A Lie Algebras and Lie Groups" Basic Notions

A Lie algebra A is a linear space over some field F, say, for instance, the field of real numbers R or of complex numbers C, together with a binary operation [.,-], which maps pair of elelnents in A into all elelnent in A:

[., .]: (h,.9) c A A

, [h,.q] E .4.

(A.1)

It is called the Lie bracket and satisfies the following properties: 9 bilinearity:

[~h + Vk, ~] = ~[h, ~] + V[k, ~],

for all a, b C F and h, k,g E A; 9 anticommutativity:

[h, ~g + vk] = ~[h, g] + bib, k],

(A.2)

[h,.q] = -[.q, hi,

for all h, g r A; 9 Jacobi identity:

(A.3)

[h, [k, g]] + [k, [9, h]l + [~, [h, k] = o.

for all h, k, g E A. It is evident that in general the Lie bracket is not associative, i.e.

(A.4)

[h, [k, g]] r [[h, k], g],

(A.5)

the associative law being replaced by the Jacobi identity. The dimension of A is, of course, determined by the cardinality of the basis set {hj }j, which spans the underlying linear space. As a concrete example of a Lie algebra, we may mention that the Euclidean space R 3 becomes a three-dimensional Lie algebra with the Lie bracket taken as the cross product of vectors. Also, any associative algebra, with associative product f g (here simply denoted by justaposition), becomes a Lie algebra under the definition of the Lie bracket as the commutator, also called Lie product, of elements in the algebra:
{h, g] = h~ - gh. (A.6)

520

Linear Ray and Wave Optics in Phase 5pace

In a sense the c o m n m t a t o r is a measure of how n o n - c o m m u t a t i v e the algebra is. The algebra of invertible real square matrices is m a d e into a Lie algebra under the. Lie t)rodu('t (A.6), involving the familiar row-by-col~mnl multiplication of ma.triccs. Besi(tes, in the text it is seen that the algebra of the 2D illhomogelu;O~lS linear t)olynonfials (witll rest)cot to a,(tr a.cquircs a Lie a.lget)ra s t n u : t u r c lul(ter tilt; Poissoll bra,(:ket ot)eratio~l, as sinlilarly (toes the algel)ra ~f 21) l~on~ogelm~n~s (t~a,r l)~)lyll~)~fials. A h,omomo't7~h, ism a 1)(:t,w(:(:ll l,w() l.ie a,lg;el~ra,s A m u l / 3 ()v(:r t,l~(: sanle ti(:l(t /~':
a:A , B (A.7)

(letixu~s a, li~('a,r ~lm,l)t>i~g ~f A i~t() B, s~u:t~ tlm,t tl~e I.ie Iwa,t'ket i~ B ~f illm,ge(t elellltUltS ()f ~4 is ta,ktu~ I,() tlw illm,g('. ()f tile l.ie lwa~:ket ill A ()f 1,11e ()rigina,1 (~lelliell|,S; l~m~l('.ly:

[~(h), ~(g)l = ~([h, g])

v h, g e ,4.

(A.S)

If slu:ll a ll()l,,()l,l(~I't)llisll, is ()ll('~-t()-()ll(; (()r, .fitit/r s() tlmt tll(' ilw(;rs(; l~m.t)t)illg exist,s, it, is <:alh;(l a,n isomo't'phism. Ft)r all t)ra,t:tir In~rl)t)ses, is(ml()l'lflfi(: l,i(; algt;twas il,l'(~ i(l(;lltir A s'u,ba,ltl~'bra ,5 i~ .,4 is a, li~ear s~fl)Sl)a,(:e ()f A, wl~i(J~ is (:h)s(:(l ~ ( h ; r Lie lwa~:k(;t ()f ('~l(;~(;~l,s ()f ,5 witl~ (;l(;l~(;~t,s ()f $:

IS, Sl c s.

(A.0)

All ideal ill A is a lill(;a.r slfl)sl)ar J ()f A, wtfit:h is (:l()s(;(l llll(l(;r Lie |)ra(:ket ~f ~;h;lllellts ~)f J witll elellmIlt.s ~)f A:

[j, .4] c J .

(A.IO)

The dcT"ived series is reI)resente(t t)y the se(tuen(:e of sulm.lgebras ill A rec11rsively ot)ta,ilm(t Ulltler Lie 1)ra,(:ket a,t tim same level ()f (:ollnlnltal,i(m:
A D [A,A] D [[A, A], [A, A]I D IlIA, A], [A, A]], [[A, A], [A, A]]] D ....

(A.11)

Corr('~st)(nl(tingly, th(; lowe'l" cent'ml series is intended as the sequence of sllba.lgcl)ras in A obtained under rct)cate(t (right) Lie bracket with A itself:

A ~ [A, A] D [A, [A, A]] ~ [A, [A,, [A, A]]] D ....

(A.12)

A Lie algebra A is said abclian if [A, A] = 0; is said solvable if at a certain level of c o n u n u t a t i o n tile derived series terminates; and is said nilpotent if the lower central series b e c o m e s zero eventually. The Heisenberg-Weyl algebra {~, ~, I} yields a significative example of a nilpotent algebra.
A

Appendix

521

Also, a Lie algebra A is simple if it contains no nonzero ideals, whilst it is semi-simple if it contains no nonzero abelian ideals. A simple Lie algebra is semi-simple. It turns out that semi-simple Lie algebras are the direct sum of simple (non abelian) Lie algebras. A Lie group ~ combines the continuous structure of a differentiable manifold with the basic properties of groups. A group is a set of eleinents in which it is defined a binary operation (the group multiplication), which maps any two elements in G into an clement in G as well, and satisfies the properties: 9 associativity: H.(G.K)=(H.G).K (A. 13) for all H, G, K E {7; 9 existence of identity: 3 IEG 9 I .H-H (A.14)

for a l l H EG;
9 existence of unique inverse:
3 H -1 E ~} 9 H - 1 - H H - H -1 - I. (A.15)

fl)r every H C G. A familiar example is the group 7),. of all p e r m u t a t i o n s of n objects, which consists of n! operations. Also, the collection of rotations of the circle in a plane through multiples of a given angle tg, say t9 - 2~ with respect to a fixed n ~ point, constitutes a group Inade of n distinct operations. In order that G be a Lie group, its group operation must be consistent with the continuous structure of the underlying manifold, and so it must diffcrcntiable as well. This na'/vely means t h a t if H and G in G multiply to W - H - G in ~, then the group operation takes any elements J and K , respectively drawn from a neighborhood of H and a neighborhood of G, to the group element Y in a neighborhood of W. As a simple example of Lie groups, we may mention that the set of real numbers, excluding 07 forms a Lie group with respect to the familiar multiplication of numbers. The set of translations of a straight line with respect to a reference point also constitutes a Lie group, each element of which being individualizable (i.e. parameterizable) by a real number (which specifies the shift from the identity). Also, the ensemble of rotations of the circle with respect to a fixed point by an angle ~9, allowed to range continuously through the interval 0 <_ g _< 27r, generates a Lie group, whose elements can be parameterized just by the continuous angle g. It is seen in the text t h a t the group of the unimodular 2 x 2 real matrices (under the ordinary multiplication of matrices) forms a Lie group, and each matrix in it is parameterized by three real numbers, which

522

Linear Ray and Wave Optics in Phase Space

can be (tifferently interprete(1 a(:cording to the a d o p t e d (tec()mt)osition. Ano t h e r e x a m p l e is the g r o u p GL(~t) of n x n invertible m a t r i c e s , or tl~e relevant sut)gro~H) O(n) of o r t h o g ( m a l matrices. 1R.()~ghly st)caking, Lie a.lget)ras ext)(mentiate to Lie gr(nq)s. M()re t)re(:isely, the t a n g e ~ t st)a<'e at the i(hmtity of a Lie gr(n~t) is always a Lie alget)ra. This Lie algel)ra (h;tei'nfines the h)(:al str~(:t~r(; ()f the Lie gro~lt) thr(n~gh the ext)()nential nm.I). (~,()~si(t('.ri~g, f()r ill~strative tn~rI)()s(;s, a. ()n(;-t)aI'a.~u;ter I,i(; gr(nq) {7, S)~l )l )( )s(: tlm.l, (;(t) r(;l)r(:selll,s a sni()()l,h (:lit'v(: in ~; l)assil~g (,l~r()~gh (,h(: g r o u p i(le~Itity, (:.g. I -: (;(()). F()r vahu:s bt ()f (,l~(: r(:al l)ara~(:(,(:r t il~li~dl,(:simally (:h)s(; t() (), (,lle (:()rr(:sl)()~uli~g (:l(:~n(;~t (;(bt) iI~ ~ (:()~(:s t() l)(: i~fi~fi(,(:simally (:]()se (,() tl~(: i(](:~tity I = (1(()), i.(:. (A.16) tllllS (;St,alflisllillg a ~llal)l)illg ()f (;l(;111(;lll,S (;'(()) ill tll(' l,i(', alg('.l)ra t() tt~(; i~ti~fitesi~m.l ge~mrat()rs G((St) ()f (,l~(; Lie gr()~q). It ix (;vi(h;~t tlm.t l,l~(; sl, r~u:t,~r(; ()f tt~(', a lg(;1)ra ix r(;fi(;('l.(:(! l()('ally i~(,() tlm.(, ()f l,l~(; gr()~ l) i~ a ~(;iglfl)()rh()()(t ()f tl~(; i(le~tity. S~q)t)()s(; ~l()w (,() l,ak(; a. fi~ii,e ~nn~d)(;r t ~ IR. ()f ('.()~n's('., ()~(; ('a~ g() i~finitesi~m,lly (:l()s(; 1,()(), 1)y l)r()l)(,rly fra('l,i()~i~g t,; s(;(, r()~gl~ly, bl - a~(l let 1,1~(; III. in(,(:g(:r ')))g() (,() infilfi(,y: '))) --+ c~. Sill(:(:, 1)y vir(,~i(: ()f (,lle ('l()s~n'(: l)r()l)erty ()f tl~(: gr()~q), f()r a~y i~(,(:g(:r '))),, [(7'(bt)]'" l)(:l()~gs (,o (,l~(: gr()~l), w(: fi~m.lly lm.ve

[(;(~t)]'" ,.~ [I + - - _ (7,' (())] '" ~ (' to,' (()) ,

Ill,

(1.17)

/,lnls esl, at)lisllillg all (:xt)()Imlltial nmt)t)i21g l,llr(mgll (,ll(; real lm.rmllel,er t ()f eh:nl(:nl,s G ' ( 0 ) in (,he Li(: alg(:l)ra (,()" finil,(:" eh:nlenl, s ()f l,h(: I,i(: gr(nq). Histori(:ally, lSe algel)ras lm.ve enlerge(t |)y (:oIlsi(h:rillg (:l(:IIl(:lll, s in Lie gTout)s infinitesimally (:h)se t() the gr()lq) i(tentity. D u e to this i n t i m a t e link l)etween Lic algc|)ras a.n(1 I, ie g r o u p s (,lu: (:haracteriza.tion ()f Lic algebras ~llent, ione(t a,t)()ve reflects in an analog(ms (:hara,cterization (or, nlore precisely, classification) of Lie groups. A r e p r e s e i l t a t i o n of a Lie g r o u p {~ on a vector spa,(:(; V is a h o m o m o r p h i s m of {~ into the g r o u p of a u t o m o r p h i s m of V (i.e. of transforma, tion of V into itself). If a tin.sis set is chosen for the vector space V, the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n can equally t)e intende(t as a. h o m o m o r p h i s m of {7 to the g r o u p GL(n), a n d a c c o r d i n g l y it t)rovides a m a t r i x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e group. In a sense, a g, oup r e t ) r e s e n t a t i o n Inay yieht a d e s c r i p t i o n of a g r o u p in t e r m s of m o r e "visible" ot)jects.