STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

Tissues A group of similar cells with same structure and performing a specific function is called tissue. Animal tissues Based on functions, the tissues are classified into four types. 1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscular tissue 4. Neural tissue 1.Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue serves as protective covering. It covers the external surface of the body and internal surfaces of visceral organs, body cavities and blood vessels. Cells of epithelium are closely packed and separated by very little matrix. There are two types of epithelial tissue. A. Simple epithelium B. Compound epithelium A. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells. It functions as lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes On the basis of structural modification of cells simple epithelium is further divided into 3 types. 1. Squamous epithelium 2. Cuboidal epithelium 3. Columnar epithelium 1.Squamous epithelium It is made of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries They are found in the walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs and are involved in a functions like forming a diffusion boundary.

2.Cuboidal epithelium It is formed of single layer of cube like cells. It is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys. The main function are secretion and absorption. The epithelium of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the kidney has microvilli which help in absorption.

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Cuboidal epithelium

3.Columnar epithelium It is formed of a single layer of tall and slender cells. Their nuclei are located at the base. Free surfaces may have microvilli. They are found in the lining of stomach and intestine and help in secretion and absorption.

Ciliated epithelium If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface they are called ciliated epithelium. Their function is to move particles or mucus in a specific direction over the epithelium. They are mainly present in the inner surface of hollow organs like bronchioles and fallopian tubes.

Glandular epithelium Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialized for secretion and are called glandular cells. They are mainly two types 1. Unicellular glandular epithelium It consists of unicellular isolated glandular cells. Eg. Goblet cells of alimentary canal. 2.Multicellular glandular epithelium It consists of cluster of cells Eg. Salivary gland

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Glandular epithelium (unicellular)

Glandular epithelium (multicellular)

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Based on the presence or absence of ducts, glands are of two types 1. Exocrine glands 2. Endocrine glands 1.Exocrine glands The glands with ducts are called exocrine glands. These glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other cell products. These products are released through ducts or tubes. 2.Endocrine glands Ductless glands are called endocrine glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones. Hormones directly enter the blood and the blood carries them to the target organ. B. COMPOUND EPITHELIUM It is made of more than one layer of cells(multilayered) Their main function is to provide protection against chemical and mechanical stresses. They cover the dry surfaces of the skin, the moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts.

Cell junctions in epithelial tissues All cells in epithelium are held together with little inter cellular material. Specialized junctions provide both structural and functional links between individual cells. Mainly three type of cell junctions are found in epithelial cells 1. Tight junctions Help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue 2. Adhering junctions Perform cementing to keep neighboring cells together. 3. Gap junctions Facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and sometimes big molecules. (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 3

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Connective tissue These tissues have the special function of linking and supporting other tissues or organs of the body. Connective tissues include cartilage, bone, adipose tissue and blood. In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibers of structural protein called collagen or elastin. The fibers provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue. These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibers and act as matrix. Connective tissues are classified into 3 types 1. Loose connective tissue 2. Dense connective tissue 3. Specialized connective tissue 1.Loose connective tissue These tissues have cells and fibers loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance. Eg . Areolar tissue, Adipose tissue Areolar tissue Areolar tissue is present beneath the skin. It contains fibroblasts (cells secrete fibers),macrophages and mast cells.

Adipose tissue Adipose tissue is also present beneath the skin. These tissues are specialized to store fat.

2.Dense connective tissue These tissues have fibers and fibroblasts compactly packed. Two types 1. Dense regular connective tissue 2. Dense irregular connective tissue
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1. Dense regular connective tissue Orientation of the fibers shows a regular pattern. The collagen fibers are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibers. Eg . Tendons attach muscles to bones Ligaments attach one bone to another bone

2. Dense irregular connective tissue Orientation of fibers show irregular pattern. This tissue is present in skin.

Specialised connective tissue Cartilage, bones and blood are various type of specialized connective tissue. Cartilage The cells of cartilage are called chondrocytes. The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and resists compression. Cells of this tissue are enclosed in small cavities within the matrix secreted by them. Most of the cartilages in vertebrates are replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear, joints between adjacent bones of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.

Bones The bone cells are called osteocytes. It is the main tissue that provides structural frame to the body. Bones support and protect softer tissue and organs. The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells.
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Bone
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Blood Blood is the fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), White blood cells (WBC) and platelets. It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances.

Muscle tissue Muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body. Muscles are of three types 1. Skeletal muscles 2. Smooth muscles 3. Cardiac muscles 1.Skeletal muscles(striated muscle) Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to the skeletal bones 2.Smooth muscles The smooth muscle fibers taper at both ends and do not show striations. Cell junctions hold them together and they are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath. The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and intestine contains this type of muscle tissue. Smooth muscles are involuntary as their functioning cannot be directly controlled. 3.Cardiac muscle The muscle present only in the heart is known as cardiac muscle. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and make them stick together. Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a unit. I.e., when one cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbours are also stimulated to contract. Neuroglia makes up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
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Skeletal (striated muscle)

smooth muscle

cardiac muscle

Neural tissue Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the bodys responsiveness to changing conditions. Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglia cells which constitute the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons.

Organ and organ systems The tissues organize to form organs and organs associate to form organ systems. Each organ in our body is made up of one or more type of tissues. Eg. Our heart is made up of epithelial, connective, muscular and neural tissue. Morphology It refers to the external appearance of the organs or parts of the body. Anatomy It refers to the study of morphology of internal organs in the animal
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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) EARTHWORM It is a reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate that inhabits the upper layer of the soil. The faecal deposits of earthworm are called worm castings. The common earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus Morphology Long cylindrical body is divisible into 100-120 metameres Dorsal surface of the body has dark median dorsal blood vessel. Ventral surface possess genital openings. Anterior end consists of the mouth and prostomium. Prostomium is a lobe which serves as a covering for the mouth and as a wedge to force open cracks in the soil. First body segment is called peristomium , which contains the mouth. Segments 14-16 of a mature worm are covered by a prominent dark band of glandular tissue called clitellum. With the position of clitellum, body is divisible into three- Periclitellar, Clitellar, and Post clitellar segments. Intersegmental grooves of 6th-9th segments possess four pairs of spermathecal apertures on the ventrolateral side. Mid dorsal side of 14th segment has a single female genital pore. Ventrolateral side of the 18th segment has a pair of male genital pores. Numerous minute nephridiopores open on the surface of the body. Rows of S shaped setae present in each body segment except first, last and clitellum. They help in locomotion.

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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) ANATOMY Body wall of earthworm is covered externally by a thin non-cellular cuticle. Below cuticle, there is a layer of epidermis formed of columnar epithelial cells with secretary gland cells are present. Below epidermis, circular and longitudinal muscle layers are present, Innermost layer is the coelomic epithelium Digestive system of earthworm Alimentary canal is a straight tube extends from mouth to anus. It has the following parts Buccal cavity (1-3 segments) pharynx esophagus (5-7 segments) gizzard (8-9 segments, help in grinding the soil particles and decaying leaves) stomach (9-14 segments, calciferous glands present in the stomach neutralize the humic acid present in the humus) intestine (15th to last segment). On the 26th segment a pair of short and conical intestinal caecae project from the intestine. 26th 35th segments region of intestine has internal median fold of dorsal wall called typhlosole, which increases the area of absorption. The ingested organic rich soil passes through the digestive tract where digestive enzymes breakdown complex food into smaller absorbable units.

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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) Circulatory system of earthworm Closed type, consisting of blood vessels, capillaries and heart. Contractions keep blood circulating in one direction. Smaller blood vessels supply blood to gut, nerve cord and the body wall. 4th, 5th, and 6th segments posses blood glands, which produce blood cells and hemoglobin. Blood cells are phagocytic in nature. Respiratory exchange occurs through moist body surface into their blood stream

Excretory system of earthworm Excretory organs are segmentally arranged coled tubules called nephridia. There are 3 type of nephridia are present. 1. Septal nephridia- present in 15th segment to the last segment. Seen on both side of intersegmental septa. 2. Integumentary nephridia- present on the lining of body wall of segment 3 to the last. 3. Pharyngeal nephridia present as three paired tufts in the 4th , 5th and 6th segments. Nephridia regulate the volume and composition of the body fluids. A nephridium starts out as a funnel that collects excess fluid from coelomic chamber. The funnel connects with a tubular part of the nephridium which delivers the waste through a pore to the surface in the body wall into the digestive tube.

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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) Nervous system of earthworm Consists of an anterior nerve ring and a posterior ventral nerve cord. The ventral nerve cord contains segmentally arranged ganglia. The nerve cord in the anterior region (3rd and 4th segments) bifurcates, laterally encircling the pharynx and joins the cerebral ganglia dorsally to form a nerve ring. The cerebral ganglia along with the other nerves in the ring function as brain. Earthworms does not have eyes, but posses receptor cells which can sense;- touch, light, vibrations on the ground and also posses chemo receptors for taste. These sense organs are located on the anterior part of the worm. Reproductive system Earthworm is hermaphrodite(bisexual;-testes and ovaries are present in the same individual) Two pairs of testes are present in the 10th and 11th segments. The vasa deferntia from the testes extends up to 18th segment. At the 18th segment vasa deferentia joins with prostrate gland, The common prostrate and spermatic duct opens as male genital pore at 18th segment. Two pairs of accessory glands are present in the 17th and 19th segments. 4 pairs of spermatheca are present in the 6th to 9th segments. They receive and store spermatozoa during copulation. One pair of ovaries is attached at the inter-segmental septum of the 12th and 13th segments. Beneath the ovaries ovarian funnels are present, which continue into oviduct. Two oviduct join together and open on the ventral side of 14th segment

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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) COCKROACH Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals that are included in Class Insecta of Phylum Arthropoda. They are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places throughout the world. The common species of cockroach is Periplaneta Americana. MORPHOLOGY Body is segmented and divisible into head, thorax and abdomen. Body is covered with chitinous exoskeleton. Exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) Thorax consists of 3 parts; - Prothorax, Mesothorax And Metathorax. Prothorax is the neck region. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs. First pair of wings arises from mesothorax, which are opaque dark and cover hind wings. Second pair of wings arises from metathorax and are transparent. Abdomen consists of 10 segments. In females, 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with 8th, 9th sterna forms a brood or genital pouch. The 10th segment of both sexes bears a pair of jointed anal cerci. In males, 9th segment bears a pair of short thread like anal styles are present.

Biting and chewing type of mouth parts are present. It consists of 2. Labrum (upper lip) 3. A pair of mandibles 4. A pair of maxillae 5. Labium(lower lip) 6. Hypopharynx(tongue) (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 12

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ANATOMY Alimentary canal Alimentary canal has 3 regions; - foregut, mid gut and hindgut. Flow chart Mouth pharynx oesophagus crop (for storing food) gizzard (help in grinding food) ileum colon rectum anus At the junction of foregut with midgut, a ring of 6-8 blind tubules called hepatic caecae or gastric caecae, which secrete digestive juice is present. At the junction of midgut with hind gut, a ring of 100-150, Malpighian tubules are present, which help in excretion. Hind gut is differentiated into ileum, colon and rectum

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(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) Blood vascular system Open type of circulatory system is present. Blood filled body cavity is known as haemocoel and blood is called haemolymph. Haemolymph is composed of colorless plasma and haemocytes. Heart is an elongated muscular tube, which is differentiated into 13 funnel shaped chambers which communicate each other through openings called ostia.

Respiratory system Blood vascular system consists of a network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles present on the laterl side of the body. Tracheal tubes is subdivided into tracheoles, which penetrate into all the tissues of the body and carry oxygen to all parts of the body by diffusion. Excretion Excretion is performed by malpighian tubules. Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells. They absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric acid, which is excreted through the hind gut. So cockroach is uricotelic. Fat bodies, nephrocytes and uricose glands also help in excretion. Nervous system Nervous system consists of supra oesophageal ganglia, sub oesophageal ganglia and ventral nerve cord. Supra oesophageal ganglion represents the brain, which supplies nerves to antennae and eyes. The ventral nerve cord contains 9 ganglia;- 3 in thorax and 6 in abdomen. Sense organs of cockroach are eyes, antenna and maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci etc. Compound eyes are present, consists about 2000 ommatidia, which make several images of an object. This is known as mosaic vision. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Cockroaches are dioecious animals. Male Reproductive system Male has a pair of testes, lying one on each lateral side in the 4th -6th abdominal segments. From each testes arises a thin vas deferens, which opens into ejaculatory duct through several vesicles. Ejaculatory duct opens into male gonophore. (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 14

 A mushroom shaped gland is present in the functions as an accessory reproductive gland. Surrounding the male gonophore, the chitinous structure known as male gonophysis or phallomere is present. Right, left and ventral phallomeres are present. Seminal vesicles stores sperms and discharged during copulation.

6th

-7th

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) abdominal segments which

Female reproductive system Female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries in the second to sixth abdominal segments. Oviduct of each ovary unites to form common oviduct or vagina, which opens into genital chamber. A pair of branched collateral glands and a pair of spermathecae open into genital chamber. Spermatheca stores sperms received during copulation. Fertilized eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae, which is a dark red or brown capsule. On an average, female produces 9-10 oothecaes, each containing 14-16 eggs. The development of Periplanata americana is parametabolus(development through nymphal stage). The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the adult. Only adult cockroach has wings. Many cockroaches are pests, because they destroy food and contaminate it with their smelly excreta. They can transmit a variety of bacterial disease by contaminating food materials. (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 15

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) Female reproductive system of cockroach

FROGS They are cold blooded or poikilothermic animals. They have the abilily to change the colour to hide them from their enemies (camouflage).This protective colouration is called mimicry. They exhibit summer sleep (aestivalion) and winter sleep (hibernation) Morphology Skin is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus. Body is divisible into head and trunk. Above the mouth, apair of nostrils are present. Eyes are bulged and covered by nictitating membrane which protects them in water. On either side of eyes a membranous tympanum (ear) receives sound signals. The forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and burrowing. Hind limbs have five digits and forelimbs have four digits. Feet have webbed digits that help in swimming. Exhibits sexual dimorphism. Males can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing vocal sacs and also a copulatary pad on the first digit of the fore limbs. ANATOMY Digestive system Alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores and hence the length of intestine is reduced. Flow chart Mouth buccal cavity pharynx oesophagus stomach intestine rectum cloaca Bile secreted by the liver, pancreatic juice from pancreas, HCl and gastric juice secreted from the walls of stomach help in digestion of food materials. Digested food is absorbed by the finger like folds in the inner walls of intestine called villi and microvilli. The undigested wastes pass out through cloaca. 16

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Respiration Frogs respire by 2 methods;1. Cutaneous respiration respiration through skin (in water) 2. Pulmonary respiration respiration through lungs(on land) Air enters through the nostrils into the buccal cavity and then to lungs. During aestivation and hibernation cutaneous respiration takes place Circulation Closed type of circulation is present. Involves heart, blood vessels and blood. It has also a lymphatic system with lymph, lymph channels and lymph nodes. Heart has 3 chambers;-2 atria and one ventricle. Pericardium is present. Impure blood collected by the major veins called venacava and it opens into the right atrium through a triangular sinus venosus. Ventricle opens into a sac like conus arteriosus. Blood is carried to different body parts by arteries. Hepatic portal system connect liver and intestine, Renal portal system connects kidney and lower parts of the body. The blood is formed of plasma and blood cells. The blood cells are RBC, WBC and platelets. RBCs are nucleated and contain red pigment, haemoglobin. The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the respective sites during the circulation. (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 17

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) Excretion Excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. Each kidney is formed of several uriniferous tubules or nephrons. In male frog, the two ureters act as common urinogenital duct, which open into the cloaca. In female frog the ureters and oviduct open separately in the cloaca. Urinary bladder also opens into the cloaca. The frog excretes urea and thus it is a ureotelic animal Endocrine system The chemical co-ordination of various organ of the body is achieved by hormones secreted by the endocrine glands. Endocrine glnds include pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads. Nervous system Nervous system consists of 3 divisions. 1. Central nervous system brain and spinal cord 2. Peripheral nervous system cranial and spinal nerves 3. Autonomic nervous system sympathetic and parasympathetic N.S Brain is enclosed in a bony structure called cranium. Brain is divided into 3 regions. 1. Fore brain 2. Mid brain 3. Hind brain Fore brain consists of olfactory lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon. Mid brain has a pair of optic lobes. Hind brain consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata. Medulla passes out through an opening, foramen magnum and continues into spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by vertebral column. Frogs have 10 pairs of cranial nerves. Sense organs Sense organs of frog include, 1. Nasal epithelium (organ of smell) 2. Sensory papillae (organ of touch) 3. Eyes (vision) 4. Taste buds (taste) 5. Tympanum with internal ears (hearing and balancing) Eyes and internal ears are well developed structures and other sense organs are cellular aggregations around nerve endings. (Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) 18

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Male reproductive system Male reproductive organs consist of a pair of testes. Testes are attached to the upper part of the kidney by double fold of peritoneum called mesorchium. From each testes 10-12 vasa efferentia arise and enter the kidney of their side. Vasa efferentia opens into Bidders canal, which finally joins with the urinogenital duct. Urinogenital duct opens into the cloaca, which is a common chamber for the passage of urine, faecal matters and sperms to the exterior.

Female reproductive system Female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries found near the kidneys. They are attached to the body wall by mesovaria. Ovaries have no functional connection with kidneys. A pair of oviduct arise from the ovaries and opens into the cloaca separately. A mature female lays about 2500-3000 ova at a time. Fertilization is external and development includes a larval stage known as tadpole.

Notes Prepared by BIJU T L HSST Zoology GHSS Mylachal, Tvpm 19