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Learning Objectives
i.
Identify four different types of hormone classes ii. Compare the mechanism of action of hormones iii. Identify the endocrine glands and describe the actions of their hormones iv. Describe the processes involved in neural signaling v. Describe the structure of neuron vi. Explain how a neuron transmit impulse vii. Describe several types of nervous system in animals viii. Identify the organization of a human nervous system ix. Compare endocrine with nervous system function
Hormone classes
i) Fatty acid derivatives Prostaglandins and juvenile hormones of insects Synthesized from arachidonic acid (a 20 carbon fatty acids)
ii) Steroids The natural steroid hormones are generally synthesized from cholesterol in the gonads (sex hormones) and adrenal cortex (mineralcortisoids and glucocortisoids). These forms of hormones are lipids.
Hormone classes
iii) Amino acid derivatives Synthesized from amino acids Adrenaline, noradrenalline (cathecolamnies) and thyroxine are derived from the amino acid thyrosine. iv) Peptides and proteins Peptide hormones shorter in length Protein hormones are one or more polypeptide. Synthesized in ER Golgi Packed in vesicles store/release
Hormone classes
Peptide hormones oxytoxin, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone (PTH), Antidiuretic hormone Protein hormones - Insulin, glucagon, growth hormone (GH), FSH, LH, prolactin
Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones) pass easily through cell membranes, while water-soluble hormones (polypeptides and amines) do not. The solubility of a hormone correlates with the location of receptors inside or on the surface of target cells.
Mechanism of action
Hormones are released by endocrine glands into blood Transported by blood, they will arrive at the target cells where they shows different mechanism of action The mechanism can be divided into steroid and non steroid hormones Steroid hormones are lipid soluble Non steroid hormones are water soluble
Mechanism of action
Water and lipid soluble hormones differ in their paths through a body Water-soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells
Water-soluble Vs Lipid-soluble
Water-soluble Vs Lipid-soluble
Endocrine Vs Exocrine
Exocrine glands have ducts to carry hormones, while endocrine glands are ductless. Examples of exocrine glands are sweat, saliva and mammary glands, as well as oil and enzymes. There are glands which function as both endocrine and exocrine glands. Exocrine hormones are released into the external environment, or outside of the body. Endocrine hormones are released into the internal environment, or inside of the body. Endocrine response is slower because hormones travel through the blood. The duration in endocrine transmission is prolonged because kidneys have to filter the blood
Pituitary gland
Most endocrine activity is controlled either directly or indirectly by the hypothalamus. The pituitary glands hang by a stalk from the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland activity is regulated by the integration of the nervous and endocrine system (neuroendocrine gland) Because it controls the activity of several other endocrine glands, pituitary gland is said to be the master gland of the body.
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland can be divided into two parts, the anterior and posterior lobes. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland develops from brain tissue; therefore it contains axons that originate in cell bodies within the hypothalamus.
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck region, in front of the trachea and below the larynx (Adams apple). The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) = four iodine atoms and triiodothyronine (T3) = three iodine atoms. In vertebrates, thyroid hormones are essential for normal growth and development because they stimulate the rate of metabolism.
Thyroid gland
Regulation of thyroid secretion depends mainly on the secretion of the TSH (thyroid secreting hormone) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. When the concentration of the thyroid hormones in the blood rises above normal, the anterior pituitary secretes less thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH).
Adrenal gland
The paired adrenal glands are small, yellow masses of tissue that lie in contact with the upper ends of the kidneys. Each gland consists of a central portion, the adrenal medulla, and the outer section, the adrenal cortex.
Adrenal gland
Adrenal medulla is a neuroendocrine gland that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. - The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, the hormones help the body cope with stress. - Epinephrine and norepinephrine help the body to respond to danger by increasing the heart rate, metabolic rate and the strength of muscle contraction. These hormones reroute blood to organs needed for fight or flight.
Adrenal gland
Adrenal gland
Adrenal cortex The hypothalamus controls the activity in the adrenal cortex by means of the ACTH (from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland). Two other hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are i. mineralcortisoids such as aldosterone iii. glucocortisoids such as cortisol
Adrenal gland
Aldosterone maintains a proper balance of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney tubules. Cortisol promotes gluconeogenesis in liver cells resulting in the conversion of amino acids increasing level of glucose in the blood.
Thus during stress, the adrenal cortex ensures adequate fuel supplies for the cells.
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the bestknown endocrine disorder It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels
Diabetes Mellitus
Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent) involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors
Thymus
Thymus gland is located beneath the sternum. It secretes thymosin that is responsible for lymphocyte (white blood cells) maturation.
Pineal gland
Melatonin secreted by the pineal gland, which is located in the brain that influence the onset of sexual maturity and our biological clock. We feel sleepy at night and awake in the day time. This 24 hour cycle is called the circadian rhythm that is controlled by melatonin. It also helps regulate sexual development.
Review
Neural signaling
Sensors Sensory receptors at the end of peripheral nerves pick up information about the body's internal and external environment. These receptors also detect changes that occur. For example, when you feel pain when touching a hot object, a sensory receptor is picking up that information. All sensory information is picked up in the peripheral nervous system and sent to the central nervous system.
Neural signaling
Integration The integrative function takes place in the brain or spinal cord. These organs receive sensory information and make decisions regarding the information. The decision making is the integrative function. For example, if you feel pain your brain might decide you need to move away from the painful stimulus.
Neural signaling
Effectors Once the CNS makes a decision, it then carries out a motor function. The motor function is the stimulation of a muscle (skeletal, smooth or cardiac muscle) or a gland. When a motor function is carried out, neurons in the CNS carry an impulse along a peripheral nerve to either a muscle or a gland; these are called effectors.
Neurons are functional units of the nervous system which are specialized to receive and send information in a form of electrical signals called nerve impulses.
Neuron
The largest/enlarged portion of the neuron is the cell body. It contains the nucleus, the bulk of cytoplasm and most of the organelles.
Neuron
There are two types of cytoplasmic extensions which project from the cell body: i. Dendrites Typically short and highly branched. Numerous of them extend from the cell body. They functions in receiving stimuli and sending signals to the cell body. Can be found at one end of the cell body. ii. Axon Conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body to another neuron, a muscle or a gland. Each neuron has a single axon leaving its cell body. The cone-shaped base of an axon is called the axon hillock.
Information is transmitted from a presynaptic cell (a neuron) to a postsynaptic cell (a neuron, muscle, or gland cell) Most neurons are nourished or insulated by cells called glia.
In vertebrates, the axons of many neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath that is made of Schwann cells. The nucleus of the Schwann cells can clearly be seen at the myelin sheath. The gap between Schwann cells is known as the node of Ranvier. At this point, the axon is not insulated by myelin. They serve as points along the neuron for generating a signal.
Neuron
Neurons are supported structurally and functionally by supporting cells called neuroglia. The neuroglia supplies the neurons with nutrients; removes waste and also provide immune function. Two of the most important kinds of neuroglia in invertebrates are Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes that produce myelin sheath. Schwann cells produce myelin sheath in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) whereas the oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheath for the Central Nervous System (CNS).
Neuron
There are three types of neurons i. Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
ii. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). iii. Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.
Neuron
As a stimulus is applied, within 2-3 msec, the voltage will rise to a voltage at about -50mV, which is called the threshold potential.
During the refractory period after an action potential, a second action potential cannot be initiated The refractory period is a result of a temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels
Synapses can be either electrical or chemical. In an electrical synapse, action potentials possibly passed from one neuron to the other where the receiving neuron is stimulated quickly and at the same level. This is because it involves cytoplasmic connections formed by the pre and postsynaptic neuron. In human, electrical synapses are common in the heart and the digestive system because the nerve signals need to maintain steady and rhythmic muscle contractions.
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An action potential arrives, depolarizing the presynaptic membrane. The depolarization opens voltage-gated channels, triggering an influx of Ca++. The elevated Ca++ concentration causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane. In this example, binding triggers opening, allowing Na+ and K+ to diffuse through.
Neurotransmitters are very important in homeostasis because their precise signaling among neurons enables the nervous system to coordinate the activities at all part of the body.
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters can be divided into two, i. Excitatory-They open Na+ channels, thus triggering the action potentials in the receiving cells. Excitatory neurotransmitters promote depolarization.
ii. Inhibitory- Open membrane channels for ions like Cl- that decreases the receiving cells tendency to develop action potentials. This promotes hyperpolarization because the membrane inside the receiving neuron becomes more negatively charged.
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules, some are even hormones. The time for neurotransmitter action is between 0.5 and 1 millisecond. Neurotransmitters are either destroyed by specific enzymes in the synaptic cleft, diffuse out of the cleft, or are reabsorbed by the cell. More than 30 organic molecules are thought to act as neurotransmitters. There are five groups: acetylcholine, biogenic amines, amino acids, neuropeptides, and gases
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine is an example of a neurotransmitter. AcH crosses the synapse between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle. AcH causes Na+ to diffuse inside the cell causing the postsynaptic membrane to become depolarized. Because the postsynaptic cell is a skeletal muscle cell, the action potential stimulates muscle contraction. To stop muscle contraction, an enzyme in the postsynaptic membrane called acetylcholinesterase cleaves AcH into an inactive fragment.
Dopamine and serotonin affect sleep, mood, attention and learning. They are active in the CNS and PNS
Neurotransmitter: Neuropeptides
Several neuropeptides, relatively short chains of amino acids, also function as neurotransmitters Neuropeptides include substance P and endorphins, which both affect our perception of pain Opiates bind to the same receptors as endorphins and can be used as painkillers
Neurotransmitter: Gases
Gases such as nitric oxide and carbon monoxide are local regulators in the PNS For example, during sexual arousal, certain neurons in human male releases NO into the erectile tissue of the penis. This causes the blood vessel to dilate and fill the spongy erectile tissue with blood.
Drugs can interfere with just about every step in the work of neurotransmitters. More specifically, drugs can: - Stop the chemical reactions that create neurotransmitters. - Empty neurotransmitters from the vesicles where they're normally stored and protected from breakdown by enzymes. - Block neurotransmitters from entering or leaving vesicles. - Bind to receptors in place of neurotransmitters. - Prevent neurotransmitters from returning to their sending neuron (the reuptake system). - Interfere with second messengers, the chemical and electrical changes that take place in a receiving neuron.
Astrocytes: Enable the neurons to obtain oxygen and glucose more quickly.
Ependymal cells line the ventricles and have cilia that promote circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid.
Schizophrenia
About 1% of the worlds population suffers from schizophrenia Schizophrenia is characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms Available treatments focus on brain pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter
Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness are known: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder In major depressive disorder, patients have a persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most activities Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases Treatments for these types of depression include drugs such as Prozac
Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease is a mental deterioration characterized by confusion and memory loss Alzheimers disease is caused by the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques in the brain There is no cure for this disease though some drugs are effective at relieving symptoms
Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder caused by death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the midbrain It is characterized by muscle tremors, flexed posture, and a shuffling gait There is no cure, although drugs and various other approaches are used to manage symptoms
Endocrine vs Nervous
Both are systems of internal communication and also regulation However the nature of the messages in the endocrine system are in a form of chemical signal whereas the messages in the nervous system are electrical signal. The speed of message in the endocrine system is quite slow because it needs to be transported by blood to specific target sites whereas in the nervous system the speed is really fast due to salutatory conduction
Endocrine vs Nervous
Even though message can arrive really fast to target sites in the nervous system, the duration of effect is very short and prompt as compared to the duration of effect in the endocrine system
The speed of response in the nervous system is rapid whereas the speed of response in the endocrine system is slower The accuracy of message in the nervous system is precise but the accuracy of message in the endocrine system is more diffused
Endocrine vs Nervous
THE END