3
+ v

.
6
Inverted Pendulum on a Cart
x = X +
L
2
sin = X + l sin (14)
y =
l
2
cos = l cos (15)
F
x
and F
y
represent the reaction forces at the pivot point. Con-
sider rst the pendulum. Summing forces we obtain the following
equations:
F
x
= m

X + ml

cos ml

2
sin (16)
F
y
mg = ml

sin ml

2
cos (17)
F
y
l sin F
x
l cos = J

. (18)
Considering the horizontal forces acting on the cart, we have that
M

X = f
x
F
x
. (19)
dening state x
1
= , x
2
=

we obtain
x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
g sin x
1
amlx
2
2
sin(2x
1
) 2a cos(x
1
)f
x
4l/3 2aml cos
2
(x
1
)
where we have substituted
J =
ml
2
12
, and a
1
2(m + M)
7

_ _ , ,
,
,

,
G

mg

fx
Figure 3: Pendulum-on-a-cart experiment.

Fx
F
y

Mg

fy
2
fy
2

mg

Fy

Fx

fx
Figure 4: Free-body diagrams of the pendulum-on-a-cart system.
8
The Ball-and-Beam System

r
,

mg

Figure 5: Ball-and-beam experiment.
0 = (
J
b
R
2
+ m) r + mg sin mr

2
= (mr
2
+ J + J
b
)

+ 2mr r

+ mgr cos
where J: moment of inertia of the beam, and R, m and J
b
are
the radius, mass and moment of inertia of the ball, respectively.
Dening state variables x
1
= r, x
2
= r, x
3
= , and x
4
=

, we
obtain:
x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
mg sin x
3
+ mx
1
x
2
4
m +
J
b
R
2
x
3
= x
4
x
4
=
mgx
1
cos x
3
2mx
1
x
2
x
4
mx
2
1
+ J + J
b
.
9