Chemistry Prelim Notes

c Chemistry Notes: Half Yearlies

Classification of Matter Matter: anything which has mass and occupies space Pure substances: Same type and distribution of particles Definite, fixed composition Cant be separated into simpler substances Homogenous Includes elements and compounds e.g. water, helium Mixtures: Two or more substances Has no definite composition and properties Chemically combined Separated by physical methods Include Heterogeneous and Homogenous mixtures e.g. sand, soil Elements: Cant be separated into simpler substances Made up of one of kind of atom e.g. lead, sodium Compounds: Two or more elements bound together Same ratio of its components Can be broken down into simpler matter Chemically combined e.g. carbon dioxide Heterogeneous Mixture: Made up of particles Can be separated Not uniformly distributed e.g. raisin bran

Homogenous Mixture: Made up of particles Can be separated Uniformly distributed e.g. sugar water Particle theory: - All matter, regardless of state, is made up of particles. - Different states behave differently : Gases have widely separated and randomly moving particles Liquid particles are more condensed than gases and the particles again move in random directions Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions and are packed extremely closely together. The Four Spheres Biosphere: the portion of the earth inhabited and used by living matter consists of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere e.g. wood, manure, blood, sugar cane Lithosphere: crust plus the top portion of the mantle e.g. metal ores, sandstone, and granite Hydrosphere: the water of the earth's crust e.g. salt water Atmosphere: layer of gas about 200 to 300 km thick that surrounds the planet e.g. O2, N, air

Physical Separation Techniques Solids & Liquids Centrifugation: DIFFERENT DENSITY Separates using a spinning motion in a machine called centrifuge Separates solid from liquid mixture e.g. cream from milk, plasma from blood Crystallization: DIFFERENT SOLUBILITIES Heating and cooling the solution Evaporates, leaving impurity ( crystals) e.g. baking soda, salt Filtration: DIFFERENT PARTICLE SIZE Separating different sized particles Using filter paper e.g. mud water Evaporation: DIFFERENT BOILING POINT Boiling a mixture Lower boiling point substance evaporates e.g. salt water Solids Froth Flotation: DIFFERENT DENSITY Create froth, mineral sticks to froth

Chemistry Prelim Notes Scraped from surface e.g. oily chemical, ore Magnetic Separation: DIFFERENT MAGNETIVITY Magnetic substance removed e.g. magnetite and iron Sieving: DIFFERENT PARTICLE SIZE Separation of particles according to size e.g. mining Sedimentation: DIFFERENT DENSITY Settle particles in liquid mixture e.g. purification Separatory Funnel: DIFFERENT DENSITY Allows liquid to separate Denser liquid is released e.g. oil, water mixture Decantation: DIFFERENT DENSITY Process of pouring off a liquid from above a solid e.g. water and vegetables Distillation: DIFFERENT BOILING POINTS Separation of components with different boiling points by boiling mixture Chromatography: Separation of components in a liquid or gas mixture by passing mixture over the surface of a substance which absorbs the mixture. Electrolysis: Process of using electric current to separate two elements.

Others -

Systematic naming of inorganic compounds Organic compounds are ones that contain carbon. Inorganic ones are all that dont. Naming these is done by systematic names, devised by the International Union of Pure and Applied chemistry. There are many rules to determine the name of a compound. If its ionic the metal will go first, followed by the non-metal+ide. If its covalent it will be the more electropositive element, followed by the more electronegative element, both with prefixes in front of them (mono, di, tri, tetra, etc). Define gravimetric analysis (list benefits and situations for use) Gravimetric analysis: determining the quantities of substances present in a sample. It's analysis by weight or by mass. We sometimes want to know the quantitative composition of mixtures; gravimetric analysis is how it's worked out. Gravimetric analysis can produce insanely accurate atomic masses of elements, or to estimate pollutants in the air, or to determine the amount of sulfur dioxide in soft drinks, or to measure essential elements in foods. Explain relationship between reactivity of an element and likelihood of it existing combined or uncombined the more reactive an element is, the less chance there is of finding it on earth as an uncombined element, because when a chemically reactive element comes into contact with certain other elements they react to form compounds, and the more reactive an element is, the wider the range of 'certain other elements' is. Make list of physical properties of metals, non-metals, semi-metals and account for their uses in terms of their physical properties Property Metals Non-metals Metalloids Melting point Usually high Usually low High Boiling point Usually high Usually low Usually high Electrical High Very low Usually Low conductivity Thermal High Very low Usually Low conductivity Lustre Shiny Usually not shiny Variable Hardness Usually hard N/A (gases, liquids), N/A (gases, liquids), solids usually soft usually relatively soft solids

Chemistry Prelim Notes Malleability/ ductility Physical State Usually malleable and ductile Often solid, occasional liquid (mercury) Lead, iron, magnesium, gold Not malleable nor ductile, often brittle Variable, usually gaseous Oxygen, helium, argon, carbon Variable Variable

Examples

Silicon, arsenic

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties. Element Gold Silver Iron Aluminium Copper Nitrogen Helium Carbon Carbon Use Jewellery Jewellery Making steel for buildings Window frames Electrical wiring Burning off warts Balloons Diamonds Graphite pencils Relevant Physical Property Lustrous, workable Lustrous, workable Mechanical strength Light High electrical conductivity Very low boiling point Low density Reflects and refracts light Makes marks on paper

Define matter in terms of particles (that are continuously moving and interacting) All matter is made up of small particles which we imagine as tiny spheres. In solids these particles are packed closely together and have strong forces holding them so, the particles are meanwhile vibrating constantly. In liquids the particles are arranged much less orderly, and move about more freely. In gases the particles are much further apart and have a much higher kinetic energy, gases easily fill the whole volume available to them. Define molecules (in terms of independent particles) (and also molecules of one atom noble gases, and other molecules) Atom: smallest particle of an element which is still recognisable as that element Molecule: smallest particle of a substance capable of separate existence Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number Atomic number -number of protons it contains. Mass number -number of protons + number of neutrons Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons When an atom gains or loses an electron it is no longer neutrally charged (it has either more or less electrons than protons). An ion is a charged particle. Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals Metals lose electrons and form cations, whereas non-metals gain electrons and thus form anions. Apply Lewis electron dot structures to the formation of ions and the electron sharing in some simple molecules A Lewis electron dot structure is a model that uses dots to show the number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom only. These are useful for showing the transferral of electrons in the formation of ions, and for showing shared electrons, as these can be linked between elements inside a circle. Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons. Two non-metal atoms which both need to gain electrons to achieve complete shells react, and thus the two atoms share their outer electrons until they both have access to as many as they need.

Chemistry Prelim Notes Define physical vs. chemical change in terms of particle rearrangement Physical changes involve the molecules being rearranged in relation to each other which cause a change in state, chemical changes involve the splitting of molecules and the rearrangement of atoms to create entirely different substances. List differences between boiling and electrolysis of water (define them) Boiling water is a physical change, a change of state from liquid to gas caused by the heating over a flame. Electrolysis is a chemical change, with the products (hydrogen and oxygen) being different to the reactant (water), caused by running an electric current through the water. Define amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound (it's an indication of the strength of the bond between them) also make note of the energy being used to break bonds, and created in making bonds bonds are like magnets etc The amount of energy needed to break bonds is proportional to the strength of the bond between them. Energy is required to break bonds, and making bonds releases energy. List physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network Boiling point, melting point, hardness, conductivity (heat and electrical), List differences between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds Metallic bonds are caused because of the attraction between the delocalised electrons and the positive metallic nuclei, they result in shiny, conductive (in all states), malleable, ductile and high boiling/melting points. Ionic bonds are due to the electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, and result in high melting/boiling points, electrically and thermally conductive when molten or in solution and reasonably strong. Covalent bonds are formed due to the sharing of electrons and are really strong covalent lattices have extremely high melting/boiling points and are really strong, however in molecule form it is only inside each molecule that the covalent bonds are present, in between molecules there are weak dispersion forces, thus these have quite low melting/boiling points covalent bonding means the substance is not conductive. Define intermolecular structure of metals (three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons) Metals are three dimensional lattices of cations in a sea of delocalised electrons. Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions Ionic compounds are in the form of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions, formed by the transferral of electrons. The positively and negatively charged ions are joined by electrostatic attraction. Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula Empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratios of the elements in the compound, and as ionic compounds are in lattice form and are a repeating structure of (an exceedingly large number of) ions, the simplest ratio is clearer to convey how the particles are structured. Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices Carbon in the form of diamond or graphite is a covalent lattice. Oxygen, Hydrogen, Noble gases are all covalent molecules. Explain the relationship between intermolecular structure ionic, covalent molecular, covalent network, and the conductivity and hardness of structures The stronger the bonds between the particles are, the stronger and harder the solid, thus as the intermolecular forces in covalent molecules are weak dispersion forces, they are far weaker than the lattice-like covalent networks with covalent forces between every particle. And also the ionic lattices with electrostatic forces between every ion.

Chemistry Prelim Notes Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures Physical properties are those features of a substance related to physical changes, such as melting & boiling points, density, colour etc. Chemical properties of a substance are related to the ways in which the substance undergoes chemical reactions. Type of compound Ionic Properties, examples and uses High m/p (often above 400 degrees), hard and brittle, do not conduct electricity as solid, but do when molten or when in aqueous solution, table salt and many other salts, limestone and marble. Bond Explanations Positively and negatively charged ions are stacked together by the strong electrostatic attractions to form ionic lattice (high m/p). A distortion in the structure will cause the opposite charges to repel each other (brittle). Ions, once freed (in liquid/molten), can carry charges (conductor). Strong covalent bond holds atoms to form distinct molecules. These individual particles are held together by weak intermolecular forces (low m/p). Each molecule is neutral ( nonelectrical conductor) The very strong covalent bond extends indefinitely throughout the whole crystal, holding all atoms within the network, forming a covalent network solid (hard and high m/p). An orderly 3-D array of positive ions is held together by a sea of delocalised electrons (good conductivity). These mobile electrons can act as a glue to hold the positive lattice together when bent or shared.

Covalent molecule

Covalent net work

Most have low m/p and b/p ( at 25 degrees, mainly as gases or liquids, very few as solids), soft as solids, do not conduct electricity either as solids or liquids, or in solution, O2, CO2, NH2,H2O, plastics Extremely hard and brittle, very high m/p, often as crystals, diamond, beach sand (SiO2), Al2O3 (oilstone), used as cutting tools.

Metallic

- High melting point - Hard - Conduct electricity - Good malleability - Used for tools , construction materials e.g. Na, Fe, Cu

8.3.1 Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years. - Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys. Copper Age: 3200 BC to 2300 BC Copper was the first metal to be extracted from its ore. This is achieved when copper oxide ore was heated with charcoal. Copper was used to make ornaments and domestic utensils. - The melting point was very high, resulting in fairly soft products. Bronze Age: 2300 BC to 1200 BC Bronze made by heating copper and tin together. It is harder than copper, more easily melted and moulded due to its lower melting point. Bronze was used predominantly for tools and weapons.

Chemistry Prelim Notes Iron Age: 1200 BC to 1 AD Due to the greater reactivity of iron to that of copper, more energy is required to extract it. By 1000 BC, iron had mainly replaced bronze for tools and weapons, due to it being harder and a higher tensile strength. - The disadvantages include its ease to corrosion. Nowadays the alloy of iron is more commonly used. Modern Age: 1 AD to present time Extractions and uses of metals such as aluminium, chromium and metal alloys have been used commonly. Although iron and its alloys are still used, other metals have been used due to technology extractions. Factors that should be considered when choosing metals are: - Properties to suit the needs - Abundance of the metal in exploitable ores - The cost and ease of extraction - Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how these relate to their properties An alloy is a homogenous mixture of a metal with one or more other elements, often other metals. Alloys are generally harder than pure metals. Different sized atoms in the lattice and prevent them sliding over each other as easily. By combining two or more metals it can change the properties of the alloy, making it harder, more resistant to corrosion, affecting the melting point, etc. Alloy Property Application Brass (50-60% copper with Lustrous gold appearance, Plumbing fittings zinc) hard but easily machined Musical instruments Decorations Bronze (80-90% copper with Hard, resists corrosion, easily Ships propellers tin) cast Casting statues Solder (30-60% tin with lead) Low melting point, adheres Joining metals together, firmly to other metals when particularly in plumbing and molten electronics Steels Car bodies, pipes, bolts, Mild Steel Soft, malleable roofing Structural steel Hard, high tensile strength Beams and girders, railways, concrete reinforcement High carbon steel Very hard Knives and tools such as drill bits, chisels hammers Stainless steel Hard, resists corrosion, Food processing machinery, lustrous appearance kitchen sinks and appliances, cutlery, surgical instruments. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/26094509/Chemistry-Revision---Module-1---Chemical-Earth - Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore Metal ores are metals chemically combined with their ores. Most extractions require energy input in order to break the chemical bonds within reactant compounds. This energy however is only one part of the total energy requirement of the extraction process. Energy is needed also to mine the ore and purify it. - Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years ago The lower cost of generating electricity and advances in commercial extraction processes led to many new metals being available for use. The lack of extraction technologies and the scarcity of metals resulted in only limited amounts of metal being able to be extracted and used.