Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.

4, 2013

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Impact of contaminants on groundwater quality in Patcham, South East England.

1. 2. Egbuna Chukwuemeka Kingsley1* Musa Abba Jato2 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, United Kingdom Department of Geology, University of Brighton, Brig United Kingdom * E-mail mail of the corresponding author: cke10@uni.brighton.ac.uk

Abstract This paper investigated the impact of of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in Patcham, South-East East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to investigate i recharge mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated unsaturated zone. CTD Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment. Laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer trophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates on groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied. This research used the data obtained from from the loggers and samples collected from the field to analyse and examine the quality trend observing for major environmental pollutants. Results showed that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage. Keywords: Contaminants, groundwater, Chalk, water table, water chemistry 1. Introduction Groundwater is a great natural resource. It is estimated that universally, over 2 billion people depend mainly on groundwater ater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the worlds industries as well as large number of worlds agriculture and irrigation mostly depend on groundwater. In regions like Tunisia, with prominent dry season, groundwater is used as a primary source of irrigation in agricultural development is widely considered (Ravi et al., 2009). This further illustrates the necessity of groundwater to life. Groundwater is known to usually have a suitable quality (Nola et al., 2008: Louis and Egbuna, 2012) although depending on the hydrological condition it may also be of poor condition. The Chalk aquifer is an important source of water in North West Europe, particularly in the United Kingdom, Belgium, North of France and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all potable water and about 80% of total water (Pinault et al., 2005; Brouyere, 2006). The Chalk also provides 55% of UK groundwater-abstracted abstracted drinking water (Howden et al., 2004). Aldrich (2006) further expressed that about 60% of the chalk aquifer recharge are extracted and used as water supply in the UK. However, the sustainability of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without replacement, salinization and pollution or other human activities affects groundwater. In a study by Lunzhang (1994) in the Henan province of China, results showed a decline of 0.75-3.68m 0.75 from 1975-1987 1987 of the water table, after monitoring the water table from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands. Chalk aquifers are usually karstic in nature, which means that they contain holes otherwise known as swallow (sink) holes that may allow infiltration of surface pollutants having contaminants in them. However, recent factors such as increasing population and development, personal water consumption increase, impacts of pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under great gre pressure (Edmunds, 2008). Figure 1 shows the outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer The chalk has proven to be a good aquifer due its porosity and permeability, but the karstic nature of it makes it quite easy for surface contaminants to infiltrate into the aquifer. aquifer. Chalk is a carbonate rock and therefore soluble in nature, this solubility makes possible the presence of features in a chalk such as solution pipes, swallow holes and also sink holes. These are surface features that appear as subsidence sinkholes or pipe like features that extend to depths. Studies carried out have confirmed the existence of such features and are characterized by the dry valley uplands rather than forming surface streams from rainwater (Edmonds, 2008). Thus, this paper aims to investigate stigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the Patcham Catchment, UK. 2. Study Area Patcham, the study area is situated in the City of Brighton and Hove, East Sussex, South East England. Patcham 55

Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 is approximately pproximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to the East, Withdean to the south and the Brighton mainline to the West. The A23 road passes through Patcham. Figure 2 is a map of the Patcham catchment catchment showing locations of monitoring boreholes available within the area where samples for this project work where collected. The UK chalk aquifer is cretaceous in age and covers a wide extent of England. Starting from Yorkshire up north moving down the east coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the Chiltern Hills and moving west to Wiltshire. Dipping in the direction south east, if forms the anticlinal flexure with a simple rise through north Hampshire and North Downs. Downs. South Downs is located on the southern limb of the anticline. The chalk then continues to the west with a southward dip until Dorset (Edmonds, 2008). 2.1 Geology of the Area A geological map of the study area (Patcham) displayed a complex geology (folds (folds and faults) of the area. Figure 3 shows the geologic map of the Patcham catchment. The geology of South East England is characterized by Chalk forming its aquifer, which has a dual porosity (matrix and fracture). Surface pollutants can easily be transported transported through the fracture to the water at ease. In Patcham, a highway (A23) passes through the borehole-monitoring borehole monitoring sites which are available, thus making it possible for hydrocarbon runoff to the groundwater due to the nature of the aquifer. 3. Methodology Records of evapotranspiration, conductivity, rainfall fluxes and water table depth all contributed to the monitoring of the influence of these contaminates on groundwater. Data, obtained from a Campbell scientific weather station installed in the study catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to investigate recharge mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated zone. CTD Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment (i.e. North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East). Using laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates on groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied.

3.1 Data Collection and sampling Data collection included visits to borehole monitoring sites where samples of water was collected from each of the seven sites of monitoring oring boreholes available within the Patcham catchment area. Pressure transducers are present within all the monitoring boreholes. They were used to monitor changes in the water table of the boreholes; they were quite sensitive and also show rapid response. response. They were used to record the variation levels in groundwater and the data obtained was stored using data logger for long periods of time. The techniques used in sampling included; using a bladder pump and flow through a cell and a bailer. A bailer is hollow llow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a plastic container, using a marker to give each separate sample its label. These borehole monitoring sites within the Patcham catchment are: Preston Park, Park, Lower Standean, North Bottom, North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9th March 2012. In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTDCTD Diver data logger was placed which recorded data for conductivity, temperature and depth over long periods of time. Penman-Monotieth Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter is a hand-held held field meter that measures measures oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature of the water. 4. RESULTS 4.1 Water level and Conductivity of North Heath Barn borehole Chalk of the North Heath Barn borehole is predominantly white in colour. It is a monitoring site with 70m August unsaturated aturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the conductivity and water depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 4) in order to identify depth of recharge and plausible compositional change in the water entering the Chalk aquifer. In Figure 4, it can be observed that the water depth gradually rose from mid-June mid June to mid-October mid reaching a maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid-January mid to values as low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution 56

Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 all year round with a few peaks of about 0.398 msie/cm in early August and mid-January. mid January. However, it can be observed that this value declines to a low of 0.377msie/cm 0 in February and March. 4.2 Water level and Conductivity of Preston Park borehole Preston Park is an urban site, with the aquifer characterised by white chalk. The borehole monitoring site located in Preston Park has depth of about 18-20m 18 August ust unsaturated zone. A plot made from data collected by the divers installed in the borehole of the site (Preston Park) was used to generate data on the conductivity and water depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 5) in order to identify depth depth of recharge and likely change in composition of the water entering the Chalk aquifer. From figure 5, it can be seen that the water level has been more or less stable almost all through the year although there were some major decline from DecemberDecember February uary dropping from 23m to about 18m bgl. Results further showed that conductivity showed abrupt changes, falling rapidly from 0.71msie/cm from ending June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the mid of August where it fell to o.648msie/cm and had a uniform distribution till the mid of December, where it raised again to 0.7msie/cm. 4.3 Water level and Conductivity of Pyecoomb East borehole The pyecoomb east is an effluent dispersal site, dominated by Grey Chalk formation. It is a borehole monitoring site with 60m August, unsaturated zone. Figure 6 was plot against date in order to identify depth of recharge and possible compositional change in the water entering the Chalk aquifer, using data collecting collecting from installed divers. The water level in the borehole as plotted in the Figure 6 above shows a continuous increase throughout the year from 56.82m bgl in June to about 57.1m bgl in March. The conductivity in the borehole shows an irregular distribution, distribution, displaying a drop starting from June at (0.73msie/cm) through to mid-August mid August (0.71msie/cm). A steady increase is observed between mid-august august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed throughout the rest of the year. 4.4 Evapotranspiration and Rainfall influx of the boreholes The new climatic station installed at the North Heath Barn borehole allowed for accurate calculation of the evapotranspiration, while the rainfall data collected from the borehole at at North Heath Barn was used for all the three boreholes as they are within the same area. A plot of evapotranspiration and rainfall influx against date (Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwater). groundwat Also aquifer recharge rate can also be postulated from this plot. From figure 7, it can be observed that the distribution of evapotranspiration is highly inconsistent. The evapotranspiration initially peaked at about 4.7mm and falls to a minimum value value of 0.3mm before gradually increasing to a late peak value of 2.5mm. Unlike evapotranspiration, rainfall influx within the same period as recorded from the borehole showed a more even distribution characterised with series of sharp peaks. The maximum-recorded rded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be observed that rainfall influx rate is predominantly greater in quantity than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole.

4.5 Subsurface Element Concentration data on the Chalk To effectively categorise the type and extent of contamination of groundwater within the study areas, concentration of some contaminants measured in the three boreholes are plotted against date. This is necessary in an attempt to determine the e trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we present World Health Organisation (WHO) standard for element concentration in groundwater (Table 1). 4.5.1 Contaminants concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole Concentration oncentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date to ascertain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 1. From the graph, it can be observed that ammonium ammonium concentration was very low and unpronounced throughout the given period. Chlorine concentration in the borehole was first recorded in June and can be seen to be evenly distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO specified spe limit of Cl in groundwater (see Table 1). Nitrate concentration in January of 2011 begins at 3 mg/L. However, a steady increase in nitrate concentration is observed as we approach April, until a record high of 23.5 mg/L (figure 8). This projection begins egins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration 57

Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 increases again to about 9 mg/L in early October before a gradual decline is seen to occur. Dissolved oxygen concentration can be said to be averagely distributed throughout throughout given period, with limits slightly above 10 mg/L. Nitrite concentration begins at 14.5 mg/L (this is it highest value throughout the given period). A sharp decline is seen until a recorded value of 6 mg/L in mid-February. mid February. Hereafter, nitrite concentration concent fluctuates until a steady concentration of 5 mg/L is reached through September to January before a gradually declines to 3 mg/L is finally observed (figure 8). Phosphate, Sulfate and TOC concentrations all occur below 2 mg/L, with the TOC showing more re of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally below 0.6 mg/L). From the above analysis, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage. 4.5.2 Contaminants concentration in the Preston Park borehole Contaminants concentration in the groundwater within the Preston Park borehole is plotted against date to obtain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification speci presented in table 1. From figure 9, it could be seen that chlorine concentration was not detected throughout the whole year. It was detected starting from May with concentration of about 9 mg/l, with maximum concentrations of Chlorine seen in the e month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in groundwater. Nitrate concentration displays a low concentration from the beginning with the lowest at 0.2 mg/L in February, with a sharp rise reaching the highest highest concentrations in 16 mg/L in the month of September. Dissolved oxygen, sulphate, phosphate and TOC all have concentration lower than the WHO specified limit, although TOC shows a sudden rise in January of 2012 to about 16 mg/L. It could also be seen from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage. 4.5.3 Contaminants concentration in Pyecoomb East Borehole Contaminants concentration in n the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to obtain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 4.1 above. The graph is shown in figure 10. Ammonium shows a steady raise reaching a high high of 83mg/L with a more or insistent up and down movement until reaching an average point. Nitrate, dissolved oxygen, chlorine, SO4, TOC, NO2 all display a normal distribution except for PO4 which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep raise from 25th November reaching as high as 9 mg/L before falling to continue at initial level. From the above analysis of water in this site, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that tha the water in this area is quite safe for usage. 4.6 Raman Spectroscopy results This graph shows a plot of intensity against Raman shift in the samples. The Raman spectroscopy results showed almost similar results but at different peaks. The Raman spectroscopy spectroscopy results could not be further interpreted due to overlap with plastic container lines, giving similar spectra for all the seven samples (Figure 11). 5. DISCUSSIONS 5.1 Hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic conductivity in the North Heath Barn is relatively relatively uniformly distributed all year round. It is a monitoring site of about 70m August unsaturated zone. Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater in i quantity and showed less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. Uniformity of the hydraulic conductivity is thought to be due to its thick unsaturated zone. In which case the soil and weathered chalk of the area damped out of the normal mal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk. Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price et al., 1976). Base recharge of the weathered zone is thought to be greater greater than the matric permeability and the matric potential sufficiently high that water was not absorbed straight back into the matrix but reached the water table without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity and a groundwater recharge even in summer periods (of less rainfall influx). Fracture flow may also contribute to groundwater recharge but this is rare, since drainage to water table continues year round. Gallagher et al. (2012) reported that the unsaturated zone of North Heath Barn was closely saturated for most part of the year. The data from the hydrograph and matric potential showed that the water table responds rapidly following sudden increases in matric potential above the air entry pressure of fractures fractures and that aquifer blocks are separated by faults, fractures and marls and are close to saturation, even during summer months. They 58

Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 suggested connectivity between the faults, fractures and marl may occur when matric potentials are high and there is sufficient ient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid movement of water through the unsaturated zone, maintaining the groundwater recharge year round. In Preston Park, the borehole is characterized by a slim unsaturated unsaturated zone of about 20m thick, which may result in the possibility of water rapidly reaching the water table compared to the other two boreholes with a thicker unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsaturation unsatu is thin); hence mobility of surface water in the unsaturation zone to the saturate zone may occur readily. In summer months when recharge is less, the matric potential increases causing absorbed water on the Chalk matrix to percolate further below the he water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed that in period of intense and sustained rainfall, flash flooding may occur as depth to water table may become almost at the surface but this was not anticipated to last last for a long period, as fracture flow or lateral movement within the aquifer formation may diminish the effect. Zaidman et al., (1999) working in Yorkshire, identified steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that contained conta a 0.5 m thick, iron-stained stained breccia zone, which indicates the movement of water through it. Pyecoomb East borehole has an unsaturated zone of about 60m. Effluent release and farmland irrigation contributed to the groundwater recharge, explaining the recharge recharge occurring even period of low rainfall influx. This site had high concentration of nitrate and chlorine when compared to the North Heath Barn. The high concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharge recharg from effluent discharge and farmland washout from irrigation activities. 5.2 Chemical Variation Several plots were made (Nitrate Phosphate, Nitrate Chlorine, Sulphate Phosphate, Sulphate Chlorine, Nitrate TOC, and Nitrate Sulphate) to study the the chemical variation of elements within the catchment area, hence infer plausible trend to the source and movement of contaminants. Of the studied boreholes, Pyecombe East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the low concentrations of Total Organic Content (TOC). The borehole at Pyecombe East is an effluent dispersal site with 60m of August unsaturated zone. Therefore increased mixing of surface effluent recharge with groundwater is thought to be responsible for the e high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases, show steady consistent increase pattern likely arising from seasonal variation. Organic content concentration of effluent recharge to the groundwater at Pyecombe Pyecombe east was low, thus reflecting the low TOC concentration in the areas. The concentration of Nitrate and Chlorine is higher in the Preston park borehole compared to the North Heath Barn. Preston Park borehole is urban recharge with thin August unsaturated unsaturated zone enhancing more rapid movement of these elements without having to be absorbed on the weathered chalk matrix. The high concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run-off run and farmland irrigation practices. Concentration of Phosphate, Sulphate and TOC is higher in the North Heath Barn borehole compared to observed Preston park borehole. As already mentioned earlier, North Heath Barn is monitoring site with the thickest August unsaturation zone of the three borehole sites. Pyrite oxidation as bypass flow within the thick unsaturated zone may dissolve the marl formation causing an increase in the phosphate and sulphate concentration as groundwater is recharged. Evenly distributed hydraulic conductivity conductivity throughout the year and gradual release of stored water from unweathered Chalk (to sustain the year round recharge) may carry along organic matter from the Chalk formation, hence describing the high TOC concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole compared pared to other studied borehole locations. Of all the three studied boreholes, Pyecombe East (an effluent dispersal site) show high concentration of all contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park borehole boreh (Urban site) may be responsible for the high concentrations of Chlorine and Nitrate. 6. Conclusion This paper investigated the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in Patcham, South-East East England. Groundwater Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx is as well predominantly greater in quantity and shows less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydraulic hydr conductivity is thought to be due to the thickness of the unsaturated zone at North Heath Barn and Pyecoomb East. Except for Preston Park, this has a much thinner unsaturated zone, which may influence the rapid water movement to the water table. Chemical ical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent 59

Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 2225 (Online) Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 dispersal site due to the distribution of nitrate, Sulphate, chloride and Phosphate that has mixed with the groundwater in the site. Distribution of Phosphate, Phosphate, Sulphate and TOC in the North Heath Barn borehole is derived from farming irrigation carried out in the area, which may have reached the water table through bypass flow dissolving the marl formation. Artificial recharge of groundwater in the area may may be the result of Nitrate and Chloride concentrations in the Preston Park borehole. Results from analysis using Raman Spectroscopy did not in this case yield any useful results but rather ambiguous. The use of other techniques may yield results of hydrocarbon hydrocarbon traces from highway runoff.

References Aldrich, J., (2006). The status of groundwater resources and the groundwater needs of the environment. UK groundwater ndwater Forum meeting Planning for sustainable groundwater resources: something got to give. Natural Natur History Museum, London, 30 March 2006. Brouyere, S., (2006), Modelling the Migration of Contaminant through Variably Saturated Dual-porosity, Dual Dual-permeability Chalk, Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 82:195-219. Chaplin, M.F. (2008). Water: its importance import to life. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 29:54-59. CLIMAWAT (2011). Water Quality Monitoring and Analysis. Available online http://www.climawat.info/. http://www.climawat.info/ Accessed online 22nd April, 2011. Edmunds, C., , 2008. Improved groundwater vulnerability mapping for the Karstic Chalk aquifer of south-east south England. Engineering Geology, 99:95-108. 99:95 Egbuna, C.K. and Duvbiama, O.A. (2013). Physicochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Akure,

Southwestern Nigeria. . Journal. Civil Eng. Urban. 3(1): 25-28. 25 2013

Gallagher, A. J., Helen K., Rutter, David K. Buckley and Ian Molyneux. (2012). Lithostratigraphic controls on recharge to the Chalk aquifer of Southern England, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 45:161-172. Howden, N.J.K., Wheater, H.S., Peach, D.W., and Butler, A.P. (2004). Hydrogeological controls on surface/groundwater interactions in a lowland permeable Chalk catchment. Science and Practice for the 21st Century, Volume II. British Hydrological ydrological Society. Kemper, K.E. (2004). Groundwater from development to management. Hydrogeology journal 12:3-5 Louis, I.A. and Egbuna, C.K. (2012). Assessment of Ground-Water Ground Quality in the South-East East of England. J. Civil Eng. Urban, 2(6):214-219. Lunzhang, zhang, S. (1994). Management of groundwater resources in China. Rome: FAO. Nola, M., Njine, T., Djunikom, E. and Sikati, V. (2008). Faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci community in the underground water in an equatorial area in Cameroun (Central Africa): Africa): The importance of some environmental chemical factors. Water research, 36: 3289-3297. Pinault, J.L., Amraoui, N., and Golaz, C., (2005), Groundwater induced flooding in macropore -dominated hydrological system in the context of climate change, Water Resources Research, 41:16 Price, M., Bird, M. J., Foster, S.S.D. (1976). Chalk pore-size pore size measurements and their significance Water Services, 80:596600. Ravi, C., Palakodeti, Eugene, J., LeBoeuf, James, H. and Clarke (2009). Tool for assessment of process importance portance at the groundwater/surface water interface. Journal of Environmental management, 90:87-101. WHO (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water drinking water quality: Water Sanitation Health. World Health Organization. Fourth edition. Zaidman, M.D., Middleton, R.T., West, West L.J. (1999). Geophysical Investigation of unsaturated zone transport in the Chalk in Yorkshire. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 32: 185-198

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Table 1: The World Health Organisation guideline value standard for various elements (WHO, 2011) Substance Chloride Total Dissolved Solids Nitrate Nitrite Sulfate Ammonium Phosphate WHO guideline values 250 mg/L 500 mg/L 50 mg/L 1 mg/L 250 mg/L 0.1 mg/L 0.015 mg/L

Figure 1: Showing outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer (Edmonds, 2008)

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Figure 2: : Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)

Figure 3: 3 Geologic map of Patcham (CLIMAWAT, 2011)

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Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) plot

71 70.5 Water Level (m bgl) 70 69.5 69 68.5 68 67.5 67 0.38 0.375 0.37 0.365 0.4 Conductivity (msie/cm) 0.395 0.39 0.385

Water Level Conductivity

Days

Figure 4: Conductivity Water depth plot against date in the North Heath Barn borehole.

Water level (m bgl) and Coductivity (msie/com) against time (days) plot
0.7 0.68 0.66 10 5 0 0.64 0.62 0.6 Conductivity (msie/cm) 25 Water Level (m bgl) 20 15 0.72

Water Level Conductivity

Time (days)

Figure 5: : Conductivity Water ter depth plot against date in the Preston Park borehole.

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Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) against Time (days) plot
57.15 57.1 57.05 57 56.95 56.9 56.85 56.8 56.75 56.7 56.65 0.8 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.7 0.68 0.66 0.64 Conductivity (msie/cm) Water Level (m bgl)

Water level Conductivity

Time (days)

Figure 6: Conductivity Water depth plot against date in Pyecoomb East borehole.

Evapotranspiration (mm) and Rainfall (mm) against date (days)

5 40 35 4 Evapotranspiration (mm) 30 3 Rainfall (mm) 25 20 2 15 10 1 5 0 40708.5 40719 40730 40741 40752 40763 40774 40785 40796 40807 40818 40829 40840 40851 40862 40873 40884 40895 40906 40917 40928 40939 40950 40961 40972 40983 40994 41005 Date (days) Figure 7: : Evapotranspiration Rainfall influx plot against date 64 0

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Concentration (mg/l) - Time (days) plot

25 Concentration (mg/l) 20 15 10 5 0 20/01/2011 00:00 20/02/2011 00:00 20/03/2011 00:00 20/04/2011 00:00 20/05/2011 00:00 20/06/2011 00:00 20/07/2011 00:00 20/08/2011 00:00 20/09/2011 00:00 20/10/2011 00:00 20/11/2011 00:00 20/12/2011 00:00 20/01/2012 00:00 20/02/2012 00:00 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Concentration (mg/l)

Ammonium Chlorine Nitrate Dissolved Oxygen NO2 PO4 SO4 TOC

Time (days)

Figure 8: : Element concentration date plot of North Heath Barn Borehole

Concentration (mg/l) against Time (days) plot

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Concentration (mg/l) Concentration (mg/l)

Chlorine NO2 SO4 TOC Ammonium Nitrate Dissolved Oxygen PO4

Time (days) Figure 9: Element concentration date plot of Preston Park Borehole.

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Concentration (mg/l) against Time (Days) plot

Concentration (mg/l) Concentration (mg/l) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 8 6 4 2 20/11/2010 21/11/2010 22/11/2010 23/11/2010 24/11/2010 25/11/2010 26/11/2010 27/11/2010 28/11/2010 29/11/2010 30/11/2010 01/12/2010 02/12/2010 03/12/2010 04/12/2010 0 Ammonium Nitrate Dissolved Oxygen Chlorine PO4 SO4 NO2 TOC

Time (days)

Figure 10: : Element concentration date plot of Pyecoomb East Borehole

Figure 11: Raman spectra for samples from Patcham catchment.

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