Accepted Manuscript

Power Quality Impacts of High-Penetration Electric Vehicle Stations and Re newable Energy-based Generators on Power Distribution Systems Masoud Farhoodnea, Azah Mohamed, Hussain Shareef, Hadi Zayandehroodi PII: DOI: Reference: To appear in: Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date: S0263-2241(13)00143-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2013.04.032 MEASUR 2246 Measurement 12 January 2013 23 March 2013 17 April 2013

Please cite this article as: M. Farhoodnea, A. Mohamed, H. Shareef, H. Zayandehroodi, Power Quality Impacts of High-Penetration Electric Vehicle Stations and Renewable Energy-based Generators on Power Distribution Systems, Measurement (2013), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2013.04.032

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Power Quality Impacts of High-Penetration Electric Vehicle Stations and Renewable Energy-based Generators on Power Distribution Systems

Masoud Farhoodnea (Corresponding author) Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Systems Engineering, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia Phone No.: 00601112800403 E-mail address: farhoodnea_masoud@yahoo.com Azah Mohamed Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: azah@eng.ukm.my Hussain Shareef Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: hussain_ln@yahoo.com Hadi Zayandehroodi Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: h.zayandehroodi@yahoo.com

Abstract High-penetration renewable energy-based generators (REGs) in distribution systems have increased the importance of impact assessment involving these systems. This assessment focuses on power quality (PQ) and compatibility between REGs and existing system components. Electric vehicle (EV) technology has also recently achieved a substantial market share. This technology requires the development of charging stations similar to current petroleum fuelling stations in the near future. Thus, the effect of EV stations on PQ must also be considered. This study presents a PQ analysis on the effects of high-penetration EV and REG systems, including wind turbines, grid-connected photovoltaics (PVs), and fuel cell (FC) power generation units on a modified 16-bus distribution system under different loading and weather conditions. All data

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on EV, wind farm, PV, and FC units as well as weather conditions presented in this paper were collected from different power companies and the Malaysian Meteorological Department. The system is modelled and simulated using the MATLAB/Simulink software to study the effects of these technologies on system performances at various penetration levels. Simulation results indicated that the presence of high-penetration EVs and REGs can cause severe PQ problems such as frequency and voltage fluctuations, voltage drop, harmonic distortion and power factor reduction.

Keywords: electric vehicle stations; fuel cell; photovoltaic; power quality; renewable energy; renewable energy generator; wind farm

1.

INTRODUCTION

Power systems have been conventionally designed for unidirectional power flows from the main source, distributed downstream at lower voltage levels. The increasing number of customers willing to install distributed generation (DG) to provide part of their power consumption indicates that DG has gained more interest in the electricity market. Considering the environmental issues related to conventional power plants, especially CO2 emission, utilities and customers have widely accepted the use of pollution-free renewable energy-based generators (REGs), including photovoltaic (PV) system, wind turbine (WT) and fuel cells (FC), among others, as alternative sources of electricity [1]. Utility-scale hybrid REGs consisting of two or more energy conversion mechanisms are widely developed to overcome the limitations and improve the security and reliability levels of REGs as well as their interconnected networks. The power plant in Zhangbei, China is an example of a utility-scale hybrid REG with a 100 MW

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wind turbine, a 40 MW PV, and 20 MW to 36 MW battery storage. The Les Borges Blanques Power Plant, Spain is another example of a utility-scale hybrid REG based power plant. The system is composed of 36 MW biomass and 22.5 MW solar CSP power generation, and is able to produce 101.6 GWh of electricity per year [2]. Economic and operational advantages provided by REGs for distribution systems include the following: power balance during peak demand, decreased occurrence of power interruptions and system outages, reduction in investment and operational costs due to flexible capacity and location or installation, as well as decreased dependence on imported fossil fuel [3]. Despite these advantages, the increasing use of scattered and time-varying hybrid REGs can result in a bidirectional power flow, which may either improve or worsen power quality (PQ)-related problems, protection, and stability [4]. These effects (especially at high-penetration levels of REGs) heavily rely on the characteristics of each installation and specifications of the distribution system. Therefore, an entire system must be continually monitored for satisfactory levels of REGPQ system compatibility [5]. Electric vehicle (EV) technology and electric vehicle stations (EVS) are rapidly developing to reduce oil dependence and minimize greenhouse gas emissions [6]. The influence of EV and future EVS on system performance highly depends on the charging scenario and the resulting ability of utilities to deliver the required power to EVS regardless of loading conditions. This dependence is due to the time variability of electricity use by EVs. Thus, an investigation must be conducted [7]. Accurate assessment of the possible impacts of large grid-connected REGs and EVSs on network performance before installation is crucial. Performing such analysis is important and allows utilities to become efficiently equipped to solve potential operational issues that REGs and EVSs can cause other system components. Numerous studies have focused

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on steady-state modelling as well as the analysis of a single REG and its impacts on the system [8, 9]. However, studies on the effects of high-penetration hybrid systems on dynamic operation and control of the system before real-time implementation have been scarcely reported. The present study aims to analyse accurately the dynamic effects of high-penetration hybrid REGs and EVSs on the PQ performance of distribution systems. To address the practical aspects, the required data on weather conditions, EVS loading conditions, and REG modelling were obtained from the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) [10] in the absence of field measurements. Other data were also obtained from various power system manufacturers such as SunPower, Sanyo, General Electric, and FuelCell Energy. Simulation using MATLAB/Simulink software was conducted on a modified radial 16-bus test system with distributed EVS, WT, PV, and FC units to study the effects of hybrid REGs and EVSs on system performance under various weather and loading conditions.

2. 2.1

REG AND EVS SYSTEM MODELING Wind Turbine System Model

In the last several years, WT generators have rapidly developed worldwide as a competitive and effective type of DG at various kW to MW ratings. The following models are often used to operate WTs: fixed-speed wind turbines, variable-slip wind turbines, doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbines, and full-converter wind turbines. Among the four models, DFIG wind turbines have gained more interest for new installations. This type of WTs supports power system stability and reliability during peak load or disturbance conditions. This model also performs more efficiently to control active and reactive power independently by using lowpower electronic devices [11]. In the DFIG controller, the rotor-side converter must inject

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variable rotor currents into the rotor circuit to attain decoupled active and reactive power control. The measured active power (Pmeas) is compared with the reference active power (Pref), which is determined by wind speed. The estimated error then passes through a proportionalintegral (PI) controller to determine the reference value of the q-axis rotor current Iq-ref. The reference d-axis rotor current Id-ref can be calculated using the same procedure. The obtained values for Iq-ref and Id-ref are then converted into the abc frame to achieve the required value of the rotor reference currents Iabc-ref. The gating signals of the rotor-side converter can be generated by comparing the reference and measured currents of the rotor and using a hysteresis controller. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the rotor-side converter [12].

Figure 1. Block diagram of a rotor-side converter control

The main task of the grid-side converter is to balance the power injected into the DC-link capacitor and maintain its constant voltage. The DC-link voltage is measured and compared with the reference value to control the grid-side converter. The obtained error is then passed through a PI controller to estimate the d-axis stator reference current Id-ref. The reference terminal voltage can be computed by comparing the measured value of Id-meas with that of Id-ref and using a PI controller. The obtained reference terminal voltage is then compared with the measured d-axis terminal voltage to generate the reference d-axis terminal voltage Vd-ref. The same procedure can be applied to obtain the reference q-axis terminal voltage Vq-ref by using the measured reactive power, as shown in Figure 2. Vd-ref and Vq-ref are transformed into the abc frame, which is then compared with the terminal voltage. Consequently, the gating signals of the grid-side converter are generated using a hysteresis controller [12].

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Figure 2. Block diagram of a grid-side converter control

2.2

PV System Model

The main components of a grid-connected PV system include a series/parallel combination of PV arrays and a power-conditioning unit. The first component directly converts sunlight to DC power, whereas the second converts DC power to AC power and maintains the maximum efficiency of the PV operation [13]. Certain conditions such as phase sequence, frequency, and voltage level matching must be satisfied to provide a proper interface between the gridconnected PV systems and the utility grid. Providing these conditions strongly depends on the applied controller and the power electronics technology of PV inverters. The applied control strategy of the PV system in this study is based on a PI controller and pulse-width modulation (PWM), as shown in Figure 3 [14]. In the figure, the PV panel block generates the reference voltage as a function of injected current, solar irradiance, and panel temperature. The obtained reference voltage is then compared with the measured terminal voltage. The generated error is passed through a PI controller to obtain the appropriate PWM duty cycle and generate the switching signal of the DC/DC converter (Booster) using IGBT switches. The IGBT based boost converter is used as switching mode regulators to convert an unregulated dc voltage to a regulated dc output voltage. In addition, an MPPT technique is used in the boost converter to efficiently control the produced power of PV arrays. A three-phase, three-level voltage source converter can also be used to convert the produced DC power into AC power. The power is then injected into the system by using a coupling transformer at the desired voltage level [15].

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Figure 3. Block diagram of the PV system

2.3

FC System Model

The basic physical structure of an FC consists of two porous electrodes (anode and cathode) and an electrolyte layer in the middle. The electrolyte can be (a) solid such as polymer electrolyte membrane FCs, and solid oxide FCs (SOFCs) or (b) liquid, including molten carbonate FCs. Among all types of FCs, SOFCs have the highest overall efficiency (about 70%) and multi-fuel capability; thus, SOFCs are the most suitable FCs for stationary applications. Figure 4A shows a simplified structure of an FC system [16]. The system consists of three main units: a reformer, a stack, and a power conditioning unit (PCU). The reformer unit produces hydrogen gas (H2) from fuels such as natural gas; the provided H2 is then passed through the stack unit. The stack unit contains numerous unit cells in a series that can generate a high voltage. The PCU converts the produced low-DC voltage from the FC to a high-DC and/or -AC voltage. Under constant fuel utilization mode, the utilization factor can be expressed as [17]
u= M H 2consumed i / 2F = M H 2in M H 2,in

(1)

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

The injected current can be fed back using a proportional gain 1/(2Fu) to achieve constant utilization operation and control fuel flow to the fuel processor, as shown in Figure 4B [17].

Figure 4. Fuel cell system (A) FC configuration and (B) constant utilization control

2.4

EVS System Model

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Growing concern about global warming and energy security aspects associated with road transport systems has directed more public interest to EVs. The main difference between EVs and conventional vehicles is that the required torque in EVs is supplied through an electric motor, powered either solely by a battery or in combination with an internal combustion engine referred to as hybrid electric vehicle. The impact of EVs on system performance depends on the charging scenario [18]. To investigate the effects of high-penetration EVs in this study, charging is assumed at remote spots called charging stations (similar to petrol filling stations) under a fastcharging mode [19]. The important factors in modelling EVs include charging time and charging power level. In this study, each EV is assumed to consume 10 kW of electricity on average, and each can reach full-charge levels within 10 min to 15 min through a 330 V DC fast-charging board in the EVS [20]. Figure 5 shows the demand curve for a 2.3 MW EVS at peak and offpeak times. The described EVS can be modelled as a dynamic DC load connected to the grid through a AC/DC power converter, which includes a phase-shifting power transformer, a set of rectifier and one set of DC-DC full-bridge converter to provide the predetermined DC voltage level, as shown in Figure 6 [18]. The main importance of the phase-shifting power transformer is to mitigate current harmonic and increase the system power factor, and the rectifier and DC-DC converter are fed through the secondary winding of transformer.

Figure 5. Typical EVS load profile

Figure 6. Block diagram of the EVS

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3.

POSSIBLE POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

REGs have recently been considered efficient sources of power that can provide sustainable and clean energy. Despite the efficiency of these generators, the connection of large hybrid REG systems to utility grids can cause several operational problems for distribution networks. The severity of these problems directly depends on the applied REG technology, penetration level, and geography of the installation. The negative effects of EVS as a vital part of future transportation systems must also be considered. Hence, studying the possible impacts of large hybrid REGs and EVSs on the performance of a distribution network and its components can provide feasible solutions to meet engineering requirements for voltage, frequency, waveform purity, and others prior to implementation. This section aims to introduce possible technical problems that high-penetration hybrid REGs and EVSs present to distribution systems. 3.1 Inrush Current

The small inevitable difference between REG systems and grid voltages can produce a unidirectional transient inrush current that flows between the REGs and the utility system at the time of connection and decays to zero at an exponential rate. Inrush current can cause a temporary voltage sag at the neighbouring buses, thermal stress of the power components, or nuisance trips of the protection systems. The severity and duration of the produced inrush current depends on the system impedance, magnitude and sign of the flux linkage of the coupling transformer, and nonlinear magnetic saturation characteristic of the coupling transformer [21]. 3.2 Protection

Protection problems in REGs can occur at the time of fault and unintended islanding in specific parts of utility grids. Under this condition, REGs may feed the loads or a part of the system even

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after the network has been disconnected from the utility grid. The installed REGs can also increase fault levels and problems related to protection coordination and isolation [22]. 3.3 Undervoltage/Overvoltage

Some REGs such as PV systems are usually intended to operate near unity power factor to optimize solar energy use. Therefore, these systems only inject active power into the utility side of the grid, which may change the rate of reactive power flow in the system, and the nearby buses may experience under/overvoltage problems because of the lack of reactive power [23]. 3.4 Output Power Fluctuation

Output power fluctuations of REGs can present severe operational problems. Power fluctuations mostly occur in the interconnected WT and PV systems because of minute-to-minute variations in wind speed or solar irradiance. The severity of such phenomenon depends on weather conditions, installation geography, and topology of the system. Power fluctuations can increase overloading or underloading, unacceptable voltage fluctuations, and voltage flickers [24]. 3.5 Harmonic Distortion

Harmonic distortion, which is known as a critical PQ issue, can occur because of the use of power inverters in REG systems without the application of a proper filtering system. Harmonic distortion can increase the risk of parallel and series resonances, overheating in capacitor banks and transformers, neutral overcurrent, and false operation of protective devices [25]. 3.6 Frequency Fluctuation

Frequency fluctuation is one of the more important factors influencing PQ. Any imbalance between power production and the power consumption can result in frequency fluctuation. Small REG systems cause negligible frequency fluctuations compared with large REG-based resources.

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However, at increased penetration levels, REG systems can increase the severity of this problem. Frequency fluctuations can change electromotor winding speed and damage generators [26].

4.

SIMULATION RESULTS

A modified IEEE 16-bus test system shown in Figure 7 [27] is modelled using the MATLAB/Simulink software to investigate the various effects of hybrid REGs and EVSs on distribution systems. The system is fed through 380 and 230 kV utility grids. It also consists of 9 loads with a total power of 10 MVA, a power factor between 0.65 and 0.8, 3 inter-tie circuit breakers, and 2 capacitor banks to improve the power factor on buses 5 and 6. An 8 MW wind farm, a 1.4 MW FC, and a 2.4 MW grid-connected PV system are placed on buses 4, 7, and 11, respectively, to supply the required power for local loads and exchange the rest with the system. A 2.3 MW EVS with 23 chargers, which the power of every single charger is 100 kW, was also placed on bus 9.

Figure 7. Single-line diagram of the IEEE 16-bus test system

The commercial specifications of the PV arrays, WT, and FC were collected from SunPower SPR-305 [28], Sanyo HIP-225 [29], General Electric 2.5-100 WT [30], and FuelCell Energy DFC3000 [31]. The required data related to solar irradiance and wind speed under different weather conditions within a year were collected from the MMD [10]. The data were combined to create different patterns for slow and fast weather variations, as shown in Figure 8. The per-minute load demand of EVSs shown in Figure 5 was also used during the simulation [32].

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Figure 8. Solar irradiance and wind speed pattern

The REGs and EVSs in the system are designed to operate at three penetration levels. At the first penetration level, all REGs operate at 33.3% of their nominal power (EVS also operates at 33.3% of its charging capacity). The penetration level escalates to the second and third levels when the REGs operate at 66.6% and 99.9% of their nominal powers, respectively. Figures 9 to 12 reveal the EVSs power consumption and REG-injected power at three penetration levels. From Figures 11 and 12, the active power fluctuations are visible at the PV and WT terminals because of solar irradiance and wind speed variation, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9. EVS power consumption Figure 10. FC-injected power Figure 11. PV-injected power Figure 12. WT-injected power

The measured frequency on buses 1 and 2 are shown in Figure 13 to show the effects of REGs and EVS on the system frequency at different penetration levels. These variations escalate and exceed the limits (1%) [33] at higher penetration levels because of the active power fluctuations at the PV and WT terminals under different weather conditions. Fluctuations also occur more frequently on bus 2, which is closer to PV and WT buses.

Figure 13. Measured frequencies (A) Bus 1 and (B) Bus 2

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In addition to frequency issues, the sudden active power absorption caused by EVSs and the unmanaged power produced by FCs can interrupt the active and reactive power equilibrium of the system. Such absorption also causes a voltage drop, as shown in Figure 14 for buses 6 and 8. The figure indicates that bus 8 experiences a deeper voltage drop because of its proximity to EVS compared with bus 6. Voltage fluctuations caused by different weather conditions are observed on both buses. Table 1 presents the maximum and minimum values of the voltage profile of all system buses at three penetration levels. As indicated in Table 1, the buses placed within the vicinity of EVSs experience exceeded-standard voltage drop (values in bold) [33]. Voltage sag is likely to occur on some buses such as buses 8, 12, and 13 at penetration levels 2 and 3.

Figure 14. Voltage profile (A) Bus 8 and (B) Bus 6

Table 1 Maximum and minimum voltage variations of the system

Power exchanges between REGs and EVSs with the utility system influence the amount of utility-injected active and reactive powers. These power exchanges can negatively influence the predesigned power factor of the system, as shown in Figures 15 and 16. The figures indicate that variations in WT power generation and EVS power consumption cause power factor variations on buses 5 and 6 and that the installed capacitor banks on these buses cannot maintain the power factor at the desired level.

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Figure 15. Injected active and reactive powers. (A) Active power on bus 1; (B) Reactive power on bus 1; (C) Active power on bus 2; and (D) Reactive power on bus 2

Figure 16. Measured power factor (A) Bus 5 and (B) Bus 6

The voltage and current total harmonic distortion (THD) of the system buses were measured to assess the harmonics generated by the REG and EVS inverters. The measurements are presented in Table 2. As indicated, the current THD values exceed the IEEE Std. 519 limits (12%) at second and third penetration levels; the values also affect most of the system. Meanwhile, the voltage THD values exceed the limits (5%) at third penetration level [34] because of the absence of a proper harmonic filter in the inverters or connection points.

Table 2 Voltage and current THD

The impedance vs. frequency curve is plotted to show the effects of produced current harmonics on system resonance, as shown in Figure 17. The figure indicates that the parallel resonance in the test system has a very high probability of occurrence within the vicinity of the 3rd, 5th, and 11th harmonic orders. The figure also reveals that the severity of parallel resonance incident in the systems is increased at higher penetration levels because of the enlargement of the required WT capacitor bank.

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Figure 17. Impedance vs. frequency curve

Simulation results indicate that frequency and voltage fluctuations are the most critical effects of PV and WT systems. These fluctuations occur because of solar irradiance and wind speed variations as well as excessive real power produced by the PV unit, which can severely harm system components. EVSs and FCs can also result in a severe voltage drop for the neighbouring buses because of high power consumption and unmanaged power production, respectively. The power production and consumption of the installed REGs and EVSs reduce the system power factor, as well as increase the voltage and current THD on most system buses; these problems are aggravated at a higher penetration level. Therefore, adjustable capacitor banks or active power conditioning devices in close electrical proximity with REG and EVS units must be used to manage the exchanged powers and the control voltage magnitude of the system. Proper harmonic filters in the inverter terminals of REG and EVS systems also reduce the voltage, current THD, and resonance probabilities especially in distribution systems with low X/R ratio.

CONCLUSION

This study investigates the possible effects of high-penetration REG and EVS systems on PQ in distribution systems under varying weather and loading conditions. All information related to modelling of EVS, WF, PV, and FC systems as well as weather conditions were obtained from different power companies and the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD), respectively. A radial 16-bus test system with distributed EVS, WF, PV, and FC units was simulated using MATLAB/Simulink software under various weather conditions. The results indicated that the

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installed hybrid REG and EVS systems cause frequency and voltage variations, voltage drop, power factor reduction and harmonic distortion, thus creating severe PQ problems in the system components.

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[13] R.A. Messenger, J. Ventre, Photovoltaic systems engineering, CRC, 2004. [14] H. CAN, Model of a photovoltaic panel emulator in Matlab-Simulink, Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, in Press. [15] M. Farhoodnea, A. Mohamed, H. Shareef, H. Zayandehroodi, Power Quality Analysis of GridConnected Photovoltaic Systems in Distribution Networks, Przeglad Elektrotechniczny (Electrical Review), 2013/2a (2013) 208-213. [16] J. Jin-Woo, A. Keyhani, Fuel cell based distributed generation system, 12th International MiddleEast Power System Conference (MEPCON '08), 2008, pp. 610-616. [17] W. Caisheng, M.H. Nehrir, A Physically Based Dynamic Model for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 22 (2007) 887-897. [18] K. Yunus, H.Z. De La Parra, M. Reza, Distribution grid impact of Plug-In Electric Vehicles charging at fast charging stations using stochastic charging model, Proceedings of the 2011-14th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE 2011), 2011, pp. 1-11. [19] A. Arancibia, K. Strunz, Modeling of an electric vehicle charging station for fast DC charging, IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), 2012, pp. 1-6. [20] P. Sandmeier, S. Felsenstein, Electric vehicle infrastructure ABB Market potentials Electric vehicle infrastructure, using the Swiss example, ABB Sales Switzerland Business Development (ABB Internal report) 2009. [21] H. Kageyama, T. Yamada, T. Oozeki, K. Kato, Y. Hishikawa, Measurement of Inrush-Current Waveforms for Modeling Reactance Characteristics of PV Modules, 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, 2011, pp. 3430-3433. [22] S. Sharma, B.R. Parekh, Impact of PVPS (PhotoVoltaic Power System) Connection to Grid in Urban Areas, National Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology, Gujarat, India, 2011, pp. 15. [23] W. Bin, H. Tianxiao, J. Bo, D. Xinzhou, B. Zhiqian, Dynamic modeling and transient fault analysis of feeder in distribution system with MW PV substation, 45th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), 2010, pp. 1-5. [24] M.A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao, Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Technical and potential problemsA review, Renew Sust Energ Rev, 14 (2010) 112-129. [25] M. Farhoodnea, A. Mohamed, H. Shareef, H. Zayandehroodi, An enhanced method for contribution assessment of utility and customer harmonic distortions in radial and weakly meshed distribution systems, Int J Electr Power Energ Syst, 43 (2012) 222-229. [26] G. Chicco, R. Napoli, F. Spertino, Experimental evaluation of the performance of grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Proceedings of the 12th IEEE Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference, 2004, pp. 1011-1016.

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2 3 4

Figure 1. Block diagram of a rotor-side converter control

5 6 7

Figure 2. Block diagram of a grid-side converter control

1 2 3

Figure 3. Block diagram of the PV system

4 5 6 7

Figure 4. Fuel cell system (A) FC configuration and (B) constant utilization control

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Figure 5. Typical EVS load profile

6 7 8 9

Figure 6. Block diagram of the EVS

1 2 3

Figure 7. Single-line diagram of the IEEE 16-bus test system

4 5

Figure 8. Solar irradiance and wind speed pattern

1 2 3 4

Figure 9. EVS power consumption

5 6 7

Figure 10. FC-injected power

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Figure 11. PV-injected power

5 6 7 8

Figure 12. WT-injected power

1 2 3

Figure 13. Measured frequencies (A) Bus 1 and (B) Bus 2

4 5 6 7

Figure 14. Voltage profile (A) Bus 8 and (B) Bus 6

1 2 3 4

Figure 15. Injected active and reactive powers. (A) Active power on bus 1; (B) Reactive power on bus 1; (C) Active power on bus 2; and (D) Reactive power on bus 2

5 6 7 8

Figure 16. Measured power factor (A) Bus 5 and (B) Bus 6

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Figure 17. Impedance vs. frequency curve

Table(s)

Table 1 Maximum and minimum voltage variations of the system No REGs and EVS V [pu] 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.97 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.95

Penetration level Bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Level 1 Min [pu] 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.95 0.95 Max [pu] 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.97 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95

Level 2 Min [pu] 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.95 0.95 Max [pu] 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.98 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95

Level 3 Min [pu] 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.95 0.92 0.87 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.87 0.87 0.95 0.94 0.94 Max [pu] 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.96

Table 2 Voltage and current THD Penetration level Bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Level 1 THDV [%] 1.11 0.98 0.87 1.21 1.19 1.60 1.32 2.30 2.12 0.98 1.12 3.13 2.62 0.76 1.03 0.80 THDI [%] 3.17 3.40 8.97 3.33 11.28 11.17 8.97 10.98 12.34 11.12 10.33 11.23 11.15 11.10 10.30 10.31 Level 2 THDV [%] 1.56 1.37 1.43 2.84 3.55 3.87 3.89 4.01 4.32 1.23 1.60 4.77 4.15 1.08 1.13 1.21 THDI [%] 4.76 5.23 9.94 5.17 17.36 15.22 12.46 13.55 16.12 15.16 14.34 14.89 13.77 14.87 14.31 14.27 Level 3 THDV [%] 2.39 1.97 2.19 3.91 5.04 5.20 5.12 5.17 6.56 3.70 2.79 6.83 5.48 2.68 1.90 2.33 THDI [%] 6.20 8.70 10.59 8.44 24.32 18.12 16.32 17.46 19.09 17.99 18.03 17.88 17.42 17.72 17.93 17.95

Power quality impacts of renewable energy-based generators on power distribution systems are investigated. The effects of electric vehicle stations are also considered. The measurements are done in low and high-penetration levels.