Robbins: Organizational Behavior

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POWER AND POLITICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Contrast leadership and power. Define the four bases of power. Clarify what creates dependency in power relationships. List seven power tactics and their contingencies. Explain how sexual harassment is about the abuse of power. Describe the importance of a political perspective. List those individual and organizational factors that stimulate political behavior. Identify seven techniques for managing the impression one makes on others. Explain how defensive behaviors can protect an individuals self-interest. List the three questions that can help determine if a political action is ethical.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW If you want to get things done in a group or organization, it helps to have power. As a manager who wants to maximize your power, you will want to increase others dependence on you. You can, for instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing knowledge or a skill that he needs and for which he perceives no ready substitute, but power is a two-way street. You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to make you dependent on them. The result is a continual battle. While you seek to maximize others dependence on you, you will be seeking to minimize your dependence on others, and, of course, others you work with will be trying to do the same. Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organization. It hass been argued, for instance, that when people in organizations are difficult, argumentative, and temperamental, it may be because they are in positions of powerlessness, where the performance expectations placed on them exceed their resources and capabilities. There is evidence that people respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individuals personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally derived. Since people are more likely to enthusiastically accept and commit to an individual whom they admire or whose knowledge they respect (rather than someone who relies on his or her position to reward or coerce them), the effective use of expert and referent power should lead to higher employee performance, commitment, and satisfaction. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members. The message for managers seems to be: Develop and use your expert power base! The power of your boss may also play a role in determining your job satisfaction. One of the reasons many of us like to work for and with people who are powerful is that they are generally more pleasant, not because it is their native disposition, but because the reputation and reality of being powerful permits them more discretion and more ability to delegate to others. The effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use this information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit. Some people are just significantly more politically astute than are others. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations, and hence, larger salary increases and promotions. They are more likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction. WEB EXERCISES At the end of each chapter of this instructors manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching the WWW on OB topics. The exercises Exploring OB Topics on the Web are set up so that you can simply photocopy the pages, distribute them to your class, and make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class. Within the lecture notes the graphic will note that there is a WWW activity to support this material.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior

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The chapter opens introducing Jacques Nasser, the former CEO of Ford Motor Co. Nassers style managed to anger almost every core relationship Ford Motor company had. He alienated many people with the decisions he made, but most importantly, he aliened Mr. Ford, whose family owned 40 percent of the voting stock, and who was Chairman of FMC. He failed to maintain the support of the one person with the power to terminate his relationship with FMC. A Definition of Power 1. Definition: Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with As wishes. Notes:

Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential.

2. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency.

The greater Bs dependence on A, the greater is As power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. Notes:

Contrasting Leadership and Power 1. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and power is a means of facilitating their achievement. 2. Differences between Leadership and Power:

Goal compatibility:

a. Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. b. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led.

The direction of influence: a. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers. b. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. c. Power does not minimize the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. d. The research on power has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics for gaining compliance.

Bases of Power A. Formal Power 1. Coercive Power: Notes:

The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. 18

Robbins: Organizational Behavior A. Formal Power (cont.) Notes:

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At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.

2. Reward Power:

The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be anything that another person values. Coercive power and reward power are actually counterparts of each other. a. If you can remove something of positive value from another or inflict something of negative value upon him/her, you have coercive power over that person. b. If you can give someone something of positive value or remove something of negative value, you have reward power over that person.

3. Legitimate Power:

In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access power is ones structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. Legitimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

4. Information Power:

Refers to power that comes from access to and control over information. When people have needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to data that subordinates do not have).

B. Personal Power 1. Expert Power:

Expert power is "influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge." Expertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has become more technological. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals.

2. Referent Power:

Its base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. 19

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior B. Personal Power (cont.) Notes:

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Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. Referent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials.

3. Charismatic Power:

Is an extension of referent power stemming from an individuals personality and interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks, demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc. Notes:

Dependency: The Key to Power 1. The General Dependency Postulate:

The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. a. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them.

Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. a. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one. b. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.

2. What Creates Dependency?

Importance a. To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. b. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty. c. Therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organizations uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.

Scarcity a. A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. b. Low-ranking members in an organization who have important knowledge not available to high-ranking members gain power over the high-ranking members. c. The scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. d. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Nonsubstitutability a. The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Power Tactics 1. Ways Powerholders Get What They Want Notes:

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One hundred sixty five managers were asked to write essays describing an incident in which they influenced their bosses, co-workers, or employees. From those essays: a. Three hundred seventy power tactics were identified and grouped into 14 categories. b. These were condensed into a 58-item questionnaire, and given to over 750 employees. c. These respondents were asked not only how they went about influencing others at work but also for the possible reasons for influencing the target person.

2. The findings identified seven tactical dimensions or strategies:

ReasonUse of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas FriendlinessUse of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly CoalitionGetting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request BargainingUse of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors AssertivenessUse of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance Higher authorityGaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests SanctionsUse of organizationally derived rewards and punishments

3. Employees do not rely on the seven tactics equally. (See Exhibit 13-2). The most popular strategy was the use of reason. Contingency variables that affect the selection of a power tactic a. The managers relative power impacts the selection of tactics in two ways. First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power. Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less power. Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies. b. The managers objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. Seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness. Attempting to persuade their superiors to accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason. Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors. c. The managers expectation of the target persons willingness to comply When past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain compliance. Where success is less predictable, managers are more tempted to use assertiveness and sanctions to achieve their objectives. 22

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Power Tactics (cont.) d. The organizations culture The organizational culture in which a manager works, therefore, will have a significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. e. People in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics. US prefers reason whereas China prefers coalition tactics. Differences are consistent with values among countriesreason is consistent with Americans preference for direct confrontation and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for using indirect approaches. Power in Groups: Coalitions 1. Those out of power and seeking to be in will first try to increase their power individually. 2. If ineffective, the alternative is to form a coalitionan informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. 3. The natural way to gain influence is to become a powerholder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. Notes: Notes:

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In such cases, efforts will be made to form a coalition of two or more outs who, by joining together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear.

4. Predictions about Coalition Formation

First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. a. Decision-making in organizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives. b. The decision must also be implemented. c. The implementation of and commitment to the decision is at least as important as the decision. d. It is necessary for coalitions in organizations to seek a broad constituency. e. This coalition expansion is to facilitate consensus building f. In political science theory, coalitions move the other waythey try to minimize their size.

Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. a. More coalitions will likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource interdependence. b. In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition formation activity where subunits are largely selfcontained or resources are abundant.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Power in Groups: Coalitions (cont.) Notes:

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Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers do. a. The more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will form. b. The more that the work that people do is routine, the greater their substitutability.

Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the TEAM EXERCISE Understanding Power Dynamics found in the text and at the end of these chapter notes. Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace 1. Importance: Notes:

The issue received increasing attention by corporations and the media in the 1980s because of the growing ranks of female employees. It was the congressional hearings in the fall of 1991 in which law professor Anita Hill graphically accused Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment that challenged organizations to reassess their harassment policies and practices.

2. Sexual Harassment Defined:

"Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individuals employment." A 1993 Supreme Court decision added that the key test for determining if sexual harassment has occurred is whether comments or behavior in a work environment would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived, as hostile or abusive. There continues to be disagreement as to what specifically constitutes sexual harassment: a. Overt forms of sexual harassment of female employees. This includes unwanted physical touching, recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the woman is not interested, and coercive threats that a woman will lose her job if she refuses a sexual proposition. b. The problem todaysubtle forms of sexual harassment such as unwanted looks or comments, off-color jokes, sexual artifacts like nude calendars in the workplace, etc.

Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual harassment. The supervisor-employee dyad best characterizes an unequal power relationship. a. It is also worth noting that individuals who occupy high-status roles (like management positions) sometimes believe that sexually harassing female employees is merely an extension of their right to make demands on lower-status individuals. b. Because of power inequities, sexual harassment by ones boss typically creates the greatest difficulty for those who are being harassed.

Although coworkers do not have position power, they can have influence and use it to sexually harass peers. 24

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace (cont.) a. Coworkers are the most frequent perpetrators of sexual harassment in organizations. b. Coworkers exercise power by providing or withholding information, cooperation, and support. Notes:

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Women in positions of power can be subjected to sexual harassment from males who occupy less powerful positions. The employee devalues the woman through highlighting traditional gender stereotypes that reflect negatively on the woman in power. Sexual harassment is about power: a. It is about an individual controlling or threatening another individual. b. It is wrong. c. It is illegal.

Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the CASE INCIDENT Damned If You Do; Damned If You Dont found in the text and at the end of these chapter notes. A suggestion for a class exercise follows the material. Politics: Power in Action 1. Definition: those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. 2. This definition encompasses key elements. a. Political behavior is outside ones specified job requirements. b. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision-making. c. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from decision makers, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc. 3. The Legitimate-Illegitimate Dimension Notes:

Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc. Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage, whistleblowing, and symbolic protests, etc. The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme sanction.

A. The Reality of Politics 1. Politics is a fact of life in organizations. 2. Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources. 3. Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict into real conflict. Because resources are limited, not everyones interests can be provided for causing the conflict. 25

Robbins: Organizational Behavior A. The Reality of Politics (cont.) Notes:

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Gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of others. These forces create a competition.

4. The most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation. a. What is good performance? b. Whats an adequate improvement? 5. Most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life. 6. Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. These are activities we call politicking. 7. It is possible for an organization to be politics free, if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, however, that is not the organization most people work in. Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the MYTH OR SCIENCE? Its Not What You Know, Its Who You Know found in the text and below. A suggestion for a class exercise follows the material.

MYTH OR SCIENCE? Its Not What You Know, Its Who You Know This statement is somewhat true. While knowledge is an increasingly important source of power, knowing the right people increases your chances of getting ahead. Networking refers to "establishing effective relationships with key people inside" and/or outside the organization and is an important activity performed by managers who were promoted the fastest. A study of general managers found: 1) they fully understood the importance of networking, 2) they established a wide political network, which 3) provided them with information, 4) established cooperative relationships that could enhance their careers, and 5) they did favors for these contacts, stressed the obligations of these contacts, and called in these obligations when needed. Research indicates that a persons location within an organization is an important determinant of his/her influence. This evidence is not a rejection of job-relevant expertise but it indicates that who you know is important. Teaching notes 1. Lead a discussion of the ethicality of using personal contacts to get what you want in the following situation. 2. Situation: The administration of a state university wants all studentsfull, part-time, non-traditionalto pay a fee every semester for the next three years to fund the building of a new physical learning center for the campus. Students are upset because they do not want to pay for something they will not use. The student government has been ineffective in getting the administration or board to hear the students. You discover that your roommates parents are major donors to the university, are well-respected alumni, and are golfing buddies with the universitys president. Your roommate does not care about the fee because money is not an issue, but for you and your other friends, with heavy loans and having to work, this is a big deal. You have been helping your roommate survive a couple of key classes by tutoring him/her and helping with papers by offering suggestions. Your roommate went from failing to a C+ in these classes. You believe that your roommates' parents could influence the university presidents final decision. 3. Should you use your relationship with your roommate to affect the administrations final decision? 4. Do you have enough political capital to get your roommate to help? How could you increase, and how would you cash in your political capital? 26

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Factors Contributing to Political Behavior 1. Individual factors: Notes:

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Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. a. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. b. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest.

An individuals investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is to use illegitimate means. b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions. c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the probability of its use.

2. Organizational factors:
Political activity is probably more a function of the organizations characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organizations resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. a. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision-making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking. b. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. c. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations. d. The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate. e. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. There are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employees political actions. The greater the role ambiguity, the more one can engage in political activity with little chance of it being visible.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Factors Contributing to Political Behavior (cont.) f. Subjective criteria in the appraisal process: Subjective performance criteria create ambiguity. Single outcome measures encourage doing whatever is necessary to look good. The more time that elapses between an action and its appraisal, the more unlikely that the employee will be held accountable for his/her political behaviors. g. The zero-sum approach treats the reward pie as fixed so that any gain one person or group achieves has to come at the expense of another person or group. If I win, you must lose! This encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do. h. Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Sharing their power with others runs directly against some managers desires. The result is that managers, especially those who began their careers in the 1950s and 1960s, may use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a superficial way as arenas for maneuvering and manipulating. i. The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they are to engage in politicking. If a person perceives that his or her entire career is riding on the next whatever, there is motivation to do whatever is necessary to make sure the outcome is favorable. j. When employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a climate is created that supports politicking. Notes:

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A. How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics? 1. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. 2. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it get too much to handle, employees quit. 3. It is a de-motivating force and performance may suffer as a result. 4. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the individual has of the decision making system and his/her political skills:

High political skills individuals often have improved performance. Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.

5. Reaction to organizational politics is also moderated by culture. In countries that are more unstable politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking that more politically stable counties.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior B. Impression Management 1. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them Notes:

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We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations.

2. Who engages in IMthe high self-monitor

Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation.

3. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false.

Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region or that you are the key to the tripling of your divisions sales.

4. Misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited. 5. Situations that are characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity that provide relatively little information for challenging a fraudulent claim increase the likelihood of individuals misrepresenting themselves. 6. Only a limited number of studies have been undertaken to test the effectiveness of IM techniques.

These have been essentially limited to job interview success. The evidence is that IM behavior works.

7. In one study, interviewers felt that those applicants for a position as a customer service representative who used IM techniques performed better in the interview, and the interviewers seemed somewhat more inclined to hire these people. When the applicants credentials were also considered, it was apparent that the IM techniques alone that influenced the interviewers. 8. Another employment interview study looked at which IM techniques worked best.

The researchers compared IM techniques that focused the conversation on themselves (called a controlling style) with techniques that focused on the interviewer (referred to as a submissive style). Those applicants who used the controlling style were rated higher by interviewers on factors such as motivation, enthusiasm, and even technical skills, and they received more job offers. A more recent study confirmed the value of a controlling style.

Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the OB IN THE NEWS Among the Politically Inept, Ignorance is Bliss found in the text and below. A suggestion for a class exercise follows the material.

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OB IN THE NEWS -- Among the Politically Inept, Ignorance Is Bliss Why are some of the most politically inept people so completely unaware of their incompetence? Why, in fact, does it often seem that the politically clueless are the most confident and self-assured about their political skills? The answer may lie with studies undertaken at Cornell University. The researchers at Cornell have found that most incompetent people do not know they are incompetent. Actually, it is quite the opposite. Incompetents tend to be more confident of their abilities than people who do things well. These studies help explain why the humor-impaired persist in telling jokes that are not funny or the politically clueless continue to give advice to others on the fine points of getting ahead at work. For instance, one of the findings from these studies was that college students who score lowest on grammar tests were the most likely to overestimate how well they had performed. The researchers concluded that one reason that the ignorant tend to be overly self-assured is that the skills required for competence often are the same skills necessary to recognize competence. So incompetents suffer a double liability. They reach erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices, while their weak selfmonitoring skills also rob them of the ability to realize it.
Source: E. Goode, Among the Inept, Researchers Discover, Ignorance is Bliss, New York Times, January 18, 2000, p. D7.

Class Exercise: Discuss with students the following: 1. Whether or not politicking is a skills than can be learned. 2. How one could learn these skillsgiven they are more often organizational and situational specific. 3. Would they want to learn these skillswhat could be gained or lost? Suggested reading list on this topic: Games Mother Never Taught You: Corporate Gamesmanship for Women. Betty Lehan Harragan. Warner Books. 1977 (a classic book for anyone who wants to understand corporate politics) Power! How to Get It, How to Use It. Michael Korda. Ballantine Books. 1975 Tender Power: A Revolutionary Approach to Work and Intimacy. Sherry Suib Cohen. AddisonWellesley. 1978 The System Made Me Do It! A Life Changing Approach to Office Politics , by Susan Osborne, PhD., 1997, Life Thread Publications, P. O. Box 185, Newark CA 94560-0185 Turf and Other Power Plays. Pamela Cuming. Prentice-Hall. 1985 (This is an excellent book, now out of print but available in libraries!)

C. The Ethics of Behaving Politically 1. Three ethical decision criteria are utilitarianism, rights, and justice. See Exhibit 13-8 for an illustration of a decision tree to guide ethical actions. 2. The first question you need to answer addresses self-interest versus organizational goals. Ethical actions are consistent with the organizations goals. 3. The second question concerns the rights of other parties. 4. The final question that needs to be addressed relates to whether or not the political activity conforms to standards of equity and justice. 5. Unfortunately, the answers to these questions are often argued in ways to make unethical practices seem ethical. Powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just.

Notes:

Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the POINT-COUNTERPOINT Creating Special Deals for Special Employees found in the text and at the end of these chapter notes. A suggestion for a class exercise follows the material. 30

Robbins: Organizational Behavior QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

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1. What is power? How do you get it? Answer Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with As wishes. Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency. The greater Bs dependence on A, the greater is As power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. 2. Contrast power tactics with power bases. What are some of the key contingency variables that determine which tactic a powerholder is likely to use? Answer See Exhibit 13-1. Coercive Power The coercive power baserests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. Reward Power The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. To the degree that an individual seeks rewards, your ability to give or withhold them gives you power over that individual. Legitimate Power In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access to a power base is ones structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. Legitimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance by members of an organization of the authority of a position. Expert Power Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. Expertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has become more technological. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Referent Power Its base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. It is a lot like charisma. Referent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. 3. Which power bases lie with the individual? Which are derived from the organization? Answer Individual based Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. Referent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Organizationally based The coercive power base rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. To the degree that an individual seeks rewards, your ability to give or withhold them gives you power over that individual. In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access power is ones structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. 31

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4. State the general dependency postulate. What does it mean? Answer The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependency is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. 5. What creates dependency? Give an applied example. Answer Three elements create dependency. Importance To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty. Therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organizations uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource. Scarcity A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. Low-ranking members in an organization who have important knowledge not available to high-ranking members gain power over the high-ranking members. The scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages that are far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Nonsubstitutability The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides. 6. What is a coalition? When is it likely to develop? Answer A coalition is an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The logic strength in numbers. The natural way to gain influence is to become a powerholder. When building a personal power base is difficult, risky, costly, or impossible, efforts will be made to form a coalition. Successful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear. 7. How are power and politics related? Answer Both are used to affect decision making in the organization or behaviors by members. Political behavior is dependent on having some type of power, or it can be a way to circumvent the lack of organizational power. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decisionmaking. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from decision makers, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information about organizational activities to the media, exchanging favors with others in the organization for mutual benefit, and lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual or decision alternative. Both also have a legitimate-illegitimate dimension. Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics. There are also illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and power is a means of facilitating their achievement. Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. Power does not minimize the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. 8. Define political behavior. Why is politics a fact of life in organizations? Answer Many definitions focus on the use of power to affect decision making in the organization or on behaviors by members that are self-serving and organizationally non-sanctioned. We shall define political behavior in organizations as those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. Politics is a fact of life in organizations because organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources. Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict into real conflict. Also, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of others within the 32

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen organization. These forces create a competition among members for the organizations limited resources. Finally, the realization that most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to

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interpretation creates political behavior. Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, where facts are rarely fully objective, and thus are open to interpretation, people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. 9. What factors contribute to political activity? Answer Exhibit 13-5 illustrates both individual and organizational factors. Individual factorsresearchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. Traitsemployees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. 1. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. 2. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. 3. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest. An individuals investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. Organizational factorsPolitical activity is probably more a function of the organizations characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organizations resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. Organizational culture is characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, etc. Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers. 10. What is impression management? What type of people are most likely to engage in IM? Answer This is the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. Who engages in IMthe high self-monitor. Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High selfmonitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. QUESTIONS FOR CRITICAL THINKING 1. Based on the information presented in this chapter, what would you do as a recent college graduate entering a new job to maximize your power and accelerate your career progress? Answer Eight suggestions for improving organizational political effectiveness. 1. Frame arguments in terms of organizational goals. Effective politicking requires camouflaging your selfinterest. 2. Develop the right image. If you know your organizations culture, you understand what the organization wants and values from its employees. Then project the appropriate image. 3. Gain control of organizational resources. Knowledge and expertise are particularly effective resources to control. 4. Make yourself appear indispensable. You do not have to really be indispensable as long as key people in the organization believe that you are. 5. Be visible. Because performance evaluation has a substantial subjective component, it is important that your boss and those in power in the organization be made aware of your contribution. 6. Develop powerful allies. It helps to have powerful people in your camp. Cultivate contacts with potentially influential people above you, at your own level, and in the lower ranks. 7. Avoid tainted members. In almost every organization, there are fringe members whose status is questionable. 8. Support your boss. Your immediate future is in the hands of your current boss. Do not undermine your boss, and do not speak negatively of him/her to others.

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2. Politics is not inherently bad. It is merely a way to get things accomplished within organizations. Do you agree or disagree? Defend your position. Answer The variety of student responses should take into consideration the following items. The inherent elements of political behavior in organizations are those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. The legitimate-illegitimate dichotomy. Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc. Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game are sabotage, whistleblowing, and symbolic protests, etc. The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme sanction. 3. You are a sales representative for an international software company. After four excellent years, sales in your territory are off 30 percent this year. Describe three defensive responses you might use to reduce the potential negative consequences of this decline in sales. Answer Students can choose from several defensive behaviors, but we recommend the best three in this situation would be: Justifyingincludes developing explanations that lessen your responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse. Scapegoatingthe classic effort to place the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. Misrepresentinginvolves the manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation. 4. Sexual harassment should not be tolerated at the workplace. Workplace romances are a natural occurrence in organizations. Are both of these statements true? Can they be reconciled? Answer Sexual harassment is any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individuals employment. A 1993 Supreme Court decision added that the key test for determining if sexual harassment has occurred is whether comments or behavior in a work environment would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived, as hostile or abusive. There continues to be disagreement as to what specifically constitutes sexual harassment. The above adds to the confusion on this issue. On the one hand, central to our value system is equality of people whether gender, age, or sex-based. Sexual harassment is a basic violation of that. At the same time, the changing roles and socialization of men and women is adding to the confusion and probability of miscommunication in the workplace. Work is where most of us spend the majority of our waking hours. It is only natural that personal relationships and, in some cases, romances will develop. So, the reality is that office romances are part of men and women working together. However, due to the sensitivity of the equality and harassment issue, the naturally volatile state of personal relationships and the need for professionals working together regardless of personal feelings, office romances have a high probability of creating problems. Key here is that the students understand the difference between their current college environment and the professional environment in the real working world. 5. Which impression management techniques have you used? What ethical implications are there, if any, in using impression management? Answer Key here is helping students understand that they have, whether intentionally or not, used impression management. Also, they should think through the ethicality of such techniques. One can make an argument for either side of this issue. On the one hand, impression management may lead to false impressions; on the other, it may appropriately help a superior be more aware of you and things you are doing. Use Exhibit 13-6 as a reference for some of the more popular IM techniques and examples of each. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false. Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region or that you are the key to the tripling of your divisions sales. Misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited. Situations that are characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity that provide relatively little information for challenging a fraudulent claim increase the likelihood of individuals misrepresenting themselves. 35

Robbins: Organizational Behavior POINT-COUNTERPOINT Empowerment Improves Employee Productivity POINT

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In countries such as France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, terms of employment are largely mandated by law and hence highly standardized. In contrast, in countries such as the United States, Great Britain, and New Zealand, managers have considerable leeway to negotiate idiosyncratic deals with employees. In these latter countries, managers are increasingly using this latitude to customize their treatment of special individuals. Two trends help explain the growth in special deals for certain employees. First, the demand for knowledge workers with distinctive competencies in a highly competitive market means workers have greater power to negotiate employment conditions suited to their tastes and preferences. Second, the decline in unionization and the weakening of the job securitybased model of organizational careers have led to less standardized conditions of employment. In order to hire, motivate, and keep highly skilled workers, managers are negotiating special treatment for certain employees. Examples of this special treatment include higher pay than others for doing similar work, allowing an employee to work from home several days a week, permitting an employee to leave early to fulfill family obligations, upgraded travel arrangements, and allowing certain employees to spend time on personal projects during work time. What do these employees have that allow them to make idiosyncratic arrangements? It can be unique credentials, special skills, high status, important contacts, or high marketability, but it must also include the willingness of an employee or prospective employee to speak up. These deals are typically proposed as bargaining chips when negotiating initial employment terms or after the employee has been on the job a while, built a trusting relationship with his or her manager, and becomes a valued performer. These special deals have advantages for both employees and managers. They provide greater rewards for employees and allow them to tailor their job to better meet their personal needs. They also give individual managers greater latitude in motivating their employees and flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances.
Source: This is largely based on D. M. Rousseau, The Idiosyncratic Deal: Flexibility versus Fairness? Organizational Dynamics, Spring 2001, pp. 26073.

COUNTER POINT Talk about opening up a can of worms! Making special deals with certain employees is bound to undermine whatever trust there is in an organization. Although management may desire flexibility in its relationships with employees, maintaining standardized practices is more likely to provide the appearance of fairness that is needed to create a climate of trust. Customization of employment relationships, under the guise of flexibility, only increases politics in the workplace. There is no shortage of arguments against special deals for special employees. Here are just a few. Special deals give too much power to managers. They allow managers to negotiate favorable treatment with employees they like. Although these employees may also be high performers, if they are not, it contributes to politicizing the work environment. Special deals are unlikely to be perceived as fair by those who do not receive them. One persons merit is anothers favoritism. Special deals reward the wrong behaviors. They encourage employees to kiss up to their boss and to treat every attempt to get a raise or time off as a bargaining opportunity. Special deals tend to go to aggressive employees, whether or not they are contributing the most. Shy, quiet, and less demanding employees who are good performers are likely to be excluded. Special deals are not cost free. Resources in organizations are limited. One employees gain is often at anothers expense. So allowing one employee in a department to take off two hours early every Thursday afternoon to coach his sons Little League team often means others in that department will have to take up some of his work. This has the potential to create conflicts. For instance, evidence indicates that many single and childless employees resent the family-friendly benefitssuch as helping to find an employees spouse employment or paid child carethat many companies offer to married workers and those with children. Our position is that special deals undermine trust and cooperation at work. They create the appearance, if not the actuality, that those with power get favored treatment. We have spent three-quarters of a century building formalized human resource systems that ensure consistent treatment of the workforce. These systems are critical to promoting fairness, cooperation, and efficiency. Using idiosyncratic deals to supposedly enhance flexibility is a major step toward trashing these systems.

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Teaching notes 1. This exercise works best if you can do it before starting the class for the semester. Or, before reviewing this material, offer it without explanation of its teaching points. 2. Offer students the opportunity to design the class (the rest of the class) this semesterwhat content is to be covered, how performance will be measured, whether there should be lecture or discussion, etc. Some students will take the opportunity; the majority probably wont. Discuss their ideas, and record them on the board. 3. Ask the students who did not participate or who communicated that they did not want to design the course or didnt know enough to do so, why they felt that way, etc. 4. Use both, those who redesign the class and those who did not participate, to discuss whether they think employees want to be empowered. Have them offer reasons, experiences, etc. to support their position. Ask if this experience supports one or the other position. 5. Should there be any special deals like the ones mentioned in the article? What would be fair or not fair in this situation? 6. Students may argue that 1) your offer was not real or 2) there is a difference between college and work. Help them explore why they did not think the offer was real and realize that the principle is the same here as in work, only the immediate context is different. 7. Finally, discuss why these empowerment efforts are failing.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior TEAM EXERCISE Understanding Power Dynamics

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Purpose: For students to experience the reality of power due to organizational factors Time: 3045 minutes Instructions: 1. Create three groups. Give the top group red poker chips, the middle group blue chips and the bottom group white poker chips. Explain that the chips will be redeemed at the end of the exercise for prizesthe red the most value, blue are second most valuable and white, worthless. Divide groups based on criteria given by the instructor, assigned to their workplaces, and instructed to read the following rules and tasks. Note: The text suggests using dollar billspoker chips are effective alternative without having to worry about getting the money back to its owner. 2. Conduct exercise. a. Groups go to their assigned work places and have 30 minutes to complete their tasks. (Can be any task you assign.) 3. Rules a. Members of the top group are free to enter the space of either of the other groups and to communicate whatever they wish, whenever they wish. Members of the middle group may enter the space of the lower group when they wish but must request permission to enter the top groups space (which the top group can refuse). Members of the lower group may not disturb the top group in any way unless specifically invited by the top. The lower group does have the right to knock on the door of the middle group and request permission to communicate with them (which can also be refused). b. The members of the top group have the authority to make any change in the rules that they wish, at any time, with or without notice. 4. Tasks a. Top group: To be responsible for the overall effectiveness and learning from the exercise, and to decide how to use its money b. Middle group: To assist the top group in providing for the overall welfare of the organization, and to decide how to use its money c. Bottom group: To identify its resources and to decide how best to provide for learning and the overall effectiveness of the organization 5. Debriefing. Each of the three groups chooses two representatives to go to the front of the class and discuss the following questions: a. Summarize what occurred within and among the three groups. b. What are some of the differences between being in the top group versus being in the bottom group? c. What can we learn about power from this experience? d. How accurate do you think this exercise is to the reality of resource allocation decisions in large organizations? Teaching notes 1. This exercise may create some significant anxiety or even rebellion in the lower group. Be prepared to help them keep calm until the end, without giving away the exercise. 2. One of the major discussion/sticking points will be the reality of the exercise. In all likelihood, some students will argue it is not real and that there is not that much imbalance in power. Do not argue with the students. Turn the question back to the class and ask students if anyone has had an experience with a similar disparity of power. If you are lucky, some students will perceive this disparity with the administration or faculty of your institution, which will provide fodder for an interesting discussion. 3. Key is that students understand that if either the perception or reality of such a disparity of power exists, employees will feel the same frustration they did. How can they, individually, minimize the possibility of this disparity when they begin working, with their employees?
[This exercise is adapted from L. Bolman and T.E. Deal, Exchange, vol. 3, no. 4, 1979, pp. 3842. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.]

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior CASE INCIDENT Damned If You Do, Damned If You Dont

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Fran Gilson has spent 15 years with the Thompson Grocery Company rising through the ranks of this 50store grocery store chain to become a regional manager, overseeing seven stores and earning approximately $95,000 a year. Fran also thinks she is ready to take on more responsibility, so she agreed to consider the position of vice president and regional manager for a national drugstore chain. The only person at Thompson who knows Fran is looking at this other job is her good friend and colleague, Ken Hamilton, the director of finance. Fran tells Ken it is a dream job and expresses her positive excitement. She asked Ken last week if she could use his name as a reference. Ken agreed to give her a great recommendation. She made it very clear to the recruiter that Ken was the only person at Thompson who knew she was considering another job. Jennifer Chung has been a financial analyst in Kens department for five months. Fran met Jennifer through Ken. Frans impression of Jennifer is quite positive. Jennifer came to Fran to talk. Fran sat her down and listened to her story. What Fran heard was hard to believe, but she had no reason to think Jennifer was lying. Jennifer said that Ken began making off-color comments and his behavior got progressively worse including leering and touching. Jennifer would ask him to stop and not do it again, but it fell on deaf ears. Yesterday, Ken reminded Jennifer that her six-month probationary review was coming up. He told me that if I did not sleep with him that I could not expect a very favorable evaluation. Jennifer said that she had come to Fran because she did not know what to do or whom to turn to. I came to you, Fran, because you are a friend of Kens and the highest ranking woman here. Will you help me? Fran had never heard anything like this about Ken before. About all she knew regarding his personal life was that he was in his late 30s, single, and involved in a long-term relationship. Questions 1. Analyze Frans situation in a purely legalistic sense. You might want to talk to friends or relatives who are in management or the legal profession for advice in this analysis. Answer Fran must take action. She and the company are now legally exposed, plus this is a very serious accusation. Since Jennifer is not her employee nor does she have reporting authority over Ken, she needs to take this to H.R. She should not investigate the claim on her own, nor should she contact Ken and give him a warning that HR is investigating, as this could compromise her later. 2. Analyze Frans dilemma in political terms. Answer Ken holds tremendous power over Fran since he has information that she does not want her bosses to know about. If she acts against Ken, passes this on the HR, or doesnt warn Ken informally, he could see it as a betrayal and reveal her job possibility with the other company. 3. Analyze Frans situation in an ethical sense. What is the ethically right thing for her to do? Is that also the politically right thing to do? Answer By giving the issue to HR, Fran has fulfilled her obligation both legal and ethical to the organization and to Jennifer. She can ask HR and Jennifer to leave her out of the process, which is proper since she is not in the chain of command dealing with the incidents, and, because she is Kens friend, HR would not want her involved. 4. If you were Fran, what would you do? Answer Students responses will vary but students cannot stall. They must act. Fran: "I recommend: taking Jennifer to H.R., ask H.R. and Jennifer to not involve me and explain the personal relationship with Ken. I cant even offer solace to Jennifer as that would constitute improper involvement. I would call the recruiter, ask if he had talked with Ken yet and how long it would be until a decision. Depending on the recruiters response, I would say there was a probability that the job offer was likely to become public information due to unforeseen circumstances and in order to give any offer proper consideration, time had now become a factor. Finally, I would prepare to tell my current bosses that I had been approached about another job. I might wait a short time before revealing this to my bosses, but to do this would defuse and take power from Ken if he decided to retaliate. If anything, this should build my equity in that I did the right and legal thing regardless of the consequences to me."

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Exploring OB Topics on the World Wide Web

Search Engines are our navigational tool to explore the WWW. Some commonly used search engines are: www.goto.com www.google.com www.excite.com www.lycos.com www.hotbot.com www.looksmart.com
1.

Information and policies concerning sexual harassment are often joked about, scorned, and more importantly, misunderstood. Learn about current trends in sexual harassment issues from HRMagazine, the Society for Human Resources (SHRM) monthly publication to its members. Go to: http://www.shrm.org/hrmagazine/articles/1098emplaw.htm . Read the articles and the related links. Also visit: http://www.eeoc.gov/stats/harass.html for the EEOCs statistics on the number of claims filed during the last 10 years. Write a two page paper on what you learned concerning the trends regarding sexual harassment. Knowing about personal power is one thingapplying it to everyday work life is another. Learn how Craig Ohlson of Activation does it to be the top salesperson in a featured article in Inc. Magazine. Point to: http://www.inc.com/magazine/19950201/2142.html to read the article. Write a short reaction paper describing the power tactics he uses to influence his customers. Could any of his methods be applied to an activity you are involved inwhy or why not? Power and gender equity are hot topics among HR professionals. These are not necessarily sexual harassment issues, but systemic organizational issues of concern. To learn more go to: http://www.workforce.com/archive/article/22/02/97.php . Are there issues discussed that you have not considered previously? Write a short journal entry of two or three paragraphs about what you learned from the article. Ethics in the boardroom? You bet, despite the bad news we heard from the media on a daily basis. CEOs are talking about, and doing something about, ethics everyday. Point to http://www.refresher.com/!cirihal5.html to learn how apply an ethical framework to your activities. Click on the link for spiritualityhealth.com and take the self-test to become more aware of your own personal values. Write three things in a short journal entry you learned about yourself after reading this website. The Performance Management Magazine offers its take on ethicsthis time as applied to all levels of employees in an organization. Read and print the article. Bring it to class for a discussion session, or write a short reaction paper on whether or not you agree with the ideas put forth in the article. Could they work at an organization you are involved with? Why or why not? Go to: http://www.pmezine.com/article_dtls.asp?NID=218

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7. Are smart people overrated? That was the question put forth by New Yorker Magazine in the article, The Talent Myth. Read this article at : http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?020722fa_fact Make a list of every impression management behavior you spot in the article. Then make a list of impression management techniques you plan to develop in the next years. Bring both lists to class for discussion.
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8. Go to: http://www.itstime.com/oct97map.htm and develop your own personal power map for an organization your are involved (or have been involved) with. Bring it to class for discussion.

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