History of Philosophy

byWilliamTurner,S.T.D. GinnandCompany BostonNewYorkChicagoLondon AtlantaDallasColumbusSanFrancisco ENTEREDATSTATIONERS'HALL COPYRIGHT,1903,BY WILLIAMTURNER ALLRIGHTSRESERVED PRINTEDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA 327.12 TheAthenaeumPress GINNANDCOMPANY PROPRIETORS.BOSTON.USA.

HISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYINTRODUCTION
THEHistoryofPhilosophyistheexpositionofphilosophicalopinionsandofsystemsandschoolsofphilosophy.Itincludesthestudy ofthelivesofphilosophers,theinquiryintothemutualconnectionofschoolsandsystemsofthought,andtheattempttotracethe courseofphilosophicalprogressorretrogression.Thenatureandscopeofphilosophyfurnishreasonsforthestudyofitshistory. Philosophydoesnotconfineitsinvestigationtooneortoseveraldepartmentsofknowledge;itisconcernedwiththeultimate principlesandlawsofallthings.Everysciencehasforitsaimtofindthecausesofphenomena;philosophyseekstodiscover ultimatecauses,thuscarryingtoahigherplanetheunifyingprocessbeguninthelowersciences.Thevastnessofthefieldofinquiry, the difficulty of synthesizing the results of scientific investigation, and the constantly increasing complexity of these results necessitatedthegradualdevelopmentofphilosophy.Toeachgenerationandtoeachindividualtheproblemsofphilosophypresent themselvesanew,andthe influences,personal, racial, climatic,social, and religious,whichbearonthegenerationoron the individualmustbestudiedinorderthatthemeaningandvalueofeachdoctrineandsystembeunderstoodandappreciated.Such influencesaremorethanamatterofmereerudition;theyhavetheirplaceinthe praenotandatothesolutionofeveryimportant questioninphilosophy;for,asColeridgesays,"theveryfactthatanydoctrinehasbeenbelievedbythoughtfulmenispartofthe problemtobesolved,isoneofthephenomenatobeaccountedfor."Moreover,philosophicaldoctrines,whiletheyaretobe regardedprimarilyascontributionstotruth,arealsotobestudiedasvitalforceswhichhavedeterminedtoalargeextenttheliterary, artistic,political,andindustriallifeoftheworld.Today,morethanever,itisclearlyunderstoodthatwithoutaknowledgeofthese forcesitisimpossibletocomprehendtheinnermovementsofthoughtwhichaloneexplaintheouteractionsofmenandnations. ThedangerstobeavoidedinthestudyofthehistoryofphilosophyareEclecticism,whichteachesthatallsystemsareequally true,andScepticism,whichteachesthatallsystemsareequallyfalse.Acarefulstudyofthecourseofphilosophicalspeculation willresultintheconvictionthat,whilenosingleschoolcanlayclaimtotheentiretruth,certainschoolsofthoughthaveadoptedthat worldconceptwhichcanbemostconsistentlyappliedtoeverydepartmentofknowledge.Falsesystemsofphilosophymaystumble onmanyimportanttruths,butarightconceptoftheultimatemeaningofrealityandacorrectnotionofphilosophicmethodarethe essentialsforwhichwemustlookineverysystem;theseconstitutealegitimatestandardofvaluationbywhichthestudentofthe historyofphilosophymayjudgeeachsuccessivecontributiontophilosophicalscience. Themethodtobefollowedinthisstudyistheempirical,or aposteriori,method,whichisemployedinallhistoricalresearch.The speculative,orapriori,methodconsistsinlayingdownaprinciple,suchastheHegelianprinciplethatthesuccessionofschools andsystemscorrespondstothesuccessionoflogicalcategories,anddeducingfromsuchaprincipletheactualsuccessionof schoolsandsystems.But,apartfromthedangerofmisstatingfactsforthesakeofmethodicsymmetry,suchaproceduremustbe judgedtobephilosophicallyunsound;forsystemsofphilosophy,likefactsofgeneralhistory,arecontingentevents.Thereare, indeed,lawsofhistoricaldevelopment;butsuchlawsaretobeestablishedsubsequently,notanteriorly,tothestudyofthefactsof history. Thehistorianofphilosophy,therefore,hasforhistask:(1)Tosetforththelivesanddoctrinesofphilosophersandsystemsand schoolsofphilosophyintheirhistoricalrelation.This,therecitativeornarrativeportionofthehistorian'stask,includesthecritical examinationofsources.(2)Totracethegeneticconnectionbetweensystems,schools,anddoctrines,andtoestimatethevalueof

eachsuccessivecontributiontophilosophy.This,the philosophicalportionofthehistorian'stask,isbyfarthemostimportantof hisduties: Potiusderebusipsisjudicaredebemus,quampromagnodehominibusquidquisquesenserit scire.{1} Thesourcesofthehistoryofphilosophyare:(1) Primarysources,namely,theworks,completeorfragmentary,ofphilosophers. Itispartofthehistorian'stasktoestablish,whenevernecessary,theauthenticityandintegrityoftheseworks.(2)Secondary sources,thatis,thenarrationortestimonyofotherpersonsconcerningthelives,opinions,anddoctrinesofphilosophers.In dealingwithsecondarysourcestherulesofhistoricalcriticismmustbeapplied,inordertodeterminethereliabilityofwitnesses. Thedivisionofthehistoryofphilosophywillalwaysbemoreorlessarbitraryinmattersofdetail.Thisisowingtothecontinuityof historicaldevelopment:thestreamofhumanthoughtflowscontinuouslyfromonegenerationtoanother;likeallhumaninstitutions, systemsandschoolsofphilosophyneverbreakentirelywiththepast;theyariseandsucceedoneanotherwithoutabrupttransition andmergeintooneanothersoimperceptiblythatitisrarelypossibletodecidewhereoneendsand anotherbegins.Themore generaldivisions,however,aredeterminedbygreathistoricaleventsandbyobviousnationalandgeographicaldistinctions.Thus, thecomingofChristdividestheHistoryofPhilosophyintotwoparts,eachofwhichmaybesubdividedasfollows: PARTIANCIENTORPRECHRISTIANPHILOSOPHY

SECTIONAORIENTALORPREHELLENICPHILOSOPHY SECTIONBGREEKANDGRECOROMANPHILOSOPHY SECTIONCGRECOORIENTALPHILOSOPHY

PARTIIPHILOSOPHYOFTHECHRISTIANERA

SECTIONAPATRISTICPHILOsOPHY SECTIONBSCHOLASTICPHILOSOPHY SECTIONCMODERNPHILOSOPHY

General Bibliography. The following works treat of the History of Philosophy as a whole: Erdmann, History of Philosophy,trans.byHough(3vols.,London,1890);Ueberweg,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byMorris(2vols.,NewYork, 1872);Weber,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byThilly(NewYork,1896);Windelband, HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byTufts (secondedition,NewYork,1901);Stckl,LehrbuchderGeschichtederPhilosophie(2Bde.,3.Aufl.,Mainz,1888),trans.in partfromthesecondeditionbyFinlay(Dublin,1887). Forthehistoryofpartsofphilosophy,consultPrantl, GeschichtederLogikimAbendlande (4Bde.,Leipzig,1855ff.); Siebeck, Geschichte der Psychologie (Gotha, 18801884); Sidgwick, History of Ethics (third edition, London, 1892); Bosanquet,HistoryofAEsthetics(London,1892). Consult also Willmann, Geschichte des Idealismus (3 Bde., Braunschweig, 18941897), and Lange, History of Materialism,trans.byThomas(3vols.,London,18781881). Forcompletebibliography,cf.Weber,op.cit.,pp.13ff.

PART I ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

SECTIONA ORIENTALPHILOSOPHY
INthedoctrinesbymeansofwhichtheBabylonians,Chinese,Hindus,Egyptians,andotherOrientalpeoplessoughttoformulate theirthoughtsconcerningtheoriginoftheuniverseandthenatureanddestinyofman,thereligiouselementpredominatesoverthe naturalorrationalexplanation.Anadequateaccountofthesedoctrinesbelongs,therefore,totheHistoryofReligionsratherthanto theHistoryofPhilosophy.While,however,thisisso,andwhilethetaskofseparatingthereligiousfromthephilosophicalelementof thoughtintheOrientalsystemsofspeculationisbynomeanseasy,someaccountofthesesystemsmustbegivenbeforewepass tothestudyofWesternthought. Sources.Themostimportantcollectionofprimarysourcesis TheSacredBooksoftheEast,editedbyMaxMller(Oxford, 1879ff.).ForacompletelistofsecondarysourcesandrecentstudiesonthereligioussystemsoftheEast,consult Lehrbuchder Religionsgeschichte,vonP.D.ChantepiedelaSaussaye,Bd.II(2.Aufl.,FreiburgimB.,1897).ConsultalsoUeberweg, HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byMorris(NewYork,1872),Vol.I,pp.15,16.

BABYLONIAANDASSYRIA{2}
When,probablyabouttheyear3800B.C.,theSemitesconqueredBabylonia,theyfoundthereacivilizationwhichis commonly calledthatoftheAccadiansandSumerians,andisbymanyregardedasthesourceofallthecivilizationsoftheEast.Thereligionof theAccadianswasoriginallyShamanistic:everyobject,everyforceinnature,wasbelievedtopossessaspirit(Zi)whocouldbe controlledbythemagicalexorcismsoftheShaman,orsorcererpriest.{3}Graduallycertainofthesespiritshadbeenelevatedtothe dignityofgods,as,forinstance,Anu(thesky),Mulge,orEnum(theearth),andHea(thedeep).Itwasnot,however,untilthe timeofAssurbanipal(seventhcenturyB.C.)thatthisprimitivesystemoftheogonybegantodevelopintoasystemofcosmogony basedontheideathattheuniversearoseoutofachaosofwaters.Beforethattime,thereprevailedinAccadiaavaguetraditional beliefthatthepresentcosmicsystemwasprecededbyananarchicalchaosinwhichthereexistedcompositecreatures,menwith thebodiesofbirdsandthetailsoffishes,Nature'sfirstattemptsatcreation.Withthiscreationistlegendwasassociatedanequally vaguebeliefinagloomyHades,orunderworld,wherethespiritsofthedeadhoverlikebatsandfeedondust. FromtheearliesttimestheAccadiansdevotedattentiontotheobservationoftheheavenlybodies,anditmaybesaidthatamong themAstronomyfounditsfirsthome.Theircrudeattemptsatastronomicalobservationswere,however,connectedwithastrological practices,sothattheChaldaeansbecamefamousamongtheancientsasadeptsinthemagicarts: Chaldaeosneconsulito.In likemanner,thefirsteffortsatnumericalcomputationandnotationweremadesubservienttothedemandsofthemagician. ItwasthroughthePhoenicians,whoinauguratedthetradeofwesternAsia,thatthecivilizationoftheAssyriansinfluencedthe religiousandartisticlifeoftheGreeksandoftheothernationsoftheMediterranean.

EGYPT{4}
UptothepresenttimeEgyptologistshavefailedtoreachanagreementastowhatwastheprimitiveformofreligiousbeliefinancient Egypt.Inthefirstplace,thechronologicaldifficultieshavehithertoprovedtobeinsurmountable;andinthenextplace,thediversityof religioussystemsinthedifferentnomes,provinces,intowhichancientEgyptwasdivided,rendersdifficulteveryattemptatforming atheoryastowhat,ifany,wastheonereligionwhichprevailedthroughoutEgyptatthedawnofhistory.Historiansarecontentwith datingtheperiodtheseventhcenturyB.C.bydynastiesratherthanbyyears,thefirstdynastybeingplacedaboutthefiftyfifth centuryB.C.Menes,whoestablishedthefirstdynasty,foundalreadyahierarchicalsystemofdeities,toeachofwhomsomecity wasdedicated.ButwhatwastheprimitivereligionEgypt,fromwhichthishierarchicalsystemofgodswasevolved? Monotheism, Polytheism,Pantheism,Henotheism,Totemism,SunWorship,NatureWorship,thesearethewidelydifferent answerswhichmodernEgyptologistshavegiventoquestion.{5}Scholarsareequallyatvarianceastotheoriginandsignificanceof AnimalWorshipamongtheEgyptians.When,however,wecometotheperiodofthegreatgods,chiefwhomwereRa(thesun), Nut(heaven),andSet,orTyphon(theearth),andtothelegendsofOsiris,Isis,andHorus,thereseemstobeverylittleroom fordoubtastotheessentiallynaturalisticcharacterofthesedivinities."ThekerneloftheEgyptianstatereligionwassolar."{6} WithregardtothespeculativeelementsofthoughtcontainedinthemythologicalconceptionsoftheEgyptians,mentionmustbe madeofthedoctrinethateverythingliving,whetheritwasagod,aman,orananimal,possesseda Ka,or"shadow,"whichwasin eachcasemorerealandpermanentthantheobjectitself.Thisnotionwaspresentinthepracticeofanimalworship;for,although thereisbynomeansaunanimityofopinionamongscholarsinfavorofreducinganimalworshiptomeresymbolism,thereisno doubtthattheEgyptianmindwasdominatedbytheideathateveryKamusthaveamaterialdwellingplace.Similarly,whenthe abstractnotionofthedivinitypresenteditselftotheEgyptianmindandwasidentifiedwitheachgodinturn,andwhen,atalatertime, thereappearedthenotionofapantheisticdivinityinwhomallthegreatgodsweremerged,thedominantideawasalwaysthatofthe Kaorsoul,whosedwellingplacewastheindividualgodortheuniverse.Anotherconceptionwhichmaybetracedveryfarbackin thehistoryofEgyptiancivilizationisthatofthemagicalvirtueofnames. Theideaof"shadow"andthebeliefinthemagicalvirtueofnamesdeterminedtheEgyptiancultofthedeadandthedoctrineof immortality.FromthemonumentsandtherelicsofancientEgyptianliterature,especiallyfromtheBookoftheDead,{7}itis clearthatdeepdowninthepopularmindwasthebeliefthatthecontinuedexistenceofapersonafterdeathdependedsomehowon thepreservationofhisnameandonthepermanenceofthedwellingplacewhichwastoharborhis Ka,orshadow.Hence,the Egyptiansconsideredthatthehousesofthelivingweremerelyinns,andthatthetombsofthedeadareeternalhabitations.Inthe philosophicaltraditionsofthepriestlycastetheregrewupamorerationaldoctrineofthefuturelife.Accordingtothisdoctrine,man consistsofthreeparts,theKhat,orbody,theKhu,orspirit,whichisanemanationfromthedivineessence,andthesoul,whichis sometimesrepresentedasaKadwellinginthemummyorinthestatueofthedeceased,andsometimesasaBa,ordisembodied soul,whichultimatelyreturnstoitshomeinthelowerworld. {8}ItisthisBa,ordisembodiedsoul,whichafterdeathappearsbefore Osirisandthefortytwojudges,andisweighedinthebalancebyHorusandAnubiswhileThothrecordstheresult.Thesoulsofthe blessedareeventuallyadmittedtothehappyfieldsofAalu,theretobepurifiedfromallearthlystainandmademoreperfectwisdom andgoodness.Thesoulsofthewickedarecondemnedeithertothevarioustormentsofhell,ortowanderingslongandarduous throughtheregionsbetweenheavenandearth,ortotransmigrationintothebodiesofvariousanimals,or,finally,toannihilation.The fateofthesoulisdeterminedpartlybythegoodandevilwhichitwroughtduringlifeandpartlybytheamulets,prayers,andgiftsby whichitsecuredthefavorofthegods.Butwhatevermaybetheimmediatefateofthesoul,itwillultimatelyreturntoitsbody,andon thegreatdayofresurrectionsoul,body,andspiritshallbeoncemoreunited. FromthechapteronJudgmentintheBookoftheDeadandfromtheEthicalMaximsofKakimma(thirddynasty)andPtah Hotep(fifthdynasty)itappearsthattheidealofconductamongtheancientEgyptianswaspractical,ofahighorderofpurity,and essentially religious. In these documents charity, benevolence, prudence, chastity, social justice, clemency, and the love of intellectualpursuitsarerankedamongtheforemostvirtues.Andnotonlyexternalmoralityisinculcatedbutalsobemoralityof thoughtanddesire.

CHINA{9}
When,about2000yearsB.C.,theChinesefirstappearedinthelightofhistory,theyalreadypossessedsocial,political,andreligious institutionsandamaterialandintellectualcivilizationofahighorder.Itwasnot,however,untilthesixthcenturyB.C.thatthesacred bookswerecollectedandarranged,althoughsomeofthem,especiallytheYking,wereassignedbytraditiontothelearnedprinces

andkingswho,longbeforethehistoricalperiod,hadinventedtheartofwriting.Thesacredorauthoritativebookswere: I.TheFiveClassics,namely,theYking,orBookofChanges(divination);theShuking,orBookofHistory;theShiking,or BookofPoetry;the Leke,orRecord of Rites;and the Chuntsew,Spring and Autumn, aBook ofAnnals,composed by Confucius. II.TheFourBooks,namely,Lunyu,orConversationsoftheMaster;Chunyung,orDoctrineoftheMean;Taheo,orGreat Learning;andMengtse,orTeachingsofMencius. TheFiveClassicswerecollected,arranged,andeditedbyConfucius(withtheexceptionofthelast,whichwaswrittenbyhim),andit isimpossibletosaytowhatextenttheeditorintroducedintothetextdoctrinesandopinionsofhisown.TheFourBookswere composedbydisciplesofConfucius. BeforethetimeofConfuciusthereexistedanationalorstatereligioninwhichtheprincipalobjectsofworshipwere heaven,and spiritsofvariouskinds,especiallythespiritsofdeadancestors.Heaven(Thian)isthesupremelord(Shangti),thehighest objectofworship.{10} Thedeitycarriesonitsworksilentlyandsimply,yetinexorably,intheorderandsuccessionofnatural phenomena,intherainandthesunshine,theheatandthecold,etc.Withthisnaturalorderarecloselyconnectedthesocial, political,andmoralordersoftheworld;orrather,allorderisessentiallyone,andperfectionandprosperityinmorallifeandinthe statedependonmaintainingtheorderwhichisnotonlyheaven'sfirstlaw,butheavenitself.Withtheworshipofheavenwas connected the worship of spirits (Shan). These are omnipresent throughout nature; they are not, however, addressed as individuals,butasabodyoraggregationofindividuals,as,forexample,celestialspirits,terrestrialspirits,andancestralspirits.The lastaretheobjectofprivateasdistinctfromofficialworship.TheChinese,alwaysinclinedtolooktowardsthepastratherthan towardsthefuture,thoughtlessofpersonalimmortalityinthelifeafterdeaththanofthecontinuationofthefamilylifebywhichthe actionsoftheindividualwerereflectedbackandmadetoennobleawholeoflineancestors. Thequalitieswhichcharacterizedthereligiousthoughtoffromthebeginningitseminentlypracticalnature,thecompleteabsence ofspeculation,andthealmostcompleteexclusionofmythologicalelementsreappearinthewritingsofthegreatreligiousteacher Confucius(Kongtse,551478B.C.).Confuciuswasnoinnovator;heappeared,rather,asthecollectorofthesacredliterature ofthepastandtherestoreroftheoldorder.Heinculcatedthestrictobservanceofthetraditionalformsofworship,discouraged speculationinmatterstheological,andwhilehetaughtthesupremeimportanceofmoralduties,hegroundedallhismoralprecepts onthegeneralorderoftheworldandthelongestablishedtraditionoftheChinesepeople.Heinsistedonman'spoliticaland domesticdutiesandemphasizedespeciallytheimportanceoffilialpiety. Laotse,aContemporaryofConfucius(bornabout604B.C.),andauthoroftheTaoteking,introducedintoChinathefirstsystem ofspeculativethought,thephilosophyofTao(Reason,Way),whichmanyscholarsconsidertobeofHinduorigin.{11}Laotsedid not, however, attempt to overthrow the traditional ideals of his countrymen, and, while the importance which he attaches to speculationplaceshiminsharpcontrastwithConfucius,thedoctrinesofthetwogreatteachershavemanypointsincommon.For Tao,thefundamentalconceptoftheTaoteking,doesnotmeanReasonintheabstract,butNature,orrather,theWay,the orderoftheworld,theimpersonalmethodwhichallmenmustobserveiftheyaretoattaingoodnessandsuccess.Ultimately,then, bothLaotseandConfuciusteachthatconductistobeguidedbyaknowledgeoftheunalterable,discriminating,intelligentorderof heavenandearth;butwhileConfuciusrefershisdisciplestothestudyofthewritingsandinstitutionsofantiquity,Laotserefersthem tothespeculativecontemplationofTao:theformerencouragesstudy,thelatteradvocatescontemplation,asameansofacquiring aknowledgeoftheeternalorderonwhichmoralitydepends.Hence,thetendencyofTaoismtowardsquietismandselfabnegation. "Recompense injury with kindness," said Laotse; to which Confucius is said to have answered, "Recompense kindness with kindness,butrecompenseinjurywithjustice." TothefifthcenturyB.C.belongYangtseandNihtse(orMak).TheformerpreachedakindofEpicureanism:manshouldenjoy thepresentandcheerfullyacceptdeathwhenitcomes;virtueisbutaname;goodreputationisashadow;thesacrificeofselfisa delusion.Thelattermaintainedthatoneshouldloveallmenequally,thatthepracticeofuniversalloveisagreaterbenefittothe statethanthestudyofantiquityandthepreservationofancientcustoms.{12} LihtseandChwangtseappearedduringthefifthandthefirsthalfofthefourthcenturiesB.C.asrepresentativesofTaoism. TheywereopposedbythedistinguishedexponentofConfucianism,MengtseorMencius(371288).Inhisdialogues,whichwere collectedinsevenbooksbyhisdisciples,hegivesamorecompactexpositionofConfucianismthanthatfoundintheisolated sayingsofthemaster.Heinsistsonfilialpiety,onpoliticalvirtue,andontheproperobservanceofreligiousandotherceremonial rites.Hereducesthecardinalvirtuestofour:Wisdom,Humanity,Justice,andPropriety.

INDIA{13}
The Veda,orcollectionofprimitivereligiousliteratureoftheHindus,consistsofbooksofsacredhymns,the RigVeda,the S maVeda, the YagurVeda, andthe Atharva Veda. In eachit isusualtodistinguishthe Mantras, or hymns, the Br hmanas,orritualisticcommentaries,andtheUpanishads,orphilosophicalcommentaries.{14} TheVedichymns,whicharetheoldestportionoftheVeda(1500B.C.beingthedatetowhichconservativescholarsassignthe earliestofthem),consistofsongsofpraiseandprayerdirectedtoAgni(fire),Soma(thelifeawakening,intoxicatingjuiceofthe somaplant),Indra(thegodofthewarsoftheelements,ofthunderandrain), Varuna(thegreat,serene,allembracingheaven), andotherdeities,allofwhompossessmoreorlessdefinitelythetwofoldcharacterofgodsofnatureandgodsofsacrifice.Thegods oftheVedichymnsarestyledDevas(shiningdivinities)andAsuras(lords).Thereis,inthepoems,noevidenceofasustained attempttotracethegenealogyofthesedeitiesortoaccountbymeansofmythogicalconceptsfortheoriginoftheuniverse. IntheBr hmanas,orritualisticcommentaries,appearstheconceptofagoddistinctfromtheelementaldeities,apersonification oftheactofsacrifice,Brahmanaspati.FromthisconceptthemonotheisticandpantheisticspeculationoftheHindusmaybesaidto havestarted,althoughitisundeniablethateveninthehymnsthereisexpressedatleast"ayearningafteronesupremedeity,who madetheheavenandtheearth,theseaandallthatinthemis,"ayearningtowhichexpressionwasgiveninthenamePragpati (the lord of all creatures), applied successively to Soma and other divinities. Of more importance, however, than the name Prag patiistheexpressionTadEkam(thatOne)whichoccursinthepoemsasthenameoftheSupremeBeing,oftheFirst Originofallthings.Itsneuterformindicates,accordingtoMaxMller,atransitionfromthemythologicaltothemetaphysicalstageof speculation.WithregardtothewordBrahmanwhichsucceededTadEkam:asthenameoftheSupremeOne,MaxMllerrefers ittotherootbrih(togrow)andassertsthatwhilethewordundoubtedlymeantprayer,itoriginallymeant"thatwhichbreaksforth."It "wasusedasanameofthatuniversalforcewhichmanifestsitselfinthecreationofavisibleuniverse." {15}Theword tman,which wasalsoanameofthedeity,isreferredbythesamedistinguishedscholartotheroot tma(breath,life,soul)andistranslatedas Self.Theregrewup,hesays,inthehymnsandBrhmanasoftheVedathethreewordsPragpati,Brahman,andtman,"eachof whichbyitselfrepresentsinnuceawholephilosophy,oraviewoftheworld.AbeliefinPragpati,asapersonalgod,wasthe beginningofmonotheisticreligioninIndia,whiletherecognitionofBrahmanandtman,asone,constitutedthefoundationofallthe monisticphilosophyofthatcountry."{16} Inthe Upanishads,orspeculativecommentaries,wefindthefirstelaborateattemptsmadebyIndiatoformulateaspeculative systemoftheuniverseandtosolveintermsofphilosophytheproblemsoftheoriginoftheuniverseandofthenatureanddestinyof man.Itmust,however,berememberedthatprobablyuntilthefourthcenturyB.C.theUpanishads,incommonwiththeotherportions oftheVeda,didnotexistinwriting,beinghandeddownfromonegenerationtoanotherbyoraltradition.TheS tras,oraphorisms, therefore,whichwepossessofthesixsystemsofIndianphilosophydonotrepresentthefirstattemptsatphilosophicalspeculation. ThemenwhosenamesareassociatedwiththeseStras,andareusedtodesignatethesixsystems,arenot,inanytruesense,the foundersofschoolsofphilosophy:theyaremerelyfinaleditorsorredactorsoftheStrasbelongingtodifferentphilosophicalsects, which,inthemidstofavarietyoftheories,andinamazeofspeculativeopinions,retainedtheirindividualityduringaninconceivably longperiodoftime. Beforewetakeuptheseparatestudyofthesixsystemsofphilosophyitwillbenecessarytooutlinethegeneralteachingofthe Upanishads.Thisteachingbelongstonoschoolinparticular,althougheachofthesixschoolsisconnectedwithitinmorethanone pointofdoctrine.TheUpanishadsteach: 1.TheidentityofallbeinginBrahman,theSource,or tman,theSelf,whichisidenticalwithBrahman. 2.Theexistenceofm y (illusion),towhichisreferredeverythingwhichisnotBrahman. 3.Theworthlessnessofallknowledgeofthingsintheirisolatedexistence,andtheincomparableexcellenceofthe knowledgeof allthingsinBrahmanor tman.Thislatter,theonlytrueknowledge,isdifficultofattainment;stillitisattainableeveninthis life.Itisthisknowledgewhichconstitutesthehappinessofmanbyunitinghimwith tman."Inthebee'shoneyonecannolonger recognizethetasteofthesingleflowers;theriverswhichemanatefromtheoneseaandagainreturntoitlosemeanwhiletheir separateexistences;alumpofsaltdissolvedinwatersaltsthewholewaterandcannotbegraspedagain:sothetruebeingcan nowherebegrasped.Itisasubtleessencewhichliesatthefoundationofallphenomena,whicharemerelyillusions,andisagain identicalwiththeego."{17} 4.Theimmortalityofthesoul."Theidea,"writesMaxMller,"ofthesoulevercomingtoanendissostrangetotheIndian mindthatthereseemedtobenonecessityforanythinglikeproofsofimmortality,socommoninEuropeanphilosophy."{18}Equally selfevidenttotheHindumindwasthe sams ra,ortransmigrationofthesoul.Insomesystems,however,asweshallsee,itisthe

subtlebodywhichmigrates,while,duringtheprocessofmigration,thesoul,inthesenseofself,retainingitscompleteidentity, remainsasanonlooker. Withtheideaofimmortalityisassociatedthatoftheeternityof karman(deed),namely,thecontinuousworkingofeverythought, word,anddeedthroughallages.Ifamanwere,onceinathousandyears,topasshissilkenhandkerchiefacrosstheHimalayan mountainsandthusatlastsucceedinwipingthemout,theworldwould,indeed,beolderattheendofsuchalongspaceoftime,but eternityandrealitywouldstillbeyoungandthedeedoftodaywouldstillexistinitsresults.Atalateperiodinthedevelopmentof VedicspeculationtheimmensityofthedurationofBrahmanwasgivenpopularexpressioninthedoctrineofkalpas (aeons),or periodsofreabsorption(pralaya)andcreation. 5. Mysticismanddeliverancefrombondage.AlltheIndiansystemsofphilosophyrecognizetheexistenceofeviland sufferingandconcernthemselveswiththeproblemofdeliverancebymeansofknowledge.FromtheriseofBuddhism(fifthcentury B.C.)dateaclearerperceptionoftherealityofsufferingandamoreemphaticassertionoftheimportanceoffreeingthesoulfrom thebondagewhichsufferingimposes.Itistoberemarkedthat,evenintheUpanishads,existenceisreferredtoasanevil, transmigrationispresentedassomethingtobeavoided,andthefinalgoalofhumanendeavorisproclaimedtobeaunionwith tman,inwhichallindividualexistenceismergedinthegeneralSelf,andindividualconsciousnessisquiteextinguished. TurningnowtothesixgreathistoricalsystemsofIndianphilosophy,wemeetattheveryoutsetthevexedquestionofchronological order.ManyoftheStras,oraphorisms,inwhichthesesystemsareformulatedareofverygreatantiquity,rankingwiththe Upanishadsinpointofage.Besides,theathorsoftheseStrasaremoreorlessvaguelyhistoricaloraltogethermythicalpersons.It ishopeless,therefore,toattempttoarrangethesystemsinchronologicalorder.Theorderfollowedwillrepresentratherthefidelity withwhichthesystems(allofwhichwereconsideredorthodox)adheretothedoctrinesdescribedasthecommonteachingofthe Upanishads. 1.TheVednta,orUttaraMmms,{19}isfirstinimportanceamongthesystematicexpositionsofthephilosophicalteachingsofthe Upanishads.ItiscontainedinStrascomposedby B dar yana,whoissometimesidentifiedwith Vy sa,theauthorofthe Mah bh rata(oneofthegreatepicsofIndia),andincommentariescomposedbySamkara(aboutA.D.900). ThefundamentaldoctrinesoftheVedntaarethoseoftheUpanishads.TheVedntainsistsonthemonisticconceptofreality:"In onehalfverseIshalltellyouwhathasbeentaughtinthousandsofvolumes:Brahmanistrue,theworldisfalse,thesoulisBrahman andnothingelse.""Thereisnothingworthgaining,thereisnothingworthenjoying,thereisnothingworthknowingbutBrahman alone,forhewhoknowsBrahmanisBrahman."{1}MoreemphaticallystillistheunityofallbeinginBrahmanassertedinthefamous wordsTattvamasi(Thouartthat),whichMaxMllerstyles"theboldestandtruestsynthesisinthewholehistoryofphilosophy." But,iftheindividualisBrahman,howarewetoaccountforthemanifold"thous"andforthevarietyofindividualsintheobjective world? The Ved ntaS tras answer that the view of the world as composed of manifold individuals is not knowledge but nescience,whichtheVedntaphilosophyaimsatexpellingfromthemind.Thisnescience(avidy)isinborninhumannature,and itisonlywhenitisexpelledthatthemindperceivesBrahmantobetheonlyreality.Samkara,thecommentator,admits,however, thatthephenomenalworld,thewholeobjectiveworldasdistinctfromthesubject(Brahman),whileitistheresultofnescience,is neverthelessrealforallpracticalpurposes.Moreover,itisclearthatphenomena,sincetheyareBrahman,arereal:onlythe multiplicityanddistinctionofphenomenaareunreal(m y ). Withregardtotheoriginoftheuniverse:theuniverse,sinceitisBrahman,cannotbesaidtooriginate.AndyetBrahmanis commonlyrepresentedasthecauseoftheuniverse.TheHindus,however,regardedcauseandeffectasmerelytwoaspectsofthe samereality:thethreads,theyobserved,arethecauseofthecloth,yetwhatistheclothbuttheaggregateofthreads?{2} Sincethefinitenessandindividualdistinctionsofthingsareduetonescience,itisclearthattheroadtotruefreedom(moksha) fromtheconditionsoffiniteexistenceisthewayofknowledge.TheknowledgeoftheidentityofAtmanwithBrahman,ofSelfwith God,istruefreedomandimpliesexemptionfrombirthandtransmigration.For,whendeathcomes,hewho,althoughhehasfulfilled allhisreligiousduties,shallhavefailedtoattainthehighestknowledge,shallbecondemnedtoanotherroundofexistence.The subtlebody,inwhichhissoul( tman)isclothed,shallwanderthroughmistandcloudanddarknesstothemoonandthenceshall besentbacktoearth.ButhewhoshallhaveattainedperfectknowledgeofBrahmanshallfinallybecomeidentifiedwithBrahman, sharinginallthepowersofBrahmanexceptthoseofcreatingandrulingtheuniverse.Partialfreedomfromfiniteconditionsis,even in this life, a reward of perfect knowledge. The Vedntists, however, did not neglect the inculcation of moral excellence; for knowledge,theytaught,isnottobeattainedexceptbydiscipline. II.TheP rvaM m s isasystemofpracticalphilosophyandiscontainedintwelvebooksofStrasattributedtoGaimini.Here thecentralideaisthatofduty(Dharma),whichincludessacrificialobservancesandrestsultimatelyonthesuperhumanauthority oftheVeda. III. The S mkhya philosophy maybe described as a toning down of the extreme of the Vedanta. It is contained in the

S mkhyaS trasorKapilaS tras.These,atleastintheirpresentform,datefromthefourteenthcenturyafterChrist,although thesage,Kapila,towhomtheyareascribedlivedcertainlybeforethesecondcenturyB.C.OfgreaterantiquitythantheStrasare theS mkhyaK rik s,ormemorialverses,inwhichthephilosophyofKapilawasepitomizedasearlyasthefirstcenturyB.C.A stillolderandmoreconcisecompilationTheSmkhyaphilosophyisfoundinthe TattvaSam sa,whichreducesalltruthto twentyfivetopics.ThislattercompendiumistakenbyMaxMllerasthebasisofhisexpositionoftheteachingsofKapila.{1} TheSamkhyaphilosophyisessentiallydualistic.Itdoesnot,liketheVednta,assumethattheobjectiveworld,asdistinctfrom Brahman,ismereillusionorignorance;itacceptstheobjectiveworldasrealandcallsitprakriti,ornatureinthesenseofmatter containingthepossibilitiesofallthings.Thisprincipleisofitselflifelessandunconscious,andrisesintolifeandconsciousnessonly whencontemplatedbythesoul(purusha).Whatwecallcreationis,therefore,thetemporaryunionofnaturewithsoul,aunion whicharisesfromalackofdiscrimination.Howthenisthesoultobefreedfromthebondageoffiniteexistence?Thisisforthe Smkhya,asitwasfortheVedanta,thechiefproblemofpracticalphilosophy.But,whiletheVedantafounddeliveranceinthe recognitionoftheidentityofthesoulwithBrahman,theSmkhyafindsitintherecognitionofthedifferencebetweenthesouland nature.Thisrecognitionconfersfreedom;fornature,onceitisrecognizedbythesoulasdistinct,disappearstogetherwithall limitationandsuffering:"Prakritri,oncerecognizedbyPurusha,withdrawsitselfsoasnottoexposeitselfforasecondtimetothe dangerofthisglance."Theassertionoftheindividualityofthesoulasopposedtonatureimpliesthemultiplicityofsouls.Andthisis anotherpointofcontrastbetweentheVedntaandtheSmkhya:theformerassertedtheonenessof tman;thelatteraffirmsthe pluralityofpurushas. IV.TheYogaphilosophyiscontainedintheStrasascribedtoPata gali,whoissupposedtohavelivedduringthesecond centuryB.C.IntheseStraswefindpracticallyallthemetaphysicalprinciplesoftheSmkhyaand,inaddition,certaindoctrinesin whichthetheisticelementisinsistedupon.Kapilahaddeniedthepossibilityofprovingtheexistenceofsvara,thepersonalcreator andruler:Pata galiinsistsonthepossibilityofsuchproof.Ofcourse, svaraisnotconceivedascreatorinoursenseoftheword, butmerelyasthehighestofthepurushas,allofwhichmaybesaidtocreateinasmuchasthey,bycontemplatingnature,cause nature to be productive. Among the means of deliverance practised by the Yogins were the observance of certain postures, meditation,andtherepetitionofthesacredsyllableOm. V.TheNy yaphilosophyiscontainedinthe Ny yaS tras.Thefounderofthesystemwas Gotama,orGautama.Accordingto thissystem,thesupremeresignation,orfreedom,inwhichman'shighesthappinessconsists,istobeattainedbyaknowledgeofthe sixteen great topics of Nyya philosophy. These topics (pad rthas)are means of knowledge, objects of knowledge, doubt, purpose,instance,establishedtruth,premises,reasoning,conclusion,argumentation,sophistry,wrangling,fallacies,quibbles,false analogies,andunfitnessforarguing.Takingupnowthefirstofthese,namely,themeansofknowledge,wefindthatthereare, accordingtotheNyyaphilosophy,fourkindsofrightperception:sensuous,inferential,comparative,andauthoritative.Inorderto arriveatinferential knowledge(anum na), wemust possess what is called vy pti, orpervasion,that istoiay, aprinciple expressinginvariableconcomitance.So,forexample,ifwewishtoinferthat"thismountainisonfire,"wemustpossesstheprinciple thatsmokeis pervaded by,orinvariablyconnectedwith,fire.Onceinpossessionofthisprinciple,wehavemerelytofindan instance,as,"thismountainsmokes,"whenceweimmediatelyinferthat"ithasfire."But,whilethisisthecomparativelysimple means of acquiring inferential iowledge, we cannot impart thisknowledge to others except bythe more complicated process including:(1)Assertion,"Themountainhasfire";(2)Reason,"Becauseitsmokes";(3)Instance,"Lookatthekitchenfire";(4) Application,"Sotoothemountainhassmoke";and(5)Conclusion,"Thereforeithasfire."Theprocess,inbothcases,bearsa closeresemblancetothesyllogismofAristotelianlogic;anditisbyreasonoftheprominencegiventothismeansofknowledgethat theNyyaphilosophycametoberegardedasasystemoflogic.YettheNyyaphilosophyisfarfrombeingmerelyasystematic treatmentofthelawsofthought;forthesyllogismisbutoneofthemanymeansbywhichthesoulorself( tman)istoattaintrue freedom,astateinwhichallfalseknowledgeandallinferiorknowledgeshalldisappear,andallindividualdesireandpersonallove andhatredshallbeextinguished. VI.The Vaisheshika philosophy,foundedby Kan da,iscontainedinthe VaisheshikaS tras,which,accordingtoMax Mller,datefromthesixthcenturyoftheChristianera,althoughtheVaisheshikaphilosophywasknowninthefirstcenturyB.C.The systemiscloselyrelatedtotheNyyaphilosophy,evenitsmostcharacteristicdoctrine,thatofatomism,beingfoundinundeveloped forminthephilosophyofGotama.{1} Here,asintheNyya,supremehappinessistobeattainedbytheknowledgeofcertain pad rthas, or quasicategories, namely: substance, quality, action (karman), genus or community, species or particularity, inhesionorinseparability,and(accordingtosome)privationornegation.Thesubstancesareearth,water,light,air,ether,time, space,self( tman),andmind(manas).Thequalitiesarecolor,taste,number,etc.Thesearecalled gunas ,awordwhich occursintheUpanishadsandisacommonterminallthesixsystems. Thefoursubstances,earth,air,water,andlight,existeitherintheaggregatematerialstateorinthestateofatoms( anus).The singleatomisindivisibleandindestructible;itsexistenceisprovedbytheimpossibilityofdivision adinfinitum.Singleatoms combinefirstintwosandafterwardsingroupsofthreedoubleatoms;itisonlyinsuchcombinationsthatmatterbecomesvisibleand

liabletodestruction. Tothesesixgreathistoricalsystems,whichwereorthodoxinsofarastheyrecognizedthesupremeauthorityoftheVeda,were opposedtheheterodoxsystemsoftheheretics(N stikas)who,liketheBuddhists,theJainas,andtheMaterialists,rejectedthe divineauthorityofthesacredwritings. Buddhism,asiswellknown,wasadistinctivelyreligioussystem:itrecognizedsufferingasthesupremerealityinlife,anddevoted littleornoattentiontoquestionsofphilosophicinterest,exceptintheirrelationtoproblemsofconduct."Toceasefromallwrong doing,togetvirtue,tocleanseone'sownheart,"this,accordingtothecelebratedverse,"isthereligionoftheBuddhas." {1}The fourtruthsonwhichBuddhismisbuiltare:(1)thatsufferingisuniversal;(2)thatthecauseofsufferingisdesire;(3)thattheabolition ofdesireistheonlydeliverancefromsuffering;and(4)thatthewayofsalvationisbymeansofcertainpracticesofmeditationand activediscipline.Inconnectionwiththesecondandthirdofthesetruthsarisestheproblemofthemeaningof karmaandnirv na. IntheUpanishadspeculations karman,aswehaveseen,meantdeed,anditseternitymeantthecontinuousworkingofevery thought,word,andworkthroughoutallages.InBuddhisticspeculationthesubstantialpermanenceandidentityofthesoulare denied,andtheonlybondbetweentheskandhas,orsetsofqualities,whichsucceedeachotherintheindividualbodyandsoul,is the karma,theresultofwhatmanisanddoesinoneexistenceoratonetimebeinginevitablycontinuedintoallsubsequent existencesandtimes.Thebodyisconstantlychanging,thequalitiesorstatesofthesoulareconstantlyreplacedbyotherqualities andstates;buttheresultofwhatamanisanddoesremains,thataloneispermanent.Withregardto nirv na,scholarsarenot agreedastowhetheritmeanttotalannihilationorastateofpainlessnessinwhichpositiveexistenceispreserved.MaxMllerand RhysDavidsmaybecitedfavorofthelatterinterpretation.{2}RhysDavidsdefinesnirv naas"theextinctionofthatsinful,grasping conditionof mindand heart,which would otherwise, accordingto themysteryof Karma, be the causeofrenewed individual existence." Jainism,likeBuddhism,wasareligioussystem.TheonlyimportantspeculativedoctrineinwhichitdiffersfromBuddhismisthatof thesubstantialrealityandpermanenceofthesoul.Accordingly,theJainastaughtthatnirv naisthefreedomofthesoul fromtheconditionswhichcausefiniteness,suffering,andignorance.Inthisrespecttheyapproachverycloselytothespeculationof theUpanishads.

PERSIA{1}
ThereligionofancientPersiaandthatofancientIndiasprangfromthesameorigin,namely,theideasandusageswhichwere sharedalikebytheIranianandtheHindubranchesoftheoriginalAryanfamily.Thereare,indeed,tracesofacivilizationwhich existedinPersiapriortotheAryaninvasion,andwhichcloselyresembledtheShamanismoftheAccadiansofancientChaldea. Little,however,isknownofpreAryanPersia.AllthatcanbesaidwithcertaintyisthattheAryaninvadersfoundalreadyexistingin Bactriaandtheneighboringregionsasystemofpolytheism,whichtheyreplacedbyareligionmonotheisticinitstendencyand similarinmanyrespectstothereligionoftheHindusoftheVedicperiod.Theheavengod,knowninIndiaas Varuna,becamethe principaldeityoftheIranians.Soma wasalsoworshipedunderthetitle Homa,andthedistinctionbetweenDevasandAsuras ("shiningones"and"lords")wasemployedinPersiaaswellasinIndiatodesignatetwoimportantclassesofdivinities.Gradually, however,achangewasintroduced:atendencytowardsdualismbecamemoreandmorestronglymarked;theDevascametobe recognizedasevildeities,andtheAhuras(transliterationofAsuras)cametobelookeduponasdivinitiesfriendlytoman."The conflictbetweentheseoppositesassumedamoralforminthemindsoftheIranianwanderers;thestrugglebetweennightandday, betweenthestormandthebluesky,ofwhichtheVedicpoetssang,wastransformedintoastrugglebetweengoodandevil.Inplace ofthecarelessnatureworshipersofthePanjab,araceofsternandearnestPuritansgrewupamongthedesertsandrugged mountainsofAriana."{1} Thisdualisticconceptionoftheuniverse,thisantithesisbetweengoodandevil,wasalreadyinpossessionwhenZoroaster,or Zarathustra,thegreatreligiousreformer,appeared,aboutthemiddleoftheseventhorthebeginningofthesixthcenturyB.C. {2} Tohim,accordingtoParseetradition,istobeascribedtheinspiredauthorshipofaportion,atleast,ofthe Avesta,orsacred literatureofthePersians.ThiscollectionconsistsoffiveGathas,orhymns,writteninanolderdialectthanthatoftherestofthe collection,theVendidad,orcompilationofreligiouslawsandmythicaltales,andtheZend,orcommentary.Thefirsttwoportions constitutetheAvestaproper,thatistosay,"law"or"knowledge."InadditiontotheAvestaZend,thereexistedtheKhordaAvesta, orSmallAvesta,whichwasacollectionofprayers.Zoroaster'sshareinthecompositionofthesebooksisamatterwhichitis impossible,inthepresentconditionofourknowledge,todetermine.Itis,however,beyonddisputethatthesacredliteratureofthe PersiansreflectsthebeliefswhichexistedbeforethetimeofZoroasteraswellasthosewhichZoroasterintroduced.

ThereligiousreformeffectedbyZoroasterconsistedinreducingtotwomoreorlessvagueprinciplesthegoodandevilelementsin theuniverse.Forhim,asforhisancestors,theworldisavastbattlefield,inwhichtheforcesofgoodandevilmeetinamighty conflict.But,insteadofrepresentingthecontendingforcesasindependentprinciples,manifold,yetcapableofbeingclassifiedas goodandevil,hereducesalltheconflictingpowerstotwo,thegoodandtheevil,ofwhichtheindividualforcesarederivatives.The goodprincipleiscalledAhuramazda(Ormuzd,orOrmazd),andtheevilprincipleiscalledAnramainyu(Ahrim n). Theformerisconceivedaslightandday,thelatterasdarknessandnight.FromtheformerproceedtheAhuras,orlivinglords (whowereafterwardscalledYazatas,orangels),andingeneralallthatisgoodandbeneficialtoman:fromthelatterproceedthe Devas,whoopposedtheAhurasintheoriginalconflictbetweendayandnightandwhobecamethe"demons"oflatterMazdeism, and,ingeneral,fromAhrimncomesallthatisevilandinjurioustoman. Itisman'sdutytoworshipOrmazd(fire,beingthesacredsymbol,isalsotobehonored)byprayer,sacrifice,andtheoblationof Homa(thejuiceofthesacredplant).Itisalsohisdutytocultivatethesoilandinotherwaystopromotethelifeandgrowthofthe creaturesofOrmazd,todestroytheworksofAhrimn,tokillallvenomousandnoxiousthings,andtoridtheearthofallcreatures injurioustoman. Attheendoftwelvethousandyearsthepresentcosmicperiodwillcometoanend.Ormazdwillfinallytriumph,for,although AhrimnisnotinferiorinpowertoOrmazd,hefightsblindlyandwithoutadequateknowledgeoftheresultsofhisactions;therefore, heandhisworkswillcometoanend,and,afterthefinalstruggle,stormandnightwillcease,calmandsunshinewillreign,andall willbeabsorbedinOrmazd.InthisuniversalabsorptioninOrmazdthehumansoulwillbeincluded. Mazdeism(thereligionofOrmazd)initslaterdevelopmentattachedgreatimportancetotheworshipofMithra,thesungod.Inthis formitappearedinRomeandwasamongthefirstoftheOrientalreligionstogainascendencyoverthemindsoftheRomans. ZoroastrianismwasintroducedasaheresyintotheChristianChurchbyManes,thefounderoftheManicheansect. Retrospect.InthesystemsofthoughtwhichflourishedamongthegreathistoricalnationsoftheEast,thereis,ashasbeen observed,analmostcompletelackoftherationalelement.Insomeofthem,however,andespeciallyintheIndiansystems,thereis abundanceofspeculation.Livinginacountrywheretherewaspracticallynostruggleforlife,wherethemeansofsubsistencewere producedwithoutmucheffortonthepartofthetillersofthesoil,andwhereforthousandsofyearswarwasunknownsavethewarof exterminationwagedagainsttheoriginaldwellersintheland,theHindusgavethemselvesupunreservedlytothesolutionofthe problems,Whencearewecome?Wherebydowelive?andWhitherdowego? In solving these problems, however, the Hindus, while they succeeded better than other Oriental peoples in separating the speculativefromthemythological,failedtodeveloptherationalordialecticalphaseofthought.Theirspeculativesystemsare positiveratherthanargumentative.ItwasinGreecethatphilosophyasadialectical,argumentativesciencefounditsfirsthome. Therecanbenodoubtthatthesystemswhichhavejustbeensketchedexercisedsome,ifonlyanindefinite,influenceonthe speculativeeffortsofthefirstphilosophersofGreece.ThegeographicalcontiguityandthecommercialintercourseoftheHellenic colonieswiththecountriesoftheinteriorofAsiarendersuchasuppositionprobable.Itwasnot,however,untilGreekphilosophyhad runitspracticallyindependentcourseofnationaldevelopment,thatthereligioussystemsoftheOrientwerefinallyunitedwiththe greatcurrentofGreekthought,EastandtheWestpouringtheirdistinctivecontributionsintothecommonstreamofGrecoOriental theosophy.

{1}St.Augustine,DeCivitateDei,XIX,3. {2}Forbibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,LehrbuchderReligionsgeschichte,I,163;cf.alsoManualoftheScienceof Religion,byDelaSaussaye,trans.byB.ColyerFerguson(London,1891),pp.458ff.Thelatterisatranslationofthefirstvolume ofthefirsteditionoftheLehrbuch.ToDelaSaussaye'slistaddJastrow,TheReligionofAssyriaandBabylonia(Boston, 1898). {3}Cf.Sayce,TheAncientEmpiresoftheEast(NewYork,1896),pp.145ff. {4}Forbibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,op.cit.,I,88,andtheManualabovereferredto,pp.374ff. {5}Cf.DelaSaussaye,Manual,p.396. {6}Sayce,TheAncientEmpiresoftheEast,p.58. {7}Fortexts,date,etc.,cf.Wiedemann,ReligionoftheAncientEgyptians(NewYork,1897),p.244. {8}MentionisalsomadeofOsiris,orthatpartofman'simmortalnaturewhichhassuchcloseresemblancetothegodOsirisastobe calledbyhishame.Wiedemann(op.cit.,p.244)maintainsthatinthedifferentdesignations,Ka,etc.,wehavetodowithdifferent

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conceptionsofanimmortalsoul,whichhadariseninseparateplacesinprehistorictimesandwereultimatelycombinedintoone doctrine,"theEgyptiansnotdaringtosetanyasideforfearitshouldprovetobethetrueone." {9} Cf. translations of Chinese Classics by Dr. Legge, in Sacred Books of the East, Vols. III, XVI, XXVII, XXVIII. For bibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,Lehrbuch,I,50.ConsultalsoR.K.Douglas,ConfucianismandTaouism(London,1879). {10} AccordingtoMgr.DeHarlez,"thereiseveryreasonforaffirmingthatShangtiisnotidenticalwithHeaven,isnotHeaven animized,butapersonalbeing,thesupremeSpiritgoverningtheworldfromtheheightoftheempyrean," NewWorld(December, 1893),Vol.II,p.652.{11}Cf.Douglas,op.cit.,p.219.{12}Cf.DeLaSaussaye,Manual,p.367. {13} Forbibliography,cf. DelaSaussaye, Lehrbuch,II,4,andManual,p.497.ConsultMaxMuller,TheSixSystemsof IndianPhilosophy(London,1899),andDeussen,DasSystemdesVedanta(1883),andAllg.Gesch.derPhilosophie (1899). {14}Cf.Hopkins,TheReligionsofIndia(Boston,1898),pp.7ff. {15}SixSystems,p.60. {16}Op.cit.,pp.95,96. {17}DelaSaussaye,Manual,p.538;cf.KhandogyaUpanishad,trans.inS.B.E.,Vol.I,pp.92ff. {18}Op.cit.,p.143. {19} M m ms means investigation.The UttaraM m ms (laterinvestigation)calledbecauseitisregardedbythe Hindusaslaterthanthe P rva or priorinvestigation.Thedesignationsaremaintainedevenbythosewhodonotadmitthe posteriority of date, since the PrvaMmms refers to first, or practical, while the UttaraMmms refers to the second, or speculativeportionoftheVeda.

SECTIONBGREEKANDGRECOROMANPHILOSOPHY
Origin.GreekphilosophyfirstappearedintheIoniccoloniesofAsiaMinor,andneverthroughoutthecourseofitsdevelopmentdid itwhollylosethemarksofitsOrientalorigin.WhetherthisinfluencewasaspreponderantasRothandGladischcontend, {1}oras unimportantasZellerandothersmaintain,{2}itiscertainthatthephilosophyofGreecewascharacterizedfromthebeginningbya spiritwhichispeculiarlyHellenic.TheGreeklookedoutupontheworldthroughanatmospheresingularlyfreefromthemistof allegoryandmyth:thecontrastbetweenthephilosophyoftheEastandthefirstattemptsoftheIonianphysicistsisasstrikingasthe differencebetweenanIndianjungleandthesunny,breezesweptshoresoftheMediterranean. GreekReligionexercisedhardlymorethananindirectinfluenceonGreekphilosophy.Popularbeliefsweresocrudeastotheir speculativecontentthattheycouldnotlongretaintheirholdonthemindofthephilosopher.Consequently,suchinfluenceasthey directlyexercisedwasantagonistictophilosophy.Yetitwasthepopularbeliefswhich,bykeepingaliveamongtheGreeksan exquisiteappreciationofformandanabidingsenseofsymmetry,didnotpermitthephilosophertotakeapartialoranisolatedview ofthings.InthiswayGreekreligionindirectlyfosteredthatimperativedesireforatotalityofviewwhich,inthebestdaysofGreek speculation,enabledGreekphilosophytoattainitsmostimportantresults.InoneparticularinstanceGreekreligioncontributed directlytoGreekphilosophybyhandingovertophilosophythedoctrineofimmortality,adoctrinewhichineverystageofits philosophicaldevelopmenthasretainedthemarkofitstheologicalorigin.Plato,forexample,distinctlyrefersittothe(Bacchicand Orphic)mysteries.{3} Poetry.ThephilosophyaswellasthereligionoftheGreeksfounditsfirstexpressioninpoetry,philosophicalspeculation,properly socalled,beingprecededbytheeffortoftheimaginationtopicturetoitselftheoriginandtheevolutionoftheuniverse. Homer presents,withoutanalyzing,typesofethicalcharacter:Achilles,theindomitable;Hector,thechivalrous;Agamemnon,ofkingly presence;Nestor,thewise;Ulysses,thewary;Penelope,thefaithful. Hesiodgivesusthefirstcrudeattemptsatconstructinga worldsystem.Hiscosmogony,however,ispresentedintheformofatheogony;thereisasyetnoquestionofaccountingforthe originofthingsbynaturalcauses.ThesocalledOrphicCosmogonieshadtheHesiodictheogonyfortheirbasis.Theydidnot advancemuchfartherintheirinquirythanHesiodhimselfhadgone,unlessweincludeasOrphicthosesystemsofcosmologyto whichallscholarsnowagreeinassigningapostAristoteliandate. PherecydesofSyros (about540B.C.)moreclosely approachesthescientificmethod.HedescribesZeus,Chronos,andChthonasthefirstbeginningsofallthings.Thereisherea basicthoughtthattheuniversesprangfromtheelementsofairandearth,throughtheagencyoftime.Thisthought,however,the

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poetconcealsunderenigmaticalsymbols,referringthephenomenaofnaturenottonaturalagencies,buttotheincomprehensible actionofthegods. ThebeginningsofmoralphilosophyarefoundintheethicalportrayalsoftheHomericpoems,inthewritingsoftheGnomicPoetsof thesixthcenturyB.C.,andespeciallyinthesayingsattributedtotheSevenWiseMen.Thesesayingsarecharacterizedbya toneofcynicism,andexhibitaknowledgeoftheworld'swayswhichiscertainlyremarkableifitbelongstotheagetowhichitis generallyassigned.{4} The Division ofGreekphilosophyintoperiodsandschoolsispartlychronologicalandpartlydependentonthedevelopmentof philosophicthought.Thefollowingseemstobethemostconvenientarrangement:

I.PreSocraticPhilosophy. II.PhilosophyofSocratesandtheSocraticSchools. III.PostAristotelianPhilosophy.

Inthefirstperiod,theeraofbeginnings,philosophicalspeculationwaslargelyobjective;itbusieditselfwiththestudyofnatureand theoriginoftheworld.InthesecondperiodSocratesbroughtphilosophydowntothecontemplationofman'sinnerself;itwasa period in which the objective and subjective methods were blended. In the third period the subjective element was made preponderant;theStoicsandEpicureansconcernedthemselveswithmanandhisdestiny,tothealmostcompleteexclusionof cosmologicalandmetaphysicalproblems. Sources.ThesourcesofGreekphilosophyare: Primarysources.BesidesthecompleteworksofPlatoandAristotle,wehaveseveralcollectionsoffragmentsofphilosophical writings; for instance, Mullach's Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, Ritter and Preller's Historia Philosophiae Graecae,Diels' DoxographiGraeci,Fairbanks' TheFirstPhilosophersofGreece,Adams, Texts,etc.(NewYork, 1903). Secondarysources.(1)Ancientwriters,suchasPlato,Aristotle,Xenophon,andTheopbrastus,{5}inreferencetopreSocratic andSocraticphilosophy;(2)Alexandrianauthorities,suchasDemetriusofPhalerus(thirdcenturyB.C.),PtolemyPhiladelphus (thirdcenturyB.C.),Callimachus(thirdcenturyB.C.),authorofthe pinakes or"tablets";(3) Laterwriters:Cicero,Seneca, Plutarch, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Diogenes Laertius (about A.D. 220); (4) Modern critics and historians. Tiedemann,RitterandPreller,Zeller,Windelband,Diels,Tannery,Burnet,etc.Diels' DoxographiGraeci(Berlin,1879)isofgreat valueindeterminingtheaffiliationofsources.{6}

FIRSTPERIODPRESOCRATICPHILOSOPHY
Thisperiodcomprises:(1)theIonianSchoolthephilosophersofthisschoolconfinedtheirattentiontothestudyofNatureand soughtoutthematerialprincipleofnaturalphenomena;(2)thePythagoreans,whomadeNumberthebasisoftheirphilosophical system;(3)theEleatics,whosespeculationscenteredinthedoctrineoftheonenessandimmutabilityofBeing;(4)theSophists, who,negatively,showedtheunsatisfactorynatureofallKnowledge,while,positively,theyoccasionedtheinquiryintotheconditions andlimitationsofknowledge.

CHAPTERI EARLIERIONIANSCHOOL
TheIonianschoolincludestheEarlierIonians, Thales,Anaximander,andAnaximenes,andtheLaterIonians,whose properhistoricalplaceisaftertheEleaticschool. THALES Life.Thales,thefirstphilosopherofGreece,wasofPhoeniciandescent.HewasbornatMiletus,abouttheyear620B.C. {7}Hewas acontemporaryofCroesusandSolon,andwascountedamongtheSevenWiseMen.Heissaidtohavediedintheyear546B.C. Sources.OurknowledgeofthedoctrinesofThalesisbasedentirelyonsecondarysources,especiallyontheaccountgivenby

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AristotleinMet.,I,3,983.cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.911. DOCTRINES AccordingtoAristotle,Thalestaughtthatoutofwaterallthingsaremade. {8}Historicaltraditionissilentastothereasonsbywhich Thaleswasledtothisconclusion.Itispossible,asAristotleconjectures,thatthefounderoftheIonianschoolwasinfluencedbythe considerationofthemoistureofnutriment,etc.;hemayhavebasedhisconclusiononarationalisticinterpretationofthemythof Oceanus,orhemayhaveobservedthealluvialdepositsoftheriversofhisnativecountry,andconcludedthat,asearth,soallthings elsecomefromwater.Thesayingthat"Themagnethasasoulbecauseitattractsiron"isattributedtoThalesontheauthorityof Aristotle, who, however, speaks conditionally, "if, indeed, he said," etc. We must not attach importance to Cicero's Stoical interpretationofThales:"ThalesMilesiusaquamdixitesseinitiumrerum,Deum,autem,eammentemquaeexaquacunctafingeret." SuchadualismbelongstothetimeofAnaxagoras.Similarly,thesayingthat"Allthingsarefullofgods"(pantapl rathe n)is buttheexpression,inAristotle'sownphraseology,ofthegeneraldoctrineofanimism,orhylozoism,whichisatenetcommontoall theEarlierIonians.Theymaintainedthatmatterisinstinctwithlife;or,asanAristotelianwouldsay,theydidnotdistinguishbetween thematerialprincipleandtheformalprincipleoflife. ANAXIMANDER Life.Anaximander,whowasalsoanativeofMiletus,wasbornabouttheyear610B.C.Theophrastusdescribeshimasadisciple, orassociate,ofThales.Thedateofhisdeathisunknown. Sources.Primarysources.Anaximandercomposedatreatise,orratherapoeticalprosecomposition,periphusi s,which wasextantwhenTheophrastuswrote.Ofthisworktwosentencesonlyhavecomedowntous: 1."Allthingsmustinequityagaindeclineintothatwhencetheyhavetheirorigin,fortheymustgivesatisfactionandatonementfor injustice,eachinorderoftime."{9} 2.Theinfinite"surroundsallthingsanddirectsallthings."{10} Secondarysources.OurchiefsecondarysourcesareTheophrastus(inthework phusik ndoxai,ofwhichtheexisting fragments are published by Diels, op. cit., p.476) and Aristotle (especially in Met., XII, 2, 1069 b; Phys.. III, 4 203 b). DOCTRINES Fromoursecondarysourcesitisevidentthat,accordingtoAnaximander,theoriginatingprinciple( arch ){11}ofallthingsisthe Infinite,orrathertheUnlimited(apeiron).Thereasons,however,whichledtothisconclusionaremerelyamatterofconjecture, asinthecaseofThales'generalization.AccordingtoAristotle,Anaximander,supposingthatchangedestroysmatter,arguedthat, unlessthesubstratumofchangeislimitless,changemustsometimecease.Thus,whilemodernphysicsholdsthatmatteris indestructible,Anaximandermaintainedthatitisinfinite;fortherecanbenoquestionastothecorporealnatureofthe apeironitis aninfinitematerialsubstance.Critics,however,donotagreeastohowAnaximanderwouldhaveansweredthequestions,Isthe unlimitedanelementoramixtureofelements?Isitqualitativelysimpleorcomplex?Hecertainlymaintainedthattheprimitive substanceisinfinite,butdidnot,sofarasweknow,concernhimselfwiththequestionofitsqualitativedeterminations. The apeiron hasbeenlikenedtothemodernnotionofspaceandtothemythologicalconceptofchaos.Itisdescribedby Anaximanderhimselfassurroundinganddirectingallthings,andbyAristotleitisdescribedas totheion.Wemustnot,however, attachtotheseexpressionsadualisticorpantheisticmeaning. FromtheBoundlessallthingscame,byaprocesswhichthe Placita{12}describesasseparation(apokrithnai).Livingthingssprang fromtheoriginalmoistureoftheearth(throughtheagencyofheat).Thefirstanimalswerethereforefishes,whichaftertheycameon shorethrewofftheirscalesandassumednewshapes.Man,too,wasgeneratedfromotherkindsofanimals. {13}Anaximanderis generallybelievedtohavetaughtaninfinityofworlds. HistoricalPosition.ComparingthedoctrinesofAnaximanderwithwhatweknowoftheteachingsofThales,wefindthatthe formerarefarricherintheircontentsandbetokenahigherdevelopmentofspeculativethought.Theyrepresentahighergradeof abstraction,asisevidentinthesubstitutionoftheBoundlessfortheconcretesubstance,water. ANAXIMENES Life.AnaximenesofMiletus,whowasan"associate"ofAnaximander,composedatreatisethetitleofwhichisunknown.Hedied about528B.C. Sources. Primarysources.TheonlyfragmentoftheworkofAnaximeneswhichhassurvivedisasentencequotedinthe Placita."Justasoursoul,beingair,holdsustogether,sodobreathandairencompasstheworld."{14}

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Secondary sources. Our principal secondary source is Theophrastus, whom pseudoPlutarch, Eusebius (Praepratio Evangelica),Hippolytus(RefutatioOmniumHeresium),etc.,follow.cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.476. DOCTRINES Accordingtoalloursecondarysources,Anaximenestaughtthattheprinciple,orground,ofallmaterialexistenceisair.(a rmust, however,betakenintheHomericsenseofvapor,ormist.)Thissubstance,towhichisascribedinfinitequantity,isendowedwithlife. Fromit,bythinning(arai sis)andthickening(puke sis),wereformedfire,winds,clouds,water,andearth.Theworldisan animal,whosebreathingiskeptupbymassesofair,whichitinhalesfromtheinfinitespacebeyondtheheavens. CiceroincorrectlyrepresentsAnaximenesasidentifyingthedivinitywiththeprimitiveAir.St.Augustineismorecorrectwhenhe says,"Necdeosnegavitauttacuit,nontamenabipsisaeremfactum,sedipsosexaereortoscredidit."{15} Historical Position. Anaximenes was evidently influenced by his predecessors. From Thales he derived the qualitative determinatenessoftheprimitivesubstanceandfromAnaximanderitsinfinity.Thedoctrineof"thickening"and"thinning"isfarmore intelligiblethanthedoctrineof"separating"whichAnaximandertaught. Retrospect.TheEarlyIonianphilosopherswerestudentsofnature(physiologoi)whodevotedthemselvestotheinquiryinto theoriginofthings.Theyagreed(1)inpositingtheexistenceofasingleoriginalsubstance;(2)inregardingthissubstanceas endowedwithforceandlife(hylozoism).Theyweredynamists.Heraclitus,aLaterIonian,whowasinfinalanalysisadynamistalso, marksthetransitionfromtheearlyhylozoismtothemechanismoftheLaterIonianschool.

{1}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhilosophy,Vol.I,pp.35ff. {2}Cf.ibid. {3}Cf.Phaedo,69,70. {4}Plato'sstory(Protagoras,343A)ofthemeetingoftheSevenWiseMenatDelphiistotallydevoidofhistoricalfoundation.Even thenamesofthesevenarenotagreedupon.Theenumerationwhichmostfrequentlyoccursisthefollowing:Thales,Bias,Pittacus, Solon,Cleobulus,Chilo,andPeriander.Cf.RitterandPreller,Hist.Phil.Graecae(ed.1888),p.2,noted. {5}OnPlato,Aristotle,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,etc.,assourcesforthehistoryofGreekphilosophy,cf.Fairbanks,TheFirst PhilosophersofGreece(NewYork,1898),pp.263ff.;alsoBurnet,EarlyGreekPhilosophy(London,1892),pp.370ff. {6} Tiedemann, Griechenlands erste Phiosophen (Leipzig, 1781); Ritter, History of Ancient Philosophy, trans. by Morrison(4vols.,Oxford,1838);RitterandPreller,Hist.Phil.Graecae(Ed.VII,Gothae,1888);Zeller,DiePhilosophieder Griechen(fnfteAufl.,Leipzig,1892ff.).(ReferenceswillbemadetotheEnglishtranslationsbyAlleyneandothersunderthetitles PreSocratic.Philosophy,etc.)Tannery,Pourl'histoiredelasciencehell ne (Paris,1887);Windelband,Historyof AncientPhilosophy,trans.byCushman(NewYork,1899);HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byTufts(secondedition,NewYork andLondon,1901). TotheseaddErdmann,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byHough(3vols.,London,1890);Benn,TheGreekPhilosophers(2 vols.,London,1883);ThePhilosophyofGreece(London,1898);Gomperz,TheGreekThinkers,Vol.I,trans.byMagnus (London,1901);Ueberweg,op.cit.;Schwegler,Gesch.dergriech.Phil.(dritteAufl.,Tbingen,1886). Foramorecompletebibliography,cf.Weber,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byThilly(NewYork,1896),p.8;Ueberweg,op. cit.,Vol.I,pp.19ff.;Erdmann,op.cit.,pp.14ff. {7}OnthemannerofcomputingthedateofThales,cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.36ff. {8}Met.,I,3,983b. {9}Theophr.,frag.2,apudDiels,Doxographi,p.476. {10}Arist.,Phys.,III,4,203b. {11}"ThatAnaximandercalledthissomethingbythenameofphusisisclearfromthedoxographers;thecurrentstatementthatthe word arche, inthe senseof a'first principle,'wasintroduced byhim, is probablydue to amere misunderstanding of what Theophrastossays."Burnet,op.cit.,p.52. OnthemeaningofphusisinthewritingsoftheearlyGreekphilosophers, cf. PhilosophicalReview(July,1901),Vol.X,pp. 366ff.

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{12}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.372ff. {13}Plut.,Strom.,2,apudDiels,op.cit.,p.579. {14} Placita,I,3,4,apudDiels,op.cit.,p.278.ThePlacita,orPlacitaPhilosophorum,isacollectionofthe"opinions"of philosophersascribedtoPlutarch.Likethe Eclogae ofStobaeus,itisbasedonanearliercollectionofopinionscalled AEtii Placita,asthisisinturnbasedontheVetustaPlacita,ofwhichtracesarefoundinCicero.(cf.Burnet,op.cit.,p.372.) {15}DeCiv.Dei,VIII,2.

CHAPTERIITHEPYTHAGOREANSCHOOL
AboutthetimetheIonicphilosophyattaineditshighestdevelopmentinAsiaMinor,anotherphaseofphilosophicalthoughtappeared intheGreekcoloniesofItaly.AsweturntothePythagoreanphilosophy,thefirstphilosophyoftheWest,wearestruckwiththe importancewhichtheethicoreligiousaspectassumesfromtheoutset;philosophynowisnotsomuchaninquiryintothecausesof thingsasaruleoflife,awayofsalvation.Itisremarkable,too,thatthisnotionofphilosophyneverwhollydiedoutinthesubsequent developmentofGreekthought.Plato,Aristotle,andtheStoicsconstantlyreferredphilosophytolifeaswellastoknowledge. ThePythagoreansystemofspeculationissometimescontrastedwiththeIonianasbeinganembodimentoftheDoricspirit,which wasartistic,conservative,ethical,whiletheGreeksoftheIoniancolonieswerecharacterizedbyworldlysense,versatility,curiosity, andcommercialenterprise.Bothphilosophies,however,arewhollyGreek. LifeofPythagoras.SamoswasthehomeandprobablythebirthplaceofPythagoras.ItiscertainthathejourneyedtoItalyabout theyear530B.C.,andthathefoundedinCrotonaaphilosophicoreligioussociety.ThestoryofhisjourneythroughEgypt,Persia, India,andGaulispartoftheNeoPythagoreanlegend,thoughthereisgoodreasonforbelievingthattheaccountofhisdeathat Metapontumistrue. Sources.Primarysources.TheNeoPythagoreansmentionanextensivePythagoreanliteratureasdatingfromthedaysofthe founder.Modernscholarshiphas,however,shownthat(1)the reputedwritingsofPythagorasarecertainlyspurious;(2)the fragmentsofPhilolaus (periphusi s)areforthemostpartgenuine:itwasprobablyfromthesethatAristotlederivedhis knowledgeofthePythagoreandoctrines;Philolauslivedtowardstheendofthefifthcentury;(3)thefragmentsofArchytasof Tarentumarespurious,withtheexceptionofafew,whichdonotaddtoourknowledgeofthePythagoreandoctrines,astheybear tooevidentmarksofPlatonicinfluence. Secondary sources.{1} There is no schoolthe history of which is so overgrown with legend as the Pythagorean. Indeed, PythagorasandhisdisciplesareseldommentionedbywritersanteriortoPlatoandAristotle,andeventhelatterdoesnotmention Pythagorasmorethanonceortwice;hespeaksratherofthePythagoreans.Thus,thenearerweapproachthetimeofPythagoras themorescantydoourdatabecome,whilethefartherthetraditionisremovedfromPythagorasthefullertheygrow.Obviously, therefore,theNeoPythagoreansofthefirstcenturyB.C.arenottobereliedonwhentheyspeakofPythagorasandhisdoctrines. ThePythagoreanSchool wasasocietyformedforanethicoreligiouspurpose.Itwasgovernedbyasetofrules( ho tropostoubiou).Themembersrecognizedoneanotherbymeansofsecretsigns;simplicityofpersonalattireandcertain restrictionsinmatterofdietwererequired.Celibacyandthestrictobservanceofsecrecyinmattersofdoctrinewerealsoinsisted upon.ThepoliticaltendencyoftheschoolwastowardsthearistocraticpartyinMagnaGraecia,atendencywhichledtothe persecutionandfinaldispersionofthesociety. PYTHAGOREANDOCTRINES AllthatcanwithcertaintybetracedtoPythagorasisthedoctrineofmetempsychosis,theinstitutionofcertainethicalrules,andthe germideaofthemathematicotheologicalspeculation,whichwasafterwardscarriedtoahighdegreeofdevelopment.Consequently, byPythagoreandoctrineswemustunderstandthedoctrinesofthedisciplesofPythagoras,thoughthesereferrednearlyalltheir doctrinestothefounder.(Indeed,theycarriedthispracticesofarthattheyconstantlyintroducedaquestionbyquotingthe autos epha,theipsedixitoftheMaster.) TheNumberTheory.ThemostdistinctiveofthePythagoreandoctrinesistheprinciplethatnumberistheessenceandbasis (arch)ofallthings.TothisconclusionthePythagoreanswereled"bycontemplatingwithmindstrainedtomathematicalconcepts" theorderofnatureandtheregularityofnaturalchanges.{2}

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Tothequestion,DidthePythagoreansregardnumbersasthephysicalsubstanceofthings,ormerelyassymbolsorprototypes?the answerseemstobethattheymeantnumbertostandtothingsinthedoublerelationofprototypeandsubstance.Andifthe assertion,"Allisnumber,"soundsstrangetous,wemustconsiderhowprofoundwastheimpressionproducedonthemindsofthese earlystudentsofnaturebythefirstperceptionoftheunalterableuniversalorderofnaturalchanges.Thenweshallceasetowonder atthereadinesswithwhichnumberthe formulaofthe orderandregularityof those changes washypostatized intothe substanceandbasisofallthingsthatchange. Philolaus(frag.3)distinguishesthreenaturalkindsofnumber:odd,even,andtheoddeven.Aristotle {3}saysthatthePythagoreans consideredoddandeventobetheelements(stoicheia){4}ofnumber."Ofthese,"hecontinues,"theoneisdefiniteandtheother isunlimited,andtheunitistheproductofboth,foritisbothoddandeven,andnumberarisesfromtheunit,andthewholeheavenis number."{5}Fromthedualismwhichisthusinherentintheunit,andconsequentlyinnumber,comesthedoctrineofopposites,finite andinfinite,oddandeven,leftandright,maleandfemale,andsoforth.Fromthedoctrineofoppositesproceedsthenotionof harmony,whichplayssuchanimportantpartinthePythagoreanphilosophy,forharmonyistheunionofopposites. Application of the Doctrine of Number: 1. To physics. True to their mathematical concept of the world, the Pythagoreansanalyzedbodiesintosurfaces,surfacesintolines,andlinesintopoints.Fromthis,however,wemustnotconclude thattheyconceivedthenumericalunitofallthingsasmaterial;theyapparentlyusednumbersandgeometricalquantitiesmerelyas quantities,abstractingfromtheircontents,thatis,withoutdeterminingwhetherthecontentswerematerialorimmaterial,adistinction whichbelongstoalaterdate. Everybodyisanexpressionofthenumberfour;thesurfaceisthree,becausethetriangleisthesimplestoffigures;thelineistwo, becauseofitsterminations;andthepointisone.Tenistheperfectnumber,becauseitisthesumofthenumbersfromonetofour. 2.Tothetheoryofmusic.Theapplicationofthenumbertheorytothearrangementoftonesisobvious.Thestory,{6}however,of thediscoveryofthemusicalscalebyPythagoras,astoldbyIamblichusandothers,isoneofmanyinstancesinwhichdiscoveries madebythesuccessorsofPythagoraswereattributedtoPythagorashimself. 3.Tocosmology.Notonlyiseachbodyanumber,buttheentireuniverseisanarrangementofnumbers,thebasisofwhichisthe perfectnumber,ten.Fortheuniverseconsistsoftenbodies,thefiveplanets,thesun,themoon,theheavenofthefixedstars,the earth,andthecounterearth(antichth n).Theearthisasphere;thecounterearth,whichispostulatedinordertofillupthe numberten,isalsoasphere,andmovesparalleltotheearth.Inthecenteroftheuniverseisthecentralfire,aroundwhichthe heavenlybodies,fixedintheirspheres,revolvefromwesttoeast,whilearoundallistheperipheralfire.Thismotionoftheheavenly bodiesisregulatedastovelocity,andisthereforeaharmony.Wedonot,however,perceivethisharmonyofthespheres,either becauseweareaccustomedtoit,orbecausethesoundistoointensetoaffectourorgansofhearing. 4. Topsychology.ItwouldseemthattheearlyPythagoreanstaughtnothingdefiniteregardingthenatureofthesoul.Inthe Phaedo,{7}PlatointroducesintothedialogueadiscipleofPhilolaus,whoteachesthatthesoulisaharmony,whileAristotle{8}says: "Someofthem(thePythagoreans)saythatthesoulisidentifiedwiththecorpusclesintheair,andotherssaythatitisthatwhich moves(tokinoun)thecorpuscles."Theidea,however,thatthesoulisaharmonyseemstobepartofthedoctrineofthe Pythagoreans.Thetransmigrationofsoulsis,ashasbeensaid,traceabletothefounderoftheschool,thoughitwasprobably heldasatradition,beingderivedfromthemysterieswithoutbeingscientificallyconnectedwiththeideaofthesoulorwiththe numbertheory. 5. Totheology.ThePythagoreansdidnotmakeextensiveapplicationoftheirnumbertheorytotheirtheologicalbeliefs.They seemtohaveconformed,externallyatleast,tothepopularreligiousnotions,thoughthereareindicationsofasystemofpurer religiousconceptswhichweremaintainedesoterically. 6.Toethics.TheethicalsystemofthePythagoreanswasthoroughlyreligious.Thesupremegoodofmanistobecomegodlike. Thisassimilationistobeaccomplishedbyvirtue.Nowvirtueisaharmony:itessentiallyconsistsinaharmoniousequilibriumofthe faculties,bywhichwhatislowerinman'snatureissubordinatedtowhatishigher.Knowledge,thepracticeofasceticism,music,and gymnasticsarethemeansbywhichthisharmonyisattained.Finally,thePythagoreansusednumberstodefineethicalnotions. Thus,theysaid,jusliceisanumbersquared,arithmosisakisisos. HistoricalPosition.ThechiefimportanceofthePythagoreanmovementliesinthis,thatitmarksadeepeningofthemoral consciousnessinGreece.TheoldtimebuoyancyofreligiousfeelingasseenintheHomericpoemshasgivenwaytoacalmerand morereflectivemood,inwhichthesenseofguiltandtheconsequentneedofatonementandpurificationassertthemselves. Asasystemofphilosophy,thebodyofPythagoreandoctrinemust,likeallthepreSocraticsystems,beregardedasprimarily intendedtobeaphilosophyofnature,andthisishowAristotledescribesit.{9}Itisnotconcernedwiththeconditionsofknowledge, andalthoughthesocietywhichPythagorasfoundedwasethical,thephilosophywhichisassociatedwiththatsocietytreatsofethical

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problemsonlyincidentallyandinasuperficialmanner. AsaninvestigationofnaturethePythagoreanphilosophymustbepronouncedaverydecidedadvanceonthespeculativeattempts oftheIonians.ThePythagoreansleavetheconcrete,senseperceivedbasisofexistence,andsubstituteforittheabstractnotionof number,thuspreparingthewayforastillhighernotionthatofBeing.

{1}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.301ff. {2}Arist.,Met.,I,5,986a,23. {3}Met.,I,5,985b,24. {4}ThetermwasfirstusedinthetechnicalscientificsensebyPlato. {5}OnthePythagoreanconceptoftheInfinite,cf.Archivf.Gesch.derPhil.(April,1901),Bd.VII,Heft3. {6}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,I,431,n. {7}Phaedo,85E. {8}DeAn.,I,2,404,a,26. {9}Met.,I,8,989b,29.

CHAPTERIIITHEELEATICSCHOOL
Themembersofthisschoolwereconcernednotsomuchwiththeoriginofthingsaswiththeprinciplesoftheworldofthingsasit nowis.Theirinquiriescenteredroundtheproblemofchange,andintheirsolutionofthisproblemtheyintroducedthenotionsof Being andBecoming,thuscarrying speculationintoregionsstrictlymetaphysical. Thechiefrepresentatives of the schoolare Xenophanesthetheologian,Parmenidesthemetaphysician,Zenothedialectician,andMelissus,whoshowsatendency toreturntotheviewsoftheEarlierIonianstudentsofnature. Sources. The work entitled Concerning the Opinions, or Concerning Xenphanes, Zeno, and Gorgias, which containsanaccountofthedoctrinesofXenophanes,Zeno,andothers,andwhichwasatonetimeincludedamongAristotle'sworks, isnowknowntohavebeenwrittenneitherbyAristotlenorbyTheophrastus,butbyalaterwriteroftheAristotelianschool.{1}Our knowledgeoftheEleaticphilosophyisderivedfromsomefragmentsofthewritingsoftheEleaticsthemselves,fromAristotle's accountoftheminhisMetaphysics,andfromtheworksofSimplicius,whohadaccesstoamorecompleteEleaticliteraturethan wenowpossess. XENOPHANES Life.XenophaneswasbornatColophon,inAsiaMinor,abouttheyear570B.C.AccordingtoTheophrastus,hewasadiscipleof Anaximander.AfterwanderingthroughGreeceasarhapsodist,hesettledatEleainsouthernItaly;fromthiscityisderivedthename oftheschoolwhichhefounded.Thedateofhisdeathisunknown. Sources.Itisimportanttodistinguishhere(1)thefragmentsofXenophanes'didacticpoem,and(2)theaccountsgivenbyour secondaryauthorities.Intheformerwefindmerelyasetoftheologicalopinions;inthelatterXenophanesisrepresentedasholding certainviewsongeneralmetaphysicalproblems. DOCTRINES InhisDidacticPoemXenophanesopposestothepolytheisticbeliefofthetimethedoctrineoftheunity,eternity,unchangeableness, sublimity,andspiritualityofGod.Withtheenthusiasmandfinefrenzyofaprophet,heinveighsagainstthenotionscommonlyheld concerningthegods."Eachman,"hesays,"representsthegodsashehimselfis:thenegroasblackandflatnosed,theThracianas redhairedandblueeyed;andifhorsesandoxencouldpaint,they,nodoubt,woulddepictthegodsashorsesandoxen"(frag.6). So,also,hecontinues,menascribetothegodsmentalcharacteristicswhicharehuman;theydonotunderstandthatGodis"alleye, allear,allintellect." AccordingtoourAuthorities,andwehavenorighttochallengetheirunanimousverdictinthismatter,allthatissaidinthe sacredpoemofXenophanesistobereferredtotheunityandeternityofthetotalityofbeing.Plato {2} andAristotle{3} describe

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Xenophanesasteachingtheunityofallthings.Ifthispantheismappearstoustobeirreconcilablewiththemonotheismofthepoem, wemustnotconcludethatthecontradictionwasapparenttoXenophanes,who,thoughhecouldriseabovethepopularconceptof thegods,couldnotwhollyfreehimselffromthenotion,sodeeplyrootedintheGreekmind,thatnatureisimbuedwiththedivine. 1.InhismetaphysicalinquiryXenophanesseems,accordingtothepseudoAristoteliantreatiseabovementioned,tohavestarted withtheprinciplethat"Nothingcomesfromnothing,"whenceheconcludedthatthereisnoBecoming.Now,pluralitydependson Becoming;if,then,thereisnoBecoming,thereisnoplurality:"Allisone,andoneisall."Theauthority,however,ofthisportionofthe treatiseisdoubtful,thoughitmaywithsafetybesaidthatifXenophanesdidnotdevelopthislineofreasoningasParmenideshis discipleafterwardsdid,thepremisesoftheseconclusionsareimplicitlycontainedinthetheologicalpoem.Forthesamereason,itis uncertainwhetherXenophanesmaintainedtheinfinityorthefinitenatureoftheDeity,orwhetherheendowedtheDeitywitha certainsphericalshape. 2.Inphysics,Xenophanes,incommonwithothersofhisschool,forgetstheunityofbeingwhich,asametaphysician,hehad established,andproceedstoaninvestigationofthepluralitywhichhehaddenied.Headvocatesempiricalknowledge,thoughhe holdsittobeunworthyofentireconfidence,teaching(frag.16)thattruthistobediscoveredbydegrees.Accordingtosomeofour authoritiesheheldthattheprimitivesubstancewasearth;accordingtoothersheheldthatitwaswaterandearth.Afewattribute tohimthedoctrineoffourprimitiveelements.Thereisbetterfoundationfortheopinionthathesupposedtheearthtohavepassed fromafluidtoitspresentsolidcondition,{4}basinghisbelief,accordingtoHippolytus,onthefactthatpetrifiedmarineanimalsare foundonlandandevenonmountains.Thus,althoughtheonetotaliseternal,theworldinitspresentformisnoteternal. HistoricalPosition.Xenophanes'systemis,sofar,theboldestattempttosynthesizethephenomenaoftheuniverse.Infact,it isoneinstanceamongmanyinwhichthedesiretofindtheoneinthemanifoldadesirewhichistheinspirationofallphilosophical speculationiscarriedtotheexcessofmonism.For,ifwearetoacceptanytheorythatwillreconcileXenophanes'metaphysics withhistheology,wemustholdthatheidentifiednature,theone,immutable,eternal,withGod,wholikewisepossessesthese attributes. PARMENIDES Life.Parmenides,whowas,perhaps,thegreatestofallthepreSocraticphilosophers,wasbornatEleaabout540B.C.According toAristotle,hewasadiscipleofXenophanes,whosedoctrineshetookupandcarriedtotheiridealisticconsequences.Hehada moredefinitegraspofprinciplesthanXenophaneshad,anddevelopedthemwithgreaterthoroughnessthanhismasterhaddone. Sources.Thedidacticpoemperiphuse s,composedbyParmenidesandpreservedbySextus,Proclus,andothers,consists ofthreeparts.Thefirstisasublimelyconceivedintroduction,inwhichthegoddessoftruthpointsouttothephilosophertwopathsof knowledge,theoneleadingtoaknowledgeoftruth,theothertoaknowledgeoftheopinionsofmen.Thesecondpartofthepoem describesthejourneytotruth,andcontainsthemetaphysicaldoctrinesoftheauthor.Thethirdpart,dealingwiththeopinionsofmen, containsahypotheticalphysics,acosmologyoftheapparent. DOCTRINES MetaphysicalDoctrines.TruthconsistsintheknowledgethatBeingis,andthatnotBeingcanneitherexistnorbeconceived toexist.ThegreatesterrorliesintreatingBeingandnotBeingasthesame. {5}Fromthisfundamentalerrorarisetheopinionsof men.Truthliesinthought,for"nothingcanbebutwhatcanbethought."Thesensesleadtoerror.Being,therefore,is,andsincenot Beingisnot,Beingisone.Itisconsequentlyunchangeableandunproduced,despitethetestimonyofthesensestothecontrary.For howcouldBeingbeproduced?EitherfromnotBeing,whichdoesnotexist,orfromBeing,inwhichcaseitwasbeforeitbegantobe. Thereforeitisunproduced,unchangeable,undivided,whole,homogeneous,equallybalancedonallsides,likeaperfectsphere.{6} FromthecomparisonofBeingtoasphereitappearsthatBeingisnotincorporeal.{7} Ideasdonotappearinphilosophy ex abrupto.Theyaregraduallydevelopedinthecourseofspeculation.Thus,Parmenides'ideaofrealityisnotthatoftheIonians,who spokeofacrudematerialsubstratumofexistence.NeitherisitthehighlyabstractnotionofBeingwhichwefindinthephilosophyof PlatoandAristotle.Itisasomethingintermediatebetweentheseextremes,andisbysomelikenedtoournotionofspace. PhysicalDoctrines.Thoughrightreason(logos)maintainsthatBeingisoneandimmutable,thesensesandcommonopinion (doxa)areconvincedofthepluralityandchangewhichapparentlyexistaroundus.Placinghimself,therefore,atthispointofview, Parmenidesproceeds{8}togiveus 1.Acosmologyoftheapparent.HereheisevidentlyinfluencedbythePythagoreandoctrineofopposites.Hemaintainsthat allthingsarecomposedoflight,orwarmth,anddarkness,orcold;ofthese,theformer,accordingtoAristotle,{9} correspondsto Being,thelattertonotBeing.TheyareunitedbyaDeity(daim n,hepantakuberna).Theyaresymbolicallydescribedas maleandfemale,andtheirunionissaidtobeeffectedbyEros,thefirstcreationoftheDeity.{10}

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2.Ananthropologyoftheapparent.Thelifeofthesoul,perceptionandreflection,dependontheblendingofthelightwarm andthedarkcoldprinciples,eachprinciplestanding,asweshouldsay,inpsychicalrelationtoacorrespondingprincipleinthe physicalworld. Inhiscosmology,aswellasinhisanthropology,ParmenidesdidnotabandonthemetaphysicaldoctrinethatBeingisoneandthat changeisanillusion.TheviewsjustdescribedarethosewhichParmenideswouldhaveheldhadhebelievedinpluralityand change. HistoricalPosition.ParmenidesisthefirstGreekphilosophertoplacereasoninoppositiontoopinion.Thoughhemakesno attemptatdeterminingtheconditionsofknowledge,hepreparesthewayforsubsequentthinkersandformulatestheproblemwhich Socrateswastosolvebyhisdoctrineofconcepts. ThedoctrineoftheunityofBeingcouldnotbefurtherdeveloped.ItwasleftforZeno,thediscipleofParmenides,togiveamore thoroughdialecticaldemonstrationofthemonisticidea. ZENOOFELEA Life.ZenoofElea,bornabout490B.C.,was,accordingtoPlato,{11}thefavoritepupilofParmenides.Hedefendedthedoctrinesof hismaster,andshowed,bytheuseofdialectics,theabsurdityofcommonopinion. Sources.Platospeaksofawork(apparentlytheonlywork)ofZeno,whichwasapolemicagainstthecommonviewthatplurality andchangearerealities.Itconsistedofseveraldiscourses(logoi),ineachofwhichwerehupotheseisorsuppositions,made withtheintentionofreducingthemadabsurdum.Themethodis,therefore,indirect,anditisbecauseoftheskillwithwhichZeno appliedthismethodthatAristotle,ifwearetobelieveDiogenesandSextus,regardedhimasthefounderofdialectic. Thework,withtheexceptionofafewextractspreservedbySimplicius,islost.Weareobliged,consequently,torelyalmostentirely onsecondarysources.Chiefamongtheseisthe Physics ofAristotle,inwhichwefindZeno'sargumentsagainsttherealityof motion.{12} DOCTRINES TheArgumentsagainstMotionareasfollows.Firstargument:Abody,inordertomovefromonepointtoanother,must movetbroughaninfinitenumberofspaces;formagnitudeisdivisibleadinfinitum.Buttheinfinitecannotbetraversed;therefore motionisimpossible.Secondargument:TheproblemofAchillesandthetortoise. Thirdargument:Abodywhichisinone placeiscertainlyatrest.Now,thearrowinitsflightisateachsuccessivemomentinoneplace;thereforeitisatrest. Fourth argument:Thisisbasedonthefactthattwobodiesofequalsizemovepasteachothertwiceasfast(iftheymovewithequal velocitiesinoppositedirections)asonewouldmovepasttheotherifthislatterwerestationary.Motion,therefore,isanillusion, becauseoneofitsfundamentallawsthatbodieswithequalvelocitiestraverseacertainspaceinequaltimesisnottrue. Aristotle{13} meetstheseargumentsbydefiningthetruenatureoftime,andbypointingoutthedifferencebetweenactualand potentialinfinity. Similarly,Zeno,accordingtooursecondarysources,arguedagainstPluralityandSpace.(1)Zenoargueddirectlyagainst the testimonyofthesenses:Ifameasureofcornproducesasound,eachgrainoughttoproduceasound. {14} (2)Against space:ifBeingexistsinspace,spaceitselfmustexistinspace,andsoadinfinitum.Thisargumentiscontainedinoneofthe extractspreservedbySimplicius.(3)Ifthemanifoldexists,itmustbeatonceinfinitelygreatandinfinitesimallysmall,becauseit hasaninfinitudeofpartswhichareindivisible.Thereforetheexistenceofthemanifoldinvolvesacontradiction.{15} HistoricalPosition.Zeno'scontributiontothephilosophyoftheEleaticschoolconsistsinwhatmusthavebeenconsideredan irrefutableindirectproofofthetwofoldprincipleonwhichtheschoolwasfounded,namely,thatBeingisoneandthatchangeisan illusion. MELISSUS Life.Melissuswas,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,anativeofSamos.Wehavenoreasonfordoubtingthathewas,asPlutarch says,thecommanderoftheSamianfleetwhichdefeatedtheAtheniansoffthecoastofSamosintheyear442B.C. {16}Hewas, therefore,ayoungercontemporaryofZeno,anditispossiblethat,likeZeno,hewasapupilofParmenides.Hewroteawork, peri touontosorperiphuse s. Sources.Oftheworkjustmentioned,Simpliciushaspreservedsomefragments.Thesefragmentsagreewiththeaccountsgiven ofthedoctrinesofMelissusinthefirstpartofthepseudoAristoteliantreatiseConcerningXenophanes,etc. DOCTRINES

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Method. Melissus undertook, as Zeno had done, to defend the doctrines of Parmenides. But while Zeno's method of argumentationwasindirect,Melissusemployedthedirectmethod.HetookuptheprinciplesoftheIoniansandtriedtoshowpoints ofunionbetweentheIonianandEleaticschools. MetaphysicalDoctrine.AllthatweknowofMelissus'doctrineconcerningBeingmaybesummedupinthefourpropositions: (1)Beingiseternal;(2)Beingisinfinite;(3)Beingisone;(4)Beingisunchangeable.Hismetaphysicaldoctrineis,therefore,identical withthatofParmenides,saveinonerespect.ParmenidesdidnotpronounceBeinginfinite,whileaccordingtoMelissusinfinityisone oftheattributesofBeing.But,asappearsfromfrag.5,MelissusmustnotbeunderstoodtomaintainthetrueinfinityofBeing. Evidentlyhehadinmindinfinitemagnitude.Again,whenhesays{17} s mam echei,wemustnotimaginethatMelissushad attainedaprecisenotionoftheincorporeal.HismetaphysicswasablendingoftheIonianwiththeEleaticdoctrines,andwemay supposethatthereweremanypointsofcontradiction. ThePhysicalDoctrinesattributedtoMelissusbyStobaeusandPhiloponuscannotsafelybesaidtohavebeenheldbyhim. HistoricalPosition.MelissusdoesnotrepresentadevelopmentofEleaticphilosophy.Histaskwasoneofsynthesis,or reconciliation,andinaccomplishingthistaskhedidnotwhollyescapethedangertowhichsuchanundertakingisalwaysexposed: headmittedintoEleaticdoctrinesnotionsanddefinitionswhichwereantagonistictoEleaticprinciples. Retrospect.WithMelissustheEleaticschoolends.WhatwasleftofEleaticismdriftedintoSophism,forwhichZenohadprepared thewaybyhisabuseofdialecticalreasoning.But,thoughtheschooldisappeared,itsinfluencecontinued,andmaybetraced throughHeraclitus,Anaxagoras,andtheAtomistsdowntoPlatoandAristotle.TheEleaticswerethefirsttoformulatetheproblems ofBeingandBecomingproblemswhicharealwaysthecenterofmetaphysicalspeculation.TheseweretheproblemsthatPlato andAristotleweretosolvebythetheoryofIdeasandthedoctrineofmatterandform. PreSocraticphilosophyisthroughoutobjectiveinspiritandaim;itisaphilosophyofnature.Tothis,Eleaticphilosophyformsno exception.ItistruethattheEleaticsgivetophysicsmerelyahynotheticalvalue,andthattheydecrysensereceivedknowledge, contrastingitwithreason.Yetoncloserexaminationitwillbeseenthatalltheirinquiryisconcernedwiththeoriginandexplanation ofnature,andthattheBeingwhichtheymaintaintobetheonlyrealityisasomethingextendedinspace,or,asAristotle {18} describesit,thesubstrateofsensiblethings.Zeno,indeed,introduceddialecticintophilosophy,buthetreateditmerelyasan instrumentofproof,unaccompaniedbyanyinquiryintothenatureandconditionsofknowledge.Thefounderofthephilosophyofthe conceptisSocrates,andAristotle{19}isrightwhenhelooksforthegermofSocraticphilosophy,notintheEleaticdoctrine,butinthe teachingsofDemocritusandthePythagoreans.

{1}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.81. {2}Sophis.,242D. {3}Met.,I,5,986b,21. {4}Cf.frags.9and10. {5}Poem,lines43ff. {6}Lines97ff. {7}Cf.Burnet,of.cit.,p.594. {8}Lines110ff. {9}Met.,I,5,986b,31.{10}Line130. {11}Parm.,127B. {12}Phys.,VI,9,239b,9ff. {13}Loc.cit.,241a. {14}Simpl.,Phys.,255r;Arist.,Phys.,VII,5,250a,20. {15}Cf.Fairbanks,op.cit.,p.113. {16}Percl.,Chap.26. {17}Frag.16.

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{18}Cf.Met.,IV,5,1010a,andDeCoelo,III,298b,21. {19}Met.,XIII,4,1078.

CHAPTERIVLATERIONIANPHILOSOPHERS
TheseareseparatedfromtheEarlierIonianphilosophersnotmerelyinpointoftimebutalsoinrespecttodoctrine.Thedifference consistschieflyinthetendencywhichtheLaterIoniansmanifesttodepartfromthemonisticdynamismoftheearlyphysicistsand adoptadualisticmechanicalconceptoftheuniverse.Heraclitus,whois,inultimateanalysis,adynamist,marksthebeginningofthe changewhich,afterthemoreorlesshesitatingutterancesofEmpedocles,appearssuccessivelyinthemechanismoftheAtomists andintheopenlypronounceddualismofAnaxagoras.Heraclitusis,therefore,theconnectinglinkbetweenearlierandlaterIonian philosophy. HERACLITUS Life.Heraclitus,surnamedtheObscure(hoskoteinos)onaccountofthemistoforacularexpressionsinwhich(purposely, accordingtosomewriters)heveiledhisteachings,wasbornatEphesusabouttheyear530B.C.Hecomposedawork peri phuse s,consistingofthreeparts,{1}thefirstofwhichwasperitoupantosthesecond,(logos)politikosandthethird, (logos)theologikos.Ofthefragmentswhichhavecomedowntous,veryfewcanbeassignedtothesecondoftheseparts, andfewerstilltothethird.Theexistingfragmentsofferconsiderabledifficultyinthematterofarrangementandinterpretation,a difficulty which isincreasedby thefact thatmany ofoursecondaryauthoritiesareuntrustworthy. ThedoctrinesofHeraclitus resemble the fundamental tenets of the Stoics, and here as elsewhere the stoic historians are inclined to exaggerate such resemblances.Onthisaccount,evenformodernscholars,HeraclitusisstilltheObscure. Sources.Besidesthefragmentsabovementioned,wehaveassourcesofinformationthewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,whogive atolerablycompleteaccountoftheteachingsofHeraclitus. DOCTRINES DoctrineofUniversalChange.HeraclitusplaceshimselfindirectoppositiontotheEleaticteachingandtothedataof common,unreflectingconsciousness.ThemassofmenandhereheincludesnotmerelyPythagorasandXenophanesbutalso HomerandHesiod,associatingthemwiththecommonherdseenothingbutsenseforms;theyfailtocomprehendtheall discerningreason.{2}Weshouldfollowreasonalone."Muchlearningdoesnotteachthemind."{3} Now,thefirstlessonwhichreasonteachesusisthat thereisnothingpermanentintheworldaroundus.Thesenses, whentheyattributetothingsapermanencewhichthingsdonotpossess,aredeceivedandthusgiverisetothegreatestofallerrors, thebeliefinimmobility.Thetruthisthatallthingschange, pantach rei.Everythingisinvolvedinthestreamofchange:fromlife comesdeath,fromdeathcomeslife;oldagesucceedsyouth;sleepchangesintowakefulnessandwakefulnessintosleep.Ina word,nothingis,allisBecoming. BothPlato{4}andAristotle{5}setdownthedoctrineoftheuniversalityofchangeasbeingthemostcharacteristicoftheteachingsof Heraclitus.Plato,moreover,expresslymentionstheHeracliteancomparisonofthestreaminwhichwavesucceedswave.Butitis remarkablethattheexpression,"Allthingsareflowing,"whichsoconvenientlysumsupthedoctrineofuniversalchange,cannotbe provedtobeaquotationfromtheworkofHeraclitus. DoctrineofFire.Anothersourceoferroristhis:thatthepoetsandsagesknewnomorethanthecommonherddoesaboutthe divine, allcontrolling fire. By fire, however, Heraclitus meant invisible warm matter rather than the fire which is the result of combustion.Itisendowedwithlife,oratleastwiththepowerofBecoming"Allthingsareexchangedforfireandfireforallthings, justaswaresareexchangedforgoldandgoldforwares."{6} Itis,therefore,whatAristotlewouldcallthematerialaswellasthe efficientcauseofallthings,andhereHeraclitusshowshimselfthelinealdescendantoftheEarlierIonians.Moreover,sinceall thingsproceedfromfireaccordingtofixedlaw,fireisstyledZeus,Deity,Logos,Justice. Thisaccountwould,however,beincompletewithoutsomementionoftheforcewhichispostulatedbyHeraclitusascoeternalwith fire."Strifeisthefatherofall,andkingofall,andsomehemadegods,andsome,men." {7}Opposedtostrife,whichgaveriseto thingsbyseparation,isharmony,whichguidesthembacktothefirewhencetheycame.Theseexpressions,however,whilethey speakthelanguageofdualism,arenottobeunderstoodasmorethanmerefiguresofspeech,forfire,andfirealone,isthecauseof

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allchange. OriginoftheWorld.Theworldwasproducedbythetransformationsoftheprimitivefire.Thereisacycleofchangesbywhich firethroughaprocessofcondensation,orratherofquenching(sbennusthai),becomeswaterandearth.Thisisthedownward way.Andthereisacycleofchangesbywhichthroughaprocessofrarefaction,or kindling(haptesthai),earthgoesbackto waterandwatertofire.Thisistheupwardway.Now,theoneispreciselytheinverseoftheother:hodosan kat mia.{8} Thusdidtheworldoriginateandthusdoesitconstantlytendtoreturnwhenceitcame.Concordiseverundoingtheworkofstrife, andonedaystrifewillbeovercome;butthentheDeity,asitwereinsport, {9}willconstructanewworldinwhichstrifeandconcord willoncemorebeatplay. DoctrineofOpposites.Fromthiscontinualchangecomesthedoctrineofopposites.Thereisaconstantswaying(likethe bendingandrelaxingofabow{10}),inwhichallthingspasssuccessivelythroughtheiropposites:heatbecomescold,dryness becomesmoisture,etc.Toproducethenew,likemustbecoupledwithunlike;highandlow,theaccordantwiththediscordant,are joined,thatoutofonemaycomeall,andoutofall,one.OnaccountofthisdoctrineHeraclitusiscensuredbyAristotle {11}andhis commentatorsfordenyingtheprincipleofcontradiction.Hegelians,ontheotherhand,creditHeraclituswithbeingthefirstto recognizetheunityofopposites,theidentityofBeingandnotBeing. {12}ThetruthisthatHeraclitusdeservesneithertheblameofthe AristoteliansnorthepraiseoftheHegelians.Hedoesnotaffirmoppositepredicatesofthesamesubjectatthesametimeandsub eodemrespectu.Moreover,hisisaphysical,notalogical,theory,andtomaintaintheunityofoppositesintheconcreteisnotthe sameastoholdtheidentityofBeingandnotBeingintheabstract. AnthropologicalDoctrines.Man,bodyandsoul,originatedfromfire.Thebodyisofitselfrigidandlifeless,anobjectof aversionwhenthesoulhasdepartedfromit.Thesoul,ontheotherhand,isdivinefirepreservedinitspurestform."Thedriestsoul iswisestandbest."{13}Ifthesoulfireisquenchedbymoisture,reasonislost.Likeeverythingelseinnature,thesoulisconstantly changing.Itisfedbyfire,orwarmmatter,whichentersasbreathorisreceivedthroughthesenses.Not.withstandingthisview, HeraclitusinseveralofthefragmentsspeaksoffuturerewardandofthefateofthesoulinHades.{14} Heraclitus distrusted senseknowledge: "Eyes and ears," he said, "are bad witnesses to men, if they have souls that understandnottheirlanguage."{15}Rationalknowledgeisalonetrustworthy.Heraclitus,however,didnot,nordidanyofthepre Socraticphilosophers,attempttodeterminetheconditionsofrationalknowledge.ThattaskwasfirstundertakenbySocrates. EthicalDoctrines.Heraclitusdidnotundertakeasystematictreatmentofethicalquestions.Nevertheless,hepreparedtheway forStoicismbyteachingthatImmutableReasonisthelawofthemoralaswellasofthephysicalworld."Menshoulddefendlawas theywouldafortress."{16}Wemustsubjectourselvestouniversalorderifwewishtobetrulyhappy:"thecharacterofamanishis guardian divinity."{17} This is the doctrine of contentment, or equanimity (euarest sis), in which, according to the Heracliteans,Heraclitusplacedthesupremehappinessofman. HistoricalPosition.EveninancienttimesHeraclituswasregardedasoneofthegreatest physicists.Hewasdeservedly styledhophusikosfor,whileothersamongthephilosophersofnatureexcelledhiminparticularpointsofdoctrine,hehadthe peculiarmeritofhavingestablishedauniversalpointofviewforthestudyofnatureasawhole.Hewasthefirsttocallattentionto thetransitorinessoftheindividualandthepermanenceofthelawwhichgovernsindividualchanges,thusformulatingtheproblemto whichPlatoandAristotleafterwardsaddressedthemselvesastotheparamountquestionofmetaphysics.Thenaveconceptionof theuniverseasevolved,accordingtotheEarlierIonians,fromonesubstance,byaprocesswhichmaybewitnessedinawatertank, nowgivesplacetothenotionofaworldruledinitsoriginandinallitsprocessesbyanallpervadingLogos.Moreover,though Heraclitusformulatednosystemofepistemology,hisdistrustofthesensesandhisadvocacyofrationalknowledgeshowthat philosophyhadbeguntoemergefromthestateofprimitiveinnocence.Itwasthisgermofcriticismwhichwasdevelopedintofull grownScepticismbyCratylus,whilealonganotherlineofdevelopmentitledtothecriticalphilosophyoftheSophistsandtothe Socraticdoctrineoftheconcept. HeraclitusandtheEleaticswere,sotospeak,atoppositepolesofthought.InthedoctrinesofEmpedoclesandtheAtomistswecan perceivethedirectinfluenceoftheEleaticschool. EMPEDOCLES Life.Empedocles,whoisthemosttypicalrepresentativeoftheLaterIonianschool,holdsamiddlecoursebetweenthemonismof ParmenidesandtheextremepanmetabolismofHeraclitus.HewasbornatAgrigentum,inSicily,abouttheyear490B.C.According toAristotle,helivedsixtyyears.ThetraditionwhichrepresentsEmpedoclesastravelingthroughSicilyandsouthernItalyand claimingdivinehonorswhereverhewentisonlytooabundantlyprovedbyfragmentsofhissacredpoems.Thestory,however,that hecommittedsuicidebyleapingintothecraterofEtnaisamaliciousinvention;itisalwaysmentionedwithahostilepurpose,and

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usuallyinordertocounteractsometaletoldbyhisadherentsandadmirers. Sources. Empedocles, who was a poet as well as a philosopher, composed two poeticophilosophical treatises, the one metaphysical (peri phuse s), and the other theological (katharmoi). Of the five thousand verses which these poems contained,onlyaboutfourhundredandfiftyhavecomedowntous.OnaccountofthelanguageandimagerywhichEmpedocles employs,heisstyledbyAristotlethefirstrhetorician.{18} DOCTRINES Metaphysics.Empedocles,likeParmenides,beginswithadenialofBecoming.Becoming,inthestrictsenseofqualitative changeofanoriginalsubstance,isunthinkable.Yet,withHeraclitus,heholdsthatparticularthingsarise,change,decay,andperish. Hereconcilesthetwopositionsbyteachingthatgenerationisbutthecommingling,whiledecayistheseparationofprimitive substanceswhichthemselvesremainunchanged.{19} Theprimitivesubstancesarefour: fire,air,earth, and water;theseafterwardscameto beknownasthe Four Elements. Empedoclescallsthemroots(tessarat npant nhriz mata).Thewordelements(stoicheia)wasfirstusedbyPlato. ThemythologicalnameswhichEmpedoclesappliedtotheseradicalprinciplesofBeinghavenoparticularphilosophicalvalue;they mayberegardedastheaccidentsofpoeticalcomposition.Theelementsareunderived,imperishable,homogeneous.Definite substancesareproducedwhentheelementsarecombinedincertainproportions.Now,themovingcause,theforce,whichproduces thesecombinationsisnotinherentintheelementsthemselves;itisdistinctfromthem.Herewehavethefirstwordofmechanismin Greekphilosophy.Itistrue,Empedoclesspeaksofthisforceas loveandhatred,{20}butthephraseologymerelyprovesthatthe ideaofforceisnotyetcleartotheGreekmind:Empedoclesdoesnotdefinethedifferencebetweenforceandmatterontheone hand,andbetweenforceandpersonontheother.Moreover,todenythatEmpedocleswasadualist,toexplainthatbyloveand hatredhe meantmerelyapoeticaldescription ofthe conditionsofmixtureandseparation,andnot thetrue causes ofthese processes,wouldimplythatAristotleandallourotherauthoritiesmisunderstoodthewholedoctrineofEmpedocles. CosmologicalDoctrines.Thefourelementswereoriginallycombinedinasphere(eudaimonestatostheos)where lovereignedsupreme.{21}Graduallyhatredbegantoexertitscentrifugalinfluence;love,however,unitedtheelementsoncemoreto formthosethingswhichweremade.Andsotheworldisgivenovertoloveandhatred,andtotheendlesspulsationofperiodic changes. BiologicalDoctrines.Empedoclesseemstohavedevotedspecialattentiontothestudyoflivingorganisms.Plantsfirstsprang fromtheearthbeforeitwasilluminedbythesun;and thencameanimals,whichwereevolvedoutofallsortsofmonstrous combinationsoforganismsbyakindofsurvivalofthefit;forthoseonlysurvivedwhichwerecapableofsubsisting.{22}Inthistheory Empedoclesexpresslyincludesman. Thecauseofgrowthinanimalsandplantsisfirestrivingupwardsimpelledbythedesiretoreachitslike,thefirewhichisinthe sky.Bloodistheseatofthesoul,becauseinbloodtheelementsarebestunited.{23}Itisbyreasonofthemovementofthebloodthat inspirationandrespirationtakeplacethroughtheporeswhicharecloselypackedtogetheralloverthebody.{24} PsychologicalDoctrines.Senseknowledgeisexplainedbythedoctrineofemanationsandpores. {25}Likeisknownbylike, thatis,thingsareknowntousbymeansoflikeelementsinus,"earthbyearth,waterbywater,"etc.{26}Inthecaseofsight,thereis anemanationfromtheeyeitself,whichgoesouttomeettheemanationfromtheobject.{27}Thoughtandintelligenceareascribedto allthings,nodistinctionbeingmadebetweencorporealandincorporeal.Thought,therefore,likeallothervitalactivities,dependson themixtureofthefourelements.{28}YetEmpedoclesseemstocontrasttheuntrustworthinessofsenseknowledgewithknowledge acquiredbyreflection, orrather with knowledgeacquired by all thepowers ofthe mind. {29} Hedidnotconceivethesoulas composedofelements;hedidnotconsideritasanentityapartfromthebody;hemerelyexplaineditsactivitiesbytheconstitutionof thebody.Inhissacredpoem,however,headoptedthedoctrineoftransmigration,borrowingitfromPythagoreanandOrphic tradition,withoutmakingitpartofhisscientifictheories."OnceerenowIwasayouth,andamaiden,ashrub,abird,andafishthat swimsinsilenceinthesea."{30} ConcerningtheGods.Empedoclessometimesspeaksasifheheldthecommonpolytheisticbelief.Sometimes,onthe contrary,asinverses345to350,hedescribestheDeityalmostinthewordsofXenophanes:"Heissacredandunutterablemind, flashingthroughthewholeworldwithrapidthoughts."Still,Empedoclesapparentlyfoundnomeansofintroducingthisconceptofthe Deityintohisaccountoftheoriginoftheuniverse. HistoricalPosition.WhileEmpedoclesholdsarecognizedplaceamongtheGreekpoets,andwhilePlatoandAristotleappear torankhimhighlyasaphilosopher,yetscholarsarenotagreedastohispreciseplaceinthehistoryofpreSocraticspeculation.

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RitterclasseshimwiththeEleatics,otherscounthimamongthedisciplesofPythagoras,whileothersagainplacehimamongthe IoniansonaccountofthesimilarityofhisdoctrinestothoseofHeraclitusandtheearlyPhysicists.Thetruth,asZellersays,seemsto be that there is in the philosophy of Empedocles an admixture of all these influences, Eleatic (denial of Becoming, untrustworthinessofthesenses),Pythagorean(doctrineoftransmigration),andIonic(thefourelementsandloveandhatred, thesebeinganadaptationofHeracliteanideas).Itwouldbeamistake,however,tounderestimatetheoriginalityofEmpedoclesasa philosopher.Itwashewhointroducedthenotionofelement,fixedthenumberofelements,andpreparedthewayfortheatomistic mechanismofLeucippus.Thedefects,however,ofhismetaphysicalsystemaremany,chiefamongthembeing,asAristotle {31} remarked, theomissionof theideaofanintelligentRulerunderwhoseaction natural processes wouldberegularinstead of fortuitous. ANAXAGORAS Life.AnaxagoraswasbornatClazomenaeabout500B.C.Aristotle{32}saysthathewas"priortoEmpedoclesinpointofage,but subsequenttohiminrespecttodoctrine."FromhisnativecityhewenttoAthens,where hewasformanyyearsthefriendof Pericles, and where he counted among his disciples the dramatist Euripides. When, shortly before the outbreak of the PeloponnesianWar,Pericleswasattacked,Anaxagoraswastriedonthechargeofimpiety,butescapedfromprisonand,returning tohisnativeIonia,settledinLampsacus,wherehediedabouttheyear430B.C. Sources.DiogenesLaertiussaysthatAnaxagoraswroteaworkwhich,likemostoftheancientphilosophicaltreatises,was entitledperiphyse s.OfthisworkPlatospeaksintheApology;inthesixthcenturyofoureraSimpliciuscouldstillprocurea copy,anditistohimthatweowesuchfragmentsashavecomedowntous.ThesefragmentswereeditedbySchaubachin1827, andbySchornin1829.TheyareprintedbyMullach.{33} DOCTRINES StartingPoint.LikeEmpedocles,AnaxagorasstartswiththedenialofBecoming,and,likeEmpedoclesalso,heischiefly concernedtoexplain,inaccordancewiththisdenial,thepluralityandchangewhichexist.Hediffers,however,fromEmpedocles, bothinhisdoctrineofprimitivesubstancesandinhisdoctrineofthecosmicforcewhichformedtheuniverse. DoctrineofPrimitiveSubstances.Anaxagorasmaintainedthatallthingswereformedoutofanagglomerateofsubstances inwhichbodiesofdeterminatequalitygold,flesh,bones,etc.werecommingledininfinitelysmallparticlestoformthegermsof allthings.{34}ThisagglomeratewascalledbyAristotletahomoiomer itwascalledbyAnaxagorasseeds(st rmata)and things(chr mata).Socompletewasthemixture,andsosmallweretheparticlesofindividualsubstancescomposingit,thatatthe beginningnosubstancecouldbeperceivedinitsindividualnatureandqualities,andaccordinglythemixtureasawholemightbe saidtobequalitativelyindeterminate,thoughdefinitequalitieswerereallypresentinit.Yet,minuteasweretheprimitiveparticles, theyweredivisible.Thustheagglomerateontheonehandremindsusofthe apeiron ofAnaximander,and ontheotherhand bearsacertainanalogytotheatomisticconceptofmatter. Mind(Nous)isthemovingpowerwhichformedtheworldfromtheprimitivemassof"seeds."Anaxagorasisthefirsttointroduce intophilosophytheideaofthesupersensible,forwhichreasonAristotledescribeshim{35}asstandingout"likeasobermanfromthe crowdofrandomtalkerswhoprecededhim."Mindisdistinguishedfromotherthingsbecause(1)itissimpleeverythingelseis mingledofallthings;mindaloneisunmixed.Itis"thethinnestofallthingsandthepurest."(2)Itis selfruled(autokrat s).(3)It hasallknowledgeabouteverything.(4)Ithassupremepoweroverallthings.{36} However,asPlatoandAristotlepointout,Anaxagorasdidnotworkouthistheoryofmindinthedetailsofthecosmicprocesses.He didnotformulatetheideaofdesign,nordidheapplytheprincipleofdesigntoparticularcases.Mindwasforhimmerelyaworld formingforce.Thereis,moreover,acertainvaguenessattachingtotheideaof Nous.Withoutenteringintothedetailsofthe questionofinterpretation,{37}wemayconcludethatalthoughAnaxagorascertainlymeantbytheNoussomethingincorporeal,he couldnotavoidspeakingofitintermswhich,takenliterally,implycorporealnature;foritisthefateofnewideastosufferfrom imperfectexpressionuntilphilosophicalterminologyhasadjusteditselftothenewconditionswhichtheycreate. Cosmology.Mind,therefore,firstimpartedtomatteracircularmotion{38} separatingAir(fromwhichcamewater,earth,and stone,andwhateveriscold,dark,anddense)andEther(fromwhichcamewhateveriswarm,light,andrare).Throughoutthis accountoftheprocessesofthingsAnaxagorasconsidersthematerialcauseonly,therebydeservingAristotle'sreproach,thathe usedtheNousmerelyasaDeusexmachina. Psychology.Likeisnotknownbylike,butratherbyunlike,{39}andinthisAnaxagorasisdirectlyopposedtoEmpedocles.The sensesare"weakbutnotdeceitful";thefacultyoftrueknowledgeis Nous,theprincipleofunderstanding,whichisalso{40} an intrinsicpsychicprinciplethesoul.Plutarch'sstatement{41}thatAnaxagorasrepresentedthesoulasperishingafteritsseparation

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fromthebodyis,tosaytheleast,unreliable. FromtheforegoingitisevidentthatAnaxagoraswasnotaSceptic.Thereasonwhichheallegesfortheuntrustworthinessofthe sensesisthattheyseeonlypartofwhatisintheobject.{42} Theintellect,whichisunmixed,iscapableofseeingtheeverything whichisineverything. HistoricalPosition.ThespecialimportanceofthephilosophyofAnaxagorasisduetohisdoctrineofimmaterialmind.This doctrineimpliesthemostpronounceddualism;itcontainsingermtheteleologicalconceptwhichwasevolvedbySocratesand perfectedbyPlatoandAristotle.Itwasonlynaturalthatthesephilosophers,whoapproachedmetaphysicalproblemswithminds alreadyaccustomedtotheideaoftheimmaterial,shouldblameAnaxagorasfornothavingmadebetteruseofthatidea.Butwe mustnotunderratetheservicewhichAnaxagorasrenderedtoGreekphilosophybyhisdoctrineofimmaterialintellect. DiogenesofApolloniaandArchelausofAthens,whoaresometimesincludedamongtheLaterIonianphilosophers,exhibita tendencytowardsareturntothehylozoismofthefirstphilosophers.

{1} Cf. Diog. Laer., IX, 7. References are to the work peri ton bin, dogmatikn kai apophthegmatn tn en philosophia eudokimsantn(ed.Cobet,Paris,1850),whichisattributedtoDiogenesLaertius. {2}Frag.18.ThenumbersusedarethoseusedbyBurnet,followingBywater,Her.Eph.Reliquiae(Oxford,1877). {3}Frag.16. {4}Theaet.,160D,andCratyl..401D. {5}Met.,IV,5,1010a,13,andDeAn.,I,2,405a,25. {6}Frag.22. {7}Frag.44. {8}Frag.69. {9}Frag.79;cf.noteapudFairbanks,op.cit.,p.42. {10}Frag.45. {11}Met.,IV,3,1005b. {12}Cf.Hegel,Gesch.desPhil.,I,305;Werke,XIII,305;trans.byHaldane,I,283. {13}Frag.74. {14}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,85. {15}Frag.4. {16}Frag.100. {17}Frag.121. {18}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,119,n. {19}Verses98ff. {20}Verse80. {21}Arist.,Met.,I,4,985a. {22}Verses245270. {23}Theophr.,DeSensu,10;cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.502. {24}Verses288ff. {25}Verse281. {26}Verse333. {27}Verses316ff.

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{28}Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,167. {29}Verse19. {30}Verse383.Forvariousreadingsofthisline,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.150. {31}DeGen.etCorr.,II,6,333b. {32}Met.,I,3,984a,II. {33}Fragmenta,Vol.I,pp.249ff. {34}Frag.1. {35}Met.,I,3,984b,17. {36}Frag.6. {37}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,342ff.;Archivf.Gesch.derPhil.,Ed.VIII(1895),pp.151,461465;alsoPhilosophicalReview, Vol.IV(September,1895),p.565,andMind,N.S.,Vol.V(1896),p.210. {38}Frags.7and8. {39}Theophr.,DeSensu,frag.27;cf.Diels,Doxographi,p.507. {40}Arist.,DeAn.,I,2,405a,13. {41}Placita,V,25,3;cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.437. {42}Frag.6.

CHAPTERVTHEATOMISTS
TheAtomistsrepresentthelastphaseofIonianspeculationconcerningnature.Theyacceptthedualisticideaswhichcharacterize theLaterIonianphilosophy,butbytheirsubstitutionofnecessityforintelligentforcetheyabandonallthatdualisticphilosophyhadto bequeathtothem,andfalllowerthanthelevelwhichtheearlyhylozoistshadreached. ItwasatMiletusthattheIonianphilosophyfirstappeared,anditwasMiletusthatproducedLeucippus,thefounderofAtomism,who virtuallybringsthefirstperiodofGreekphilosophytoaclose.SolittleisknownofLeucippusthathisveryexistencehasbeen questioned.{1}Hisopinions,too,havebeensoimperfectlytransmittedtousthatitisusualtospeakofthetenetsoftheAtomists withoutdistinguishinghowmuchweowetoLeucippus,whobyAristotleandTheophrastusisregardedasthefounderofthesystem, andhowmuchweowetoDemocritus,whowastheablestandbestknownexpounderofatomisticphilosophy. DEMOCRITUS Life.DemocritusofAbderawasbornabouttheyear460B.C.Itissaidthoughitisbynomeanscertainthathereceived instructionfromtheMagiandotherOrientalteachers.Itisundoubtedlytruethat,atalatertime,hewasregardedasasorcererand magician,afactwhichmayaccountforthelegendofhisearlytraining.HewasprobablyadiscipleofLeucippus.Thereisno historicalfoundationforthewidespreadbeliefthathelaughedateverything.{2} Sources.If,asisprobable,Leucippuscommittedhisdoctrinestowriting,notrustworthyfragmentofhisworkshasreachedus. FromthetitlesandthefragmentsoftheworksofDemocritusitisevidentthatthelattercoveredinhiswrittentreatisesalargevariety ofsubjects.Themostcelebratedofthesetreatiseswasentitled megasdiakosmos.Mullach(Fragmenta,I,340ff.)publishes fragmentsofthisandotherDemocriteanwritings. AristotleintheMetaphysicsandelsewheregivesanadequateaccountofthedoctrinesofLeucippusandDemocritus. DOCTRINES General Standpoint. One of the reasons which led the Eleatics to deny plurality and Becoming was that these are inconceivablewithoutvoid,andvoidisunthinkable.Now,theAtomistsconcedethatwithoutvoidthereisnomotion,butthey maintainthatvoidexists,andthatinitexistsaninfinitenumberofindivisiblebodies( atomoi)whichconstitutetheplenum.Aristotle

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isthereforejustifiedinsaying{3} thataccordingtoLeucippusandDemocritustheelementsarethefull(pl res)andthevoid (kenon). Thefullcorrespondsto EleaticBeingandthevoidto notBeing.Butthe latteris as real as theformer. {4} Onthe combinationandseparationofatomsdependBecominganddecay. TheAtoms.Theatoms,infiniteinnumberandindivisible,differinshape,order,andposition.{5}Theydiffer,moreover,inquantity, ormagnitude,{6}fortheyarenotmeremathematicalpoints,theirindivisibilitybeingduetothefactthattheycontainnovoid.They have,aswewouldsay,thesamespecificgravity,butbecauseoftheirdifferentsizestheydifferinweight.{7} TheMotionbywhichtheatomsarebroughttogetherisnotcausedbyavitalprincipleinherentinthem(hylozoism),norbylove andhatred,norbyanyincorporealagency,butby naturalnecessity,byvirtueofwhichatomsofequalweightcometogether.It is,therefore,incorrecttosaythattheAtomistsexplainedthemotionoftheatomsbyattributingitto chance.Aristotlegaveoccasion to this misunderstanding by identifying automaton and tuch though it is Cicero{8} who is accountable for giving the misapprehensionthewidecirculationwhichitobtained. Theatomisticexplanationwas,therefore,thatatomsofdifferentweightsfellwithunequalvelocitiesintheprimitivevoid.Theheavier atoms,consequently,impingedonthelighterones,impartingtothema whirlingmotion (din ).TheAtomists,asAristotle remarks,{9}didnotadverttothefactthatinvacuoallbodiesfallwithequalvelocity.Nowhereinthecosmologicalschemeofthe Atomistsisthereplaceformindordesign;itisuttermaterialismandcasualism,ifbycasualismismeanttheexclusionofintelligent purpose. Anthropology.Plantsandanimalssprangfrommoistearth.Democritus,accordingtoourauthorities,devotedspecialattention tothestudyofMan,who,hebelieves,is,evenonaccountofhisbodilystructurealone,deservingofadmiration.Henotonly describesasminutelyashecanthebodilyorganizationofman,but,departingfromhismechanicalconceptofnature,takespainsto showtheutilityandadaptationofeverypartofthehumanbody.Butoverallandpermeatingallisthe soul.Nowthesoul,forthe Atomists,couldbenothingbutcorporeal.Itiscomposedofthefinestatoms,perfectlysmoothandround,liketheatomsoffire. {10} Democritus,accordingly,doesnotdenyadistinctionbetweensoulandbody.Heteachesthatthesoulisthenoblestpartofman; man'scrowninggloryismoralexcellence.Heissaidtohavereckonedthehumansoulamongthedivinities.{11} Andyet,for Democritus,asforeverymaterialist,thesoulisbutafinerkindofmatter.Indeed,accordingtoAristotle, {12}theAtomistsidentified soulatomswiththeatomsoffirewhicharefloatingintheair. TheAtomists'theoryofcognitionwas,ofcourse,determinedbytheirviewofthenatureofthesoul.Theywereobligedtostart outwiththepostulatethatallcognitiveprocessesarecorporealprocesses,andsincetheactionofbodyuponbodyisconditionedby contact,theywereobligedtoconcludethatallthesensesaremeremodificationsofthesenseoftouch.{13} Thecontactwhichisanecessaryconditionofallsenseknowledgeiseffectedbymeansofemanations(aporroai,thetermis Aristotle's),or images (eid la,deikela).Thesearematerialcasts,orshells,givenofffromthesurfaceoftheobject;they produceinthemediumtheimpressionswhichentertheporesofthesenses.TheyarepracticallythesameastheEpicurean effluxes,whichLucretiusdescribes:

Quae,quasimembranae,summodecorporererum Dereptae,volitantultrocitroqueperauras.
Thought cannot differ essentially from senseknowledge. They are both changes (heteroi seis) of the soulsubstance occasionedbymaterialimpressions.Logically,therefore,Democritusshouldhaveattachedthesamevaluetothoughtastosense knowledge,andsincesenseknowledgeisobscure(skoti),heshouldhaveconcludedthatnoknowledgeissatisfactory.Hesaves himself,however,fromabsoluteScepticism,althoughattheexpenseoflogicalconsistency;forhemaintainsthatthought,by revealing the existence of invisible atoms, shows us the true nature of things. The doctrine which Aristotle {14} attributes to DemocritusishisopinionastowhatDemocritusshouldhavetaught,ratherthananaccountofwhatheactuallydidteach.{15} Ethics.AlthoughmostoftheextantfragmentswhichcontainDemocritus'ethicalteachingsaremerelyisolatedaxiomswithoutany scientificconnection,yetoursecondaryauthoritiesattributetohimatheoryofhappiness whichisreallythebeginningofthe scienceofethicsamongtheGreeks.FromwhatDemocritussaysofthesuperiorityofthesouloverthebody,ofthoughtoversense, itisnaturaltoexpectthatheshouldplaceman'ssupremehappinessinarightdispositionofmindandnotinthegoodsofthe externalworld."Happiness,"hesays,{16}"andunhappinessdonotdwellinherdsnoringold;thesoulistheabodeoftheDivinity." Happinessisinnoexternalthing,butin"cheerfulnessandwellbeing,arightdispositionandunalterablepeaceofmind."Theword which is here rendered cheerfulness (euthumia)isinterpretedby Seneca andotherStoicsas tranquillity. Democritus, however,wasmoreakintotheEpicureansthantotheStoics,anditisprobablethatby euthumiahemeant"delight"or"good

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cheer."{17}ThereisinthemoralmaximsofDemocritusanoteofpessimism.Happiness,hebelieves,isdifficultofattainment,while miseryseeksmanunsought. HistoricalPosition.TheatomisticmovementisrecognizedasanattempttoreconciletheconclusionsoftheEleaticswiththe factsofexperience.Itisnoteasy,however,todeterminewithaccuracyhowfartheAtomistswereinfluencedbytheirpredecessors andcontemporaries.EvenifthedatesofHeraclitus,Anaxagoras,Empedocles,andLeucippuswereknownmoredefinitelythanthey are,itwouldstillbeamatterofnosmalldifficultytoshowinwhatdegreeeachphilosopherdependedonandinturninfluencedthe thoughtandwritingsoftheothers.Onethingiscertain:itwasAtomismwhichmorethananyoftheotherpreSocraticsystems preparedthewayforSophismandtheconsequentcontemptofallknowledge. Inthefirstplace,atomisticphilosophywasmaterialistic,and"Materialismendswherethehighestproblemsofphilosophybegin." Moreover,thearmoroftheAtomistofferedseveralvulnerablepointstotheshaftsofSophism.Hefallaciouslyconcludedthatatoms areuncausedbecausetheyareeternal;and,whatisworse,heinconsistentlymaintainedthedifferenceinvaluebetweensense knowledgeandthought.TheSophistsmightwellargue,asindeedsomeofthemdidargue,thatifthesensesarenottobetrusted, reasonalsoisuntrustworthy,forthesoul,accordingtotheAtomists,is,likethesenses,corporeal.Thusdidatomisticphilosophy preparethewayforSophism.

{1}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,p.350. {2}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,213,n. {3}Met.,I,4,985b,4. {4}Cf.Arist.,Phys.,IV,6,213a,31,forargumentsbywhichtheAtomistsprovedtheexistenceofthevoid. {5}Arist.,Met.,I,4,985b,14. {6}Arist.,Phys.,III,4,203a,33. {7}Arist.,DeGenerationeetCorruptione,I,8,324band325a. {8}DeNat.Deorum,I,24,66. {9}Phys.,IV,8,225a. {10}Arist.,DeAn.,I,2,403b,28. {11}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,p.262. {12}DeRespiratione,4,472a,30. {13}Arist.,Met.,IV,5,1009b,andDeSensu,4,442a,29. {14}Met.,IV,5,1009a,38. {15}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,272. {16}Frag.1. {17}Cf.Sidgwick,Hist.ofEthics,p.15.

CHAPTERVITHESOPHISTS
Sophisticphilosophy,whichconstitutessoimportantacrisisinthehistoryofGreekthoughtandcivilization,wasgerminallycontained intheprecedingsystems.AtomisticmaterialismculminatedintheSophismofProtagoras;thedoctrinesofHeraclituspavedtheway toScepticism,aswasdemonstratedbyCratylus,theteacherofPlato;andGorgiastheSophistmerelycarriedtoexcessthedialectic methodintroducedbyZenotheEleatic.AlltheseschoolsAtomistic,Heraclitean,Eleatichad,ashasbeensaid,attackedbythe aidofspeciousfallaciesthetrustworthinessofcommonconsciousness,sothatuntilSocratesappearedonthescenetodetermine theconditionsofscientificknowledgenopositivedevelopmentofphilosophywaspossible.Meantimetherewasnothingleftbutto denythepossibilityofattainingknowledge.AndthatiswhattheSophistsdid:theyarethefirstScepticsofGreece.

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Therewas,then,aninevitabletendencyonthepartoftheprevalentphilosophytoculminateinScepticism.Besides,thesocialand politicalconditionsofthetimecontributedtothesameresultbyunsettlingthemoralandreligiousidealswhichtheAthenianhad hithertoheldasmattersoftradition.ThePersianwarsandthemilitaryachievementsofsubsequentyearsbroughtaboutanupheaval inthesocialandpoliticalconditionofAthens.Oldideaswerebeingadjustedtonewcircumstances,thescopeofeducationwas beingwidened;inaword,"thewholeepochwaspenetratedwithaspiritofrevolutionandprogress,"andnoneoftheexistingforces couldholdthatspiritinchecksWemusttakeintoaccountalsothedevelopmentofpoetryandespeciallyofthedrama."Thewhole actionofthedrama,"saysZeller,"comicaswellastragic,isbased(atthistime)onthecollisionofdutiesandrightsonadialectic ofmoralrelationsandduties."{1}Theperiodwasoneofrevolutionandreadjustment. HistoryoftheSophists.ThewordSophist,etymologicallyconsidered,denotesawiseman.IntheearlierpreSocraticperiod itmeantonewhomadewisdomortheteachingofwisdomhisprofession.Lateron,theabuseofdialecticdisputationofwhichthe Sophistswereguiltycausedthenamesophismtobecomesynonymouswithfallacy. TheSophistsflourishedfromabout450B.C.to400B.C.;notthatSophismasaprofessiondisappearedaltogetheratthelatterdate, but,aftertheappearanceofSocratesasateacher,theimportanceoftheSophistdwindledintoinsignificance. ThefirstSophistsarerepresentedasgoingaboutfromcitytocity,gatheringaroundthemtheyoungmenandimpartingtothemin considerationofcertainfeestheinstructionrequisitefortheconductofpublicaffairs.Intheinstructionwhichtheygavetheysetno valueuponobjectivetruth;indeed,theidealatwhichtheyaimedwastheartofmakingtheworseseemthebettercause,andvice versa.Readinessofexpositionandpresentationofargumentsinaspeciousmannerwereallthattheypretendedtoteach. Suchisthehistoryoftheschoolingeneral.ThechiefSophistsareProtagorasofAbdera,theindividualist;GorgiasofLeontini,the nihilist;HippiasofElis,thepolymathist;andProdicusofCeos,themoralist. Sources.Itisdifficult,asPlato{2}pointsout,todefineaccuratelythenatureoftheSophist.TheSophistsleftnofixedtheorems equallyacknowledgedbyalltheschool.Theywerecharacterizedmorebytheirmodeofthoughtthanbyanyfixedcontentof thought.Besides,Plato,Aristotle,andallourotherauthoritiesaresoavowedlyhostiletotheSophists,andraisesounreasonable objectionstoSophism(aswhentheyaccusetheSophistsofbarteringthemeresemblanceofknowledgeforgold),thatwemust weighandexaminetheireverystatementbeforewecanadmititasevidence.DOCTRINES ProtagorasofAbdera(bornabout480B.C.)Composedmanyworks,ofwhich,however,onlyafewfragmentshavesurvived. Plato{3} tracestheopinionsofProtagorastotheinfluenceofHeraclitus.Nothingis,allisBecoming;but,eventhisBecomingis relative.Astheeyedoesnotsee,exceptwhileitisbeingactedupon,sotheobjectisnotcoloredexceptwhileitactsupontheeye.{4} Nothing,therefore,becomesinandforitselfbutonlyforthepercipientsubject. Hence,astheobjectpresentsitselfdifferentlytodifferentsubjects,thereisnoobjectivetruth:Manisthemeasureofallthings.Plato apparentlyreportstheseastheverywordsofProtagoras{5}: ph sigarpoupant nchr mat nmetronanthr pon einait nmenont nh sesti,t ndem ont nh soukestin. Grote{6} andothersdoubtwhethertheaboveisreallythelineofthoughtfollowedoutbyProtagorashimself.InbothPlatoand AristotlewefindallusionstotheemploymentbyProtagorasofthedialecticintroducedbyZeno.Moreover,ifwearetomakethe argumentvalid,wemust,beforeweconcludethat allknowledgeisrelative,introducetheatomisticprinciplethatallknowledge isconditionedbyphysicalalterations. Therelativityofknowledge,asitwasprofessedbyProtagoras,isadenialofallobjectivetruthandareductionofknowledgeto individualopinion.Itfollowsfromthisthatapropositionanditsoppositeareequallytrueiftheyappeartodifferentpersonstobetrue. InthiswaydidProtagoraslaythefoundationofthe eristicmethod,themethodofdispute,whichisassociatedwiththename Sophist,andwhichwascarriedtosuchextremesbytheSophistsoflatertimes. "Ofthegods,"saidProtagoras,"Icanknownothing,neitherthattheyarenorthattheyarenot.Thereismuchtopreventour attainingthisknowledgetheobscurityofthesubjectandtheshortnessofhumanlife."Thesearethefamouswordswithwhich, accordingtoDiogenes,{7}Protagorasbeganthetreatisethatwasmadethebasisofachargeofimpiety,andledultimatelytohis expulsionfromAthens.Theycontainaprofessionofagnosticism.Perhapsthecontext,ifwepossessedit,wouldshowwhether Protagoraswentfurtherandreallyprofessedatheism,thecrimeofwhichhewasaccused. Gorgias of Leontini, a contemporary of Protagoras, composed a treatise, On Nature, or the NonExisting, which is preservedbySextusEmpiricus.Wepossess,assecondaryauthority,aportionofthepseudoAristoteliantreatise Concerning Xenophanes,etc. AsitwastheaimofProtagorastoshowthateverythingisequallytrue,itmaybesaidthatGorgiasstrovetoshowthateverythingis

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equallyfalse.Thelatterprovesbytheuseofdialecticalreasoningthat(1)Nothingexists;(2)Evenifitexisted,itcouldnotbeknown; and(3)Evenifknowledgewerepossible,itcouldnotbecommunicated.{8} Hippias ofElis,ayoungercontemporaryofProtagoras,waspreeminentevenamongtheSophistsforthevanitywithwhichhe paradedhisproficiencyinrhetoric,mathematics,astronomy,andarchaeology.Heboastedthathecouldsaysomethingnewonany topic,howeveroftenitmighthavebeendiscussed.Plato{9}attributestohimthesayingthatlawisatyrantofmen,sinceitprescribes manythingscontrarytonature.Thiswasprobablymeantasaboldparadox,oneofthemanydevicesbywhichtheSophists attractedtheadmirationoftheAthenians. ProdicusofCeoswasalsoacontemporaryofProtagoras.SuchwastheesteeminwhichhewasheldbySocratesthatthelatter oftencalledhimselfhispupil,anddidnothesitatetodirectyoungmentohimforinstruction. Prodicusisbestknownbyhismoraldiscourses,inwhichheshowstheexcellenceofvirtueandthemiseryofalifegivenoverto pleasure.Themostcelebratedofthesediscoursesisentitled HerculesattheCrossRoads.Thechoiceofacareer,the employmentofwealth,theunreasonablenessofthefearofdeath,aresomeofthesubjectsonwhichhedeliveredexhortations. Inspiteofallthis,Prodicus,asaSophist,couldnotconsistentlyavoidmoralscepticism.Ifthereisnotruth,thereisnolaw.Ifthatis truewhichseemstobetrue,thenthatisgoodwhichseemstobegood.Hedidnot,accordingly,attempttodefinevirtueormoral good:hemerelydrewpicturesoftheethicalideals,exhortingratherthanteaching.Thefirsttoattemptasystematictreatmentof ethicalproblemswashewhofirststrovetofixtheconditionsofscientificknowledgethroughconcepts,Socrates,withwhomthe secondperiodofGreekphilosophybegins. Historical Position. Sophistic philosbphy was the outcome of the complex influences which shaped the social, political, philosophical,andreligiousconditionsofAthensduringthelatterhalfofthefifthcenturybeforeChrist.Itwasthephilosophywhich suitedthatage.PericlesfoundpleasureinthesocietyofSophists,Euripidesesteemedthem,Thucydidessoughtinstructionfrom them,andSocratessentthempupils. YetSophismdidnotconstituteanadvanceinphilosophicthought.Itistruethatitdirectedattentiontothesubjectiveelementin humanknowledge.Infact,itmadethesubjectiveelementeverythinginknowledge;itreducedtruthtothelevelofopinion,andmade manthemeasureofallthings.AndhereinlaytheessentialerrorofSophism,vitiatingthewholesystem.Sophismwasnotthe beginningofanerainphilosophy:itwasmoreproperlytheendingoftheerawhichprecededSocrates.Theonwardmovementof thoughtwasnotresumeduntilSocratesshowedthatknowledgeisasfarfrombeingwhollysubjectiveasitisfrombeingwholly objective.ItisSocrates,therefore,whoinauguratesthenewera. Retrospect.Greekphilosophyexhibitsinitshistoricaldevelopmentarhythmofmovementwhichisperfectinthesimplicityofthe formulabywhichitisexpressedobjective,subjectiveobjective,subjective.PreSocraticphilosophywasobjective;the philosophyofSocratesandtheSocraticschoolswaspartlyobjective,partlysubjective,whilethephilosophyoflatertimeswas almostentirelysubjective.BytheobjectivityofpreSocraticphilosophyismeantthat: 1.Itconcerneditselfalmostexclusivelywiththeproblemsofthephysicalworld,payinglittleattentiontothestudyofman,hisorigin, dignity,anddestiny. 2.Itdidnotbusyitselfwiththeproblemsofepistemology.Atfirstallsensepresentationsweretakenwithoutquestionorcriticismas truepresentationsofreality,andevenwhentheEleaticsdistinguishedbetweenreasonandsensetheydidnotgoanyfarther towardsdeterminingtheconditionsofrationalknowledge. 3.Ethicswasnotstudiedscientifically;comparedwithcosmogony,cosmology,andmetaphysics,itdidnotreceiveproportionate attention. Briefly,thephilosophyofGreecebeforethetimeofSocratespossessedallthe na vet thatwastobeexpectedinthefirst speculativeattemptsofapeoplewhonevertiredofnatureandneverlookedbeyondnaturefortheirideals.

{1}Op.cit.,II,403. {2}Sophis.,218C. {3}Theaet.,160B. {4}Arist.,Met.,IX,3,1047a, {5}Theaet.,152A.

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{6}Plato,II,322. {7}IX,51. {8}Cf.Sext.,Mathem.,andthetreatiseConcerningXenophanes,etc.,apudRitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.189ff. {9}Protag.,337C.

SECONDPERIODSOCRATESANDTHESOCRATICSCHOOLS
InthissecondperiodofitshistoryGreekphilosophyreachesitshighestdevelopment.Itisacomparativelyshortperiod,being comprisedwithinthelifespansofthethreemenwhosodominatedthephilosophicthoughtoftheiragethattheirnames,ratherthan thenamesofschoolsorcities,areusedtomarkoffthethreesubdivisionsintowhichthestudyoftheperiodnaturallyfalls.Weshall, therefore,consider

I.SocratesandtheimperfectlySocraticSchools. II.PlatoandtheAcademics. III.AristotleandthePeripatetics.

TheproblemwithwhichthisperiodhadtodealhadalreadybeenformulatedbytheSophists,howtosavetheintellectualand morallifeofthenation,whichwasthreatenedbymaterialismandscepticism.Socratesansweredbydeterminingtheconditionsof intellectualknowledge,andbylayingdeepthescientificfoundationofethics.Plato,withkeenerinsightandmorecomprehensive understanding,developedtheSocraticdoctrineofconceptsintoasystemofmetaphysics,giganticinitsproportions,butlackingin thatsolidityoffoundationwhichcharacterizedtheAristotelianstructure.AristotlecarriedtheSocraticideatoitshighestperfection, and,byprosecutingavigorousandsystematicstudyofnature,suppliedwhatwasdefectiveinPlato'smetaphysicalscheme.The centralproblemwasalwaysthesame;theanswerwasalsothesame,thoughindifferentdegreesoforganicdevelopment, concept,Idea,essence.Theviewadoptedwasneitherentirelysubjectivenorentirelyobjective,theconceptdoctrine,which wasthefirstandsimplestanswer,beingthetypicalformulafortheunionofsubjectandobject,ofselfandnotself.

CHAPTERVII SOCRATES
Life.ThestoryofSocrates'life,asfarasitisknown,issoontold.HewasbornatAthensintheyear469B.C.Hewasthesonof Sophroniscus,asculptor,andofPhaenarete,amidwife.Ofhisearlyyearslittleisrecorded.Wearetoldthathewastrainedinthe professionofhisfather.Foreducation,wemustsupposethathereceivedmerelytheusualcourseofinstructioninmusic,geometry, andgymnastics,sothat,whenhecallshimselfapupilofProdicusandAspasia,heistobeunderstoodasspeakingoffriendsfrom whom he learned by personal intercourse rather than of teachers in the stricter sense of the word. Indeed, in Xenophon's Symposium hestyleshimselfaselftaughtphilosopher, autourgost sphilosophias.Itis,therefore,impossibletosay fromwhatsourcehederivedhisknowledgeofthedoctrinesofParmenides,Heraclitus,Anaxagoras,andtheAtomists. Thegods{1}hadrevealedtoSocratesthatAthenswastobethesceneofhislaborsandthathisspecialmissioninlifewasthemoral andintellectualimprovementofhimselfandothers.Accordingly,aftersomeyearsspentinhisfather'sworkshop,hedevotedhimself tothismissionwithalltheenthusiasmofanunusuallyardentnature:fromasculptorofstatueshebecameateacherwhostroveto shapethesoulsofmen.SodevotedwashetothistaskofteachingtheAtheniansthatheneverbecameacandidateforpublic office,{2}and,withtheexceptionofthemilitarycampaigns,whichledhimasfarasPotidaeaandDelium,andapublicfestivalwhich requiredhispresenceoutsidethecity,nothingcouldinducehimtogobeyondthewallsofAthens. Infulfillinghistaskasteacher,hedidnotimitatetheSophists,whowereatthattimetherecognizedpublicteachersinGreece.He wouldneitheracceptremunerationforhislessonsnorwouldhegiveasystematiccourseofinstruction,preferringtoholdfamiliar conversewithhispupilsandprofessingawillingnesstolearnaswellastoteach.Hetaughtinthemarketplace,inthegymnasium, in the workshop, wherever he found men willing to listen, and once he had secured an audience, he held it with that extraordinaryeloquencewhichissographicallydescribedintheSymposiumofPlato.{3} Hediscardedalltheartsandairsofthe

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Sophists;inappearance,manners,anddress,aswellasinthestudiedplainnessofhislanguage,hestoodinsharpcontrasttothe eleganceandfoppishnessofhisrivals.Yet,bywhatseemstousasingularinstanceofvindictivemisrepresentation,hewasheldup toscornbyAristophanesintheCloudsasaSophist,ateacherofwhatwasmerelyasemblanceofwisdom,andasavain,pompous, andoverbearingman.Socrates'privatemeansmusthavebeenscanty,andthemerementionofhiswife,Xanthippe,recallsthe miseryanddegradationwhichmusthavebeenhislotindomesticlife. Thenarrativeofhistrial,condemnation,anddeathisoneofthemostdramaticinallliterature.Theclosingsceneasdescribedinthe PhaedoisunequaledforpathosandsublimitybyanyotherpagethatevenPlatowrote.Hisdeathoccurredintheyear399B.C. Character.ThepersonalityofSocrateshasimpresseditselfmoredeeplyonthehistoryofphilosophythanhasthatofanyother philosopher.ThepicturewhichXenophondrawsofhimisalmostideallyperfect."Nooneeverheardorsawanythingwrongin Socrates;sopiouswashethatheneverdidanythingwithoutfirstconsultingthegods;sojustthatheneverinjuredanyoneinthe least;somasterofhimselfthatheneverpreferredpleasuretogoodness;sosensiblethathenevererredinhischoicebetweenwhat wasbetterandwhatwasworse.Inaword,hewasofallmenthebestandthehappiest." {4} Plato'saccountagreeswiththis. Socrates,however,"Saint"Socratesasheissometimescalled,wasnotwithouthistraducers.Therewasinhischaractera certainincongruity(anatopiahisadmirerscalledit),aninconsistencybetweentheexternalandtheinternalman,togetherwitha certainuncouthnessofspeechandmanner,whichwasentirelyunGreek.Thesepeculiarities,whiletheyendearedhimtohis friends,madehimmanyenemies,andestablishedatraditionthatinlatertimesdevelopedintoatissueofaccusations,ofwhich coarseness,arrogance,profligacy,andimpietyarebutafew.Althoughitistruethatthesechargesaredevoidofeventheslightest foundation,wemustrememberthatintheageofPericlestheAthenianswerebynomeansaraceofsuperiorbeings,andeven Socratesdespitehishighermoralidealsdidnotrisefarabovehiscontemporariesinpointofmoralconduct. TheSocraticDivinity.Socrates,asiswellknown,oftenspokeofadivinesign,oraheavenlyvoice,whichinthegreatcrisesof hislifecommunicatedtohimadviceandguidancefromabove.Manyarethesuggestionsastowhathemeantbysuchallusions. Lewes{5}remindsusthatwhileSocrates,Plato,andXenophonneverspeakofageniusorademon,theyfrequentlymakementionof ademonicsomething, daimonionti,whichCicerotranslates divinumquoddam.{6} Socrateswasaprofoundlyreligious man,anditisquitenaturalthatheshoulddesignateas"divine"thevoiceofconscience,or,asHermann {7}suggests,theinnervoice ofindividualtact,whichrestrainedhimnotmerelyfromwhatwasmorallywrong,butalso(asinthecaseofhisrefusaltodefend himself)fromwhateverwasunwiseorimprudent.Thisvoicewasprobablynothingmorethanavaguefeelingforwhichhehimself couldnotaccount,awarningcomingfromtheunexploreddepthsofhisowninnerconsciousness. Sources.Socrates,sofarasweknow,neverwroteanything;itiscertainthathecommittednoneofhisdoctrinestowriting.We areobliged,therefore,torelyforourknowledgeofhisteachingontheaccountsgivenbyPlatoandXenophon.Aristotle,also,speaks ofthedoctrinesofSocrates;buthetellsusnothingwhichmaynotbefoundinthewritingsofthetwodiscipleswhostoodinsoclose personalrelationwiththeirmaster.IthasbeensaidthatPlatoandXenophonpresentdifferentviewsofSocrates,andtoacertain extentthestatementiscorrect;buttheviewswhichtheypresentarepictureswhichsupplementratherthancontradicteachother. XenophonwrotehisMemorabiliaasadefenseofSocrates.Beingofapracticalturnofmind,andwhollyunabletoappreciatethe speculativesideofSocrates'teaching,heattachedundueimportancetotheethicaldoctrinesofhismaster.Plato,withdeeper insightintothephilosophicalphaseofSocrates'mind,drawsapictureofthesagewhichfillsinandperfectsthesketchleftusby Xenophon.Itiswelltoremember,moreover,thatthedoctrinesofSocrateswere,ofnecessity,difficulttodescribe.Theteachingof onewhoneverwroteevenanessayonphilosophymustnecessarilybelackinginthecompactnessandconcisenesswhichare possibleonlyinthewrittenword.{8} SOCRATES'PHILOSOPHY GeneralCharacterofSocrates'Teaching.TheIoniansandtheEleaticshadshown,bytheirfailuretoaccountforthings astheyare,thatnovalueis.tobeattachedeithertosenseperceptionortometaphysicalknowledgearisingfromthenotionsof Being,Becoming,theOne,theMany,etc.ThiswasascleartoSocratesasithadbeentotheSophists.But,whereastheSophists hadforthwithgivenupthesearchaftertruth,Socratesinsistedthatbyreflectingonourownmentalconstitutionwemaylearnto determinetheconditionsofknowledge,toformconceptsastheyoughttobeformed,andbythismeansplacetheprinciplesof conductaswellastheprinciplesofknowledgeonasolidscientificfoundation. Knowthyself(gn thiseauton):thisisthesum ofallphilosophy.Fromtheconsiderationoftheobjectiveworld(nature)wemustturntothestudyofthesubjective(self).Thus, philosophy"fromheavendescendedtothelowroofedhouse"ofman. SocraticMethod.Thefirstlessonwhichselfknowledgeteachesisourownignorance.If,therefore,wearetoarriveata knowledgethroughconcepts,thatis,ataknowledgeofthings,notintheirsurfacequalities,butintheirunalterablenatures,wemust haverecoursetothedialogue;inotherwords,wemustconverseinordertolearn.Thus,loveofknowledgeandtheimpulseto friendshiparethesame,andtheblendingofthesetwoiswhatconstitutesthepeculiarityoftheSocraticEros.{9}

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TheSocraticdialogueinvolvestwoprocesses,theonenegativeandtheotherpositive. 1.Thenegativestage.Socratesapproachedhisinterlocutorasifseekingforknowledge.Assumingahumbleattitude,heasked aquestionaboutsomecommonplacething;fromtheanswerhedrewmaterialforanotherquestion,untilatlastbydintofquestioning he extorted from his victim a confession of ignorance. By reason of the pretended deference which, during the process of interrogation,Socratespaidtothesuperiorintelligenceofhispupil,theprocesscametobeknownasSocraticirony. 2.Thepositivestage.Socratesnowproceeded,byanotherseriesofquestions,toaddtogether,aswesay,particularinstances, untilfinallythepupilwasmadetoarriveinductivelyataconcept,thatis,atanideaoftheunalterablenatureofthesubjectdiscussed. Inthe Memorabilia{10} wefindexamplesoftheuseofthisinductiveprocess,whichSocrateshimselfnamed maieutic in referencetotheprofessionofhismotherbecauseitsobjectwastobringintolifethetruthalreadyexistinginthemindofthe pupil.{11} Thewholemethodis heuristic,oramethodoffinding.Itisaninductiveprocessresultinginadefinition."Twothings,"says Aristotle,{12} "arejustlyascribedtoSocrates,inductionanddefinition,"andtheimportanceoftheintroductionoftheseprocesses cannotbeoverestimated.{13} FortheknowledgeofthingsintheirchangeablequalitiesSocrateswouldhaveussubstitutethe knowledgeofthingsintheirunalterablenatures,oressences.PreSocraticphilosophershad,indeed,hintedatadistinctionbetween senseknowledgeandrationalknowledge,orhadevengonesofarastoinsistthatsuchadistinctionmustberecognizedasthe beginningofphilosophy.Nevertheless,mencontinuedtoappealtothesenses,torelyonsenseimpressions,or,atmost,togroup senseimpressionsincompositeimagessuchasthepoetandtherhetoricianemploy.ItwasSocrateswho,byhisheuristicmethod, firstshowedthatsenseimpressionsandalluncriticalgeneralizationsneedtobetestedandcontrolledbycriticism,becausetheyare incompleteandexhibitmerelywhatisaccidentalintheobject.Itwashetoowho,bythesamemethod,firstshowedthat,ifour senseimpressionsaregrouped,notaccordingtotheexigenciesofpoetryandrhetoric,butaccordingtotherequirementsoflogic,if theyarearticulatedintoaconceptrepresentingtheunalterablenatureoftheobject,humanknowledgewillbebuiltonalasting foundation. ContentsofSocraticTeaching.Socratesappliedhisheuristicmethodtothequestionsofman'sdignityanddestiny. 1. Physicalquestions werenotdiscussedbySocrates.ForthisstatementwehavetheexplicittestimonyofXenophonand Aristotle.Andyet,asweshallsee,Socratesstudiedadaptationinnature.Thetruthseemstobethathewasopposednotsomuchto physicalstudiesastothewayinwhichphysicalquestionswerebeingandhadbeendiscussed.Itmust,however,beaddedthat whateverinterestSocratestookinsuchmatterswasalwayssubservienttohisinterestinman. 2.Theology.Asfaraswecangatherfromourauthorities,SocratesseemstohaveadoptedfromAnaxagorasthenotionofan IntelligentCause(Nous),but,goingfartherthanAnaxagorashadgone,heprovedtheexistenceofGodfromthefactthatthereis adaptationinlivingorganisms.Inthecourseofhisargumentheformulatedaprinciplewhichhasservedasmajorpremiseinevery teleologicalargumentsincehistime:"Whateverexistsforausefulpurposemustbetheworkofanintelligence."{14}Wefind, moreover,tracesoftheargumentfromefficientcause.Ifmanpossessesintelligence,Hefromwhomtheuniverseproceedsmust also possess intelligence.{15} Nevertheless, Socrates accepted the current mythology, at least so far as external worship is concerned,advisinginawellknownpassage{16}thatinthismattereachoneshouldconformtothecustomofhisowncity. 3.Immortality.AlthoughPlatorepresentsSocratesasconsideringdilemmatically"eitherdeathendsallthings,oritdoesnot,"{17} therecanbenodoubtastoSocrates'beliefintheimmortalityofthehumansoul.Itmaybethathethoughtthedialecticalproofof thedoctrinetobebeyondthepowerofthehumanmind;butthedepthofhispersonalconvictioncannotforamomentbequestioned. 4.Ethics.IfSocratestaughtmenhowtothink,itwaswiththeultimateintentionofteachingthemhowtolive.Allhisphilosophy culminatesinhisethicaldoctrine.Infact,hewasthefirstnotonlytoestablishascientificconnectionbetweenspeculationandethical philosophy,butalsotogiveananalysisofhappinessandvirtuewhichwascapableoffurthersystematicdevelopment. Thesupremegoodofmanishappiness,andbyhappinessSocratesmeantnotamere eutuchia,whichdependsonexternal conditionsandaccidentsoffortune,butaneupraxia,awellbeingwhichisconditionedbygoodaction.Toattainthis,manmust becomegodlikeinhisindependenceofallexternalneeds:hemustbecomeabstemious,formoderationisthecornerstoneofall virtue.{18} Yet Socrates, asisevidentfromthedialogues of Plato, did not carry thisdoctrine of moderation tothe degreeof asceticism.Moreimportanteventhanmoderationisthecultivationofthemind.Tobehappy,onemustbuildhishappinessnoton theperishablethingsoftheexternalworld,butontheenduringgoodswhicharewithinus,onamindfreefromcareanddevotedto theacquisitionofknowledge. For knowledge isvirtue. This is, perhaps, the most characteristic of all Socrates' ethicaldoctrines, the identification of speculative insight with moral excellence. (ho S krat s) epist mas et einai pasas tas aretas.{19} No man

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intentionallydoeswrong,hesays,forthatwouldbeintentionallytomakehimselfunhappy.Knowledgeis,therefore,theonlyvirtue andignoranceistheonlyvice.YetwhenSocratescomestospeakofparticularinstancesofvirtue,heleavesthehighlevelofvirtue knowledgeanddescendstocommonplaceutilitarianismorcustomarymorality.InthedialoguesofXenophonhealmostalways baseshismoralpreceptsonthemotiveofutility:weshouldendureprivationsbecausethehardymanismorehealthy;weshouldbe modestbecausethepunishmentoftheboastfulisswiftandsure;andsowiththeothervirtues.Thisinconsistencyisadefectwhich marsallthebeautyoftheSocraticsystemofethics. HistoricalPosition.ThephilosophyofSocratesisbestjudgedinthelightoftheinfluencewhichitexercisedonthePlatonicand Aristoteliansystemsofthought.Hispupils,PlatoandAristotle,arethebestproofsofSocrates'titletoaplaceamongtheworld's greatestteachers.Lookingathisphilosophyasabodyofdoctrine,wefindthatitcontains(1)areforminphilosophicmethodthe foundationofinduction;(2)thefirstsystematicinquirytheconditionsofknowledgethefoundationof epistemology;(3)thefirst systemofethicsthefoundationofmoralscience. Importantaswerethesecontributionstophilosophy,moreimportantwastheinfluencewhichSocratesexertedbyhislifeand character.Heappearedinanagethatwastiredofvainspeculationandpretendedwisdom,amongapeoplethenasalwaysmore apttobeimpressedwithconcretepresentationthanwithabstractreasoning,and,byhismanyvirtues,aswellasbyhiswhole souleddevotiontotruth,heconvincedhiscontemporariesthatknowledgeisattainable,andthatahigherandnoblerlifemaybe reachedthroughasystematicstudyofthehumanmind.Bylivingthelifeofanidealphilosopherhetaughthiscountrymentorespect philosophyandtodevotethemselvestothepursuitofwisdom.

{1}Cf.Plato,Apologia,33C. {2}Cf.Zeller,SocratesandtheSocraticSchool,p.67. {3}Symposium,215. {4}Mem.,I,1. {5}BiographicalHistoryofPhilosophy,I,166, {6}Cf.DeDivinatione,I,54,122. {7}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.95. {8}AnexcellenttreatiseonSocratesandhisphilosophyisM.Piat'sSocrate(GrandsPhilosophesseries,Paris,1900). {9}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.127,note2. {10}III,9,10,andIV,2,11. {11}Cf.Plato,Theaet.,149A. {12}Met.,XIII,4,1078b,27. {13}Cf.Grote,Hist.ofGreece,VIII,578. {14}Mem.,I,4,2. {15}Mem.,ibid. {16}Mem.,I,4,3. {17}Apol.,40. {18}Mem.,1,5,4. {19}EudemianEthics,I,5,1216b,6.

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CHAPTERVIIITHEIMPERFECTLYSOCRATICSCHOOLS
AmongthosewhofelttheinfluenceofSocraticteaching,thereweresomewhofailedtoappreciatethefullmeaningofthedoctrineof themaster,andmerelyappliedhismoralpreceptstopracticalquestions;ofthese,thebestknownisXenophon.Thereweretwo, PlatoandAristotle,whopenetratedthespeculativedepthsofSocrates'thoughtanddevelopedhisteachingintoabroaderandmore comprehensiveSocraticphilosophy.Therewerestillotherswho,addressingthemselvestooneorotherpointoftheteachingof Socrates,developedthatpointinconjunctionwithsomeelementsborrowedfromthepreSocraticschools.Theselatterareknown asthe imperfectlySocraticphilosophers.ThefollowingisaconspectusoftheimperfectlySocraticschools,showingtheir derivation: Socraticdialectics

MegarianorEristicSchool(Euclid)Eleaticelement. EleanSchool(Phaedo)Eleaticelement.

Socraticethics

Cynics(Antisthenes)borrowedfromGorgias. Hedonists(Aristippus)borrowedfromProtagoras.

Megarian School. The Megarian school, to which Euclid and Stilpo belonged, made Eleatic metaphysics the basis of a developmentofSocraticethics. EUCLID Life.EuclidofMegara,thefounderofthisschool,wasadiscipleofSocrates,andifthestorytoldbyGellius{1} betrue,wasso devotedtohisteacherthat,atatimewhenallMegarianswereforbiddenunderpainofdeathtoenterAthens,hewouldoftensteal intothatcityintheobscurityofeveninginordertositforanhourandlistento"theoldmaneloquent." Sources.WehavenoprimarysourcesofinformationconcerningtheMegaricschool,andoursecondarysourcesarefewand unsatisfactory.Schleiermacher,however,hasshown{2}thatthephilosophersalludedtoinPlato'sSophistes{3}aretheMegarians. IfwemakeuseofthispassageofPlato,wehavethefollowingpointsofdoctrine. DOCTRINES TheStarting Point.The Megarians started with theSocratic doctrine ofconcepts. If intellectualknowledgeisknowledge throughconcepts,thentheconceptrepresentsthatpartofathingwhichneverchanges. TheDevelopment.Grantednowthat,asParmenidestaught,changeandBecomingareinconceivable,itfollowsthatthe unchangeableessenceswhichconceptsrepresent,thebodilessforms(asomataeid ),aretheonlyreality,andthattheworldof senseformsisanillusion.ConnectedwiththisdenialofBecomingistheassertionthattheactualaloneispossible.Forthiswe havetheexpresstestimonyofAristotle.{4} TheDoctrineoftheGood.TheunionofSocraticandEleaticelementsisfurtherapparentintheMegaricdoctrineofthegood. Thegood,accordingtoSocrates,isthehighestobjectofknowledge.Being,too,astheEleaticstaught,isthehighestobjectof knowledge.Euclid,therefore,consideredhimselfjustifiedintransferringtothegoodallthatParmenideshadsaidaboutBeing:the goodisone,knowledgeofthegoodistheonlyvirtue,thoughcalledbyvariousnames,prudence,justice,etc.Thegoodis immutable;itisinsight,reason,God.Italoneexists.{5} EristicMethod.InordertodefendtheirviewstheMegariansavailedthemselvesoftheindirectmethodofprooffollowinginthis the example of Zeno. This method consists in refuting the arguments or hypotheses of one's opponent and thus, indirectly, establishingone'sownthesis.Later,however,thefollowersofEuclidexceededallprecedentintheiruseofthismethodofstrife,and viedwiththeworstoftheSophistsincaptiousquibbling. HistoricalPosition.ThisonesidedSocraticismtakesforitsstartingpointtheSocraticdialecticofconcepts,whichitdevelopsin unionwithEleaticdoctrinesbymeansofthemethodintroducedbyZenoofElea. TheEleanSchool.Thisschool,foundedbyPhaedo,thediscipleofSocratessooftenmentionedinthePlatonicdialogues,is virtuallyabranchoftheMegarianschool.ItwasremovedfromElistoEretriabyMenedemus(diedabout270B.C.)andwas henceforthknownastheEretrianschool.ItsdoctrinesarepracticallyidenticalwiththoseofEuclid. TheCynics.ThedoctrinesoftheCynicsweredevelopedfromSocraticethicswhichwerecombinedwithcertaindialecticaland

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rhetoricalelementsderivedfromtheEleaticsandfromGorgiastheSophist. ANTISTHENES Life.Antisthenes,thefirstoftheCynics,wasbornatAthensabouttheyear436B.C.Earlyinlifeheassociatedhimselfwiththe Sophists,becoming,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,{6}adiscipleofGorgias.When,therefore,afterthedeathofSocrates,forwhose teachinghehadabandonedthecompanyoftheSophists,Antisthenessetupaschoolofhisown,hewasmerelyreturningtohisold profession.TheschoolwhichheestablishedmetinthegymnasiumofCynosarges,whence,accordingtosomewriters,comesthe nameoftheschool,althoughitisnotlessprobablethatthenamewasoriginallyanickname(Kunes)givento.theCynicsbecause oftheirwellknowndisregardforsocialconventionalities.Indeed,itissaidthatAntisthenes,whohappenedtoresembleSocratesin personal appearance, imagined that he heightened the resemblance by perverting the Socratic doctrine of moderation and abstemiousnessintosomethingborderingonasavageindifferencetoeverythingdecent.Hemustnot,however,beheldaccountable fortheextravagancesofthelaterCynics.Ofthesethebestknownare Diogenes ofSinope, Crates, Menedemus,and Menippus. Sources.OurknowledgeofthedoctrinesoftheCynicsisderivedentirelyfromsecondarysources.Chiefamongtheseare DiogenesLaertius,Stobaeus,SextusEmpiricus,andsomeoftheChurchFathers,suchasClementofAlexandria. DOCTRINES TheCynicswereopposedtoallcultureexceptinsofarasculturemaybemadetofostervirtue.Theywerelikewiseopposedto logicalandphysicalinquiries,thoughtheythemselvescouldnotwhollyavoidsuchquestions.Theystrove,however,tomaketheir logic and physics subservient to the investigation concerning virtue, which they considered to be the paramount problem of philosophy. Logic. According toAntisthenes, definitionisthe expressionoftheessenceof athing.The only definition,however, which Antisthenesadmits,isthesettingforthofthecomponentpartsofathing.Thesimplecannotbedefined. {7}HeopposedthePlatonic theoryofideas,using,itissaid,thefollowingargument: Plat n,hipponmenhop ,hippot tadeouchhor ; to whichPlatoissaidtohaveanswered,"Whatyousayistrue,foryoupossesstheeyeofthebodywithwhichyouseethehorse,but youlackthementaleyebywhichtheconceptofhorseisperceived."{8}Antisthenes,then,believedthattheindividualaloneisreal. Fromwhichitfollowsthatidenticaljudgmentsalonearevalid:everythingshouldreceiveitsownnameandnoother:wemaysay manishuman,orthegoodisgood;butwemaynotsaythatmanisgood,whence,asAristotle{9}andPlato{10}expresslytellus,the Cynicsconcludedthatcontradictionisimpossible,andthat allpropositionsareequallytrue.Thepracticalimportofthis nominalismisseenintheusewhichtheCynicsmadeofthedialecticalmethodoftheSophists. Ethics.AccordingtoSocrates,virtueisthehighestgood:accordingtoAntisthenes, virtueistheonlygood,andviceistheonly evil.Everythingelseriches,honors,freedom,health,life,poverty,shame,slavery,sickness,anddeathisindifferent.The greatestofallerrorsistosupposethatpleasureisgood:"Ihadratherbemad,"Antisthenessaid,"thanbeglad." {11} Now,the essenceofvirtueisselfcontrol,thatis,independenceofallmaterialandaccidentalneeds.Againstalltheneedsofbodyandmind theCynicsstrovetohardenthemselvesbyrenouncingnotonlypleasureandcomfort,butalsofamily,society,andreligion.The virtuousmanistrulywise.Healoneisgodlike.Wisdomisanarmorwhichnotemptationcanpierce,afortressthatcannotbe assailed.Consequently,hewhohasonceattainedwisdomcanneverceasetobevirtuous. HistoricalPosition.ThephilosophyoftheCynicsisaonesideddevelopmentofSocraticteaching.Thedirectionwhichthis developmenttookwasduelesstothelogicalexigenciesoftheSocraticpremisesfromwhichitwasdeducedthantothepeculiar characterofthefounderoftheschool.Antistheneswasbytemperamentnarrowmindedandobstinate,impervioustoculture,aman ofstrongwillbutofmediocreintellectualability.Hewas,wearetold,rebukedbyPlatoforhislackofpolish.Theostentatious asceticismwhichheintroduceddegenerated,astimewenton,intopositiveindecency,anditwasnotuntilStoicismappearedand absorbedwhatwasleftoftheCynicschoolthatmentalculturewasrestoredtoitsplaceinpracticalphilosophy. CyrenaicSchool.ThisschooliscalledHedonistic,fromtheprominencewhichitgavetothedoctrinethatpleasureistheonly good;itisalsocalledCyrenaic,fromthecityofCyrenewhereitfirstappeared. ARISTIPPUS Life.Aristippus,towhomthefundamentaldoctrinesoftheschoolaretraced,wasbornatCyreneabouttheyear435B.C.Thisdate, however,isbynomeanscertain.AttractedbythepersonalcharacterofSocrates,hewenttoAthensinordertobecomeamember oftheSocraticschool;hehadpreviouslymadeacquaintancewiththedoctrinesoftheSophiststhroughthewritingsofProtagoras. AfterthedeathofSocrates,hetaughtinseveralcities;indeed,heseemstohavespentagreatpartofhislifewanderingabout withoutanyfixedabode,althoughitisprobablethatinhisoldagehereturnedtohisnativecityandthereestablishedhisschool.

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AmongthedisciplesofAristippus,thebestknownarehisdaughterAreteandhisgrandsonAristippustheYounger,orthe mothertaught. Sources.ThehistoryoftheCyrenaicphilosophy,likethatoftheteachingoftheCynics,isbasedonsecondaryauthorities,chiefly ontheworksofDiogenes,Cicero,SextusEmpiricus,andClementofAlexandria.Wepossessnoneofthewritingsofthe earlierCyrenaics.Indeed,itissometimesevenquestionedwhetheritwasAristippus,thefounderoftheschool,orhisgrandson,the mothertaught,whofirstreducedtheCyrenaicdoctrinestoasystem.{12} DOCTRINES TheattitudeoftheCyrenaicstowardsthestudyoflogicandphysicswasoneofhostility.TheyagreedwiththeCynicsinregardingall speculationasidle,unlessithadreferencetothestudyofethics,bywhichthehappinessofmanissecured,buttheydifferedfrom themintheirattempttodefinethenatureofhappiness.FortheCynic,virtueistheonlyhappiness;fortheCyrenaic,pleasureisa goodinitself,andvirtueisgoodonlyasameanstoenjoyment. ThecentraldoctrineofHedonismis,therefore,thatpleasureand pleasurealoneconstitutesthehappinessofman.For, theCyrenaicargued,afterthemannerofProtagoras,"thatistruewhichseemstobetrue:wecanknowonlythefeelingsor impressionswhichthingsproduceuponus;ofthingsinthemselveswecanknownothing."Theproduction,therefore,ofcertain feelingsisallthatwecanaccomplishbyaction.Consequently,thatisgoodwhichcanproduceinusthemostpleasantfeelings.{13} PleasurewasdefinedbytheCyrenaicsasgentlemotion.Itis,however,atleastaninaccuracyonCicero'spartwhenhesaysthat by pleasure the Cyrenaics understood mere bodily pleasure. Aristippus explained his pleasure doctrine in terms which are descriptiveofmentalemotionaswellasofbodilyenjoyment.ItistruethattheCyrenaicsspokeofpleasureasconsistingingentle motion.Ourwordemotionwould,perhaps,conveytheirmeaningmuchbetterthanthewordcommonlyemployed.Ontheother hand,itmustbeadmittedthat,accordingtoCyrenaicprinciples,allpleasureisconditionedbybodilypleasure,oratleastbyorganic states.ThisisimpliedinthetheoryofknowledgewhichtheCyrenaicsderivedfromtheteachingofProtagoras.Wemustbecareful, moreover,todistinguishbetweentheHedonismofAristippus,whoby"pleasure"denotedapassingemotion,andtheHedonismof hislaterfollowers,whounderstoodby"pleasure"somethingakintotheEpicureannotionofastate,orpermanentcondition,of painlessness. Pleasure,then,istheonlygood.Knowledge,culture,andevenvirtuearedesirableonlyasmeansbywhichpleasureisattained. Virtuerestrainsusfromthatexcessofemotionwhichispassion:passion,beingviolent,ispainfuland,onthataccount,tobe avoided.{14}Weshouldpossessourpleasureswithoutbeingpossessedbythem: ech oukechomaiasAristippussaid.So, too,amanofsensewillobeythelawsofthecountryandconformtotheusagesofsocietybecausehejudgesthathisfailuretodo sowouldresultinapreponderanceofpainoverpleasure. DiogenesLaertius{15}givesanaccountofthelaterCyrenaicswho,likeTheodorusandHegesias,deemeditnecessarytotonedown thecruditiesofHedonismastaughtbyAristippus.Theodorusmaintainedthatman'shighesthappinessisastateofcheerfulness (chara),whileHegesias,calledthe DeathPersuader,taughtthattheaimofman'sactionsshouldbetoattainastateof indifferencetoallexternalthings.InthisfinalformitwaseasyforHedonismtopassoverintotheStoicschool. HistoricalPosition.ThedevelopmentoftheCyrenaicphilosophy,likethatoftheCynicdoctrine,wasduemoretothepersonal character of the founder of the school and to the social atmosphere of the city where the school was founded than to the requirements of the Socratic system from which it arose. Socrates, it is true, taught that happiness is the aim of action (eudaemonism),butthedoctrinethathappinessconsistsinmomentarypleasureisSocraticismwoefullyperverted."Knowthyself" wasthegistofSocraticteaching."Yes,knowthyself,"taughtAristippus,"inorderthatthoumayestknowtowhatextentthoucanst indulgeinthepleasuresoflifewithoutexceedingthelimitwherepleasurebecomespain."Theapplicationis,surely,moreinaccord withthematerialisticsubjectivismoftheSophiststhanwiththeSocraticprinciplesfromwhichtheCyrenaicphilosophyclaimedtobe derived. Retrospect.TheimperfectlySocraticschoolsgrewupsidebyside,withoutanyaffiliationtooneanother.Theyarethusrelatively independent,eachcarryingoutalongitsownlineofdevelopmentsomepointofSocraticteaching.Theyareessentiallyincomplete, becausetheyarebasedonanimperfectunderstandingofthespiritofSocraticphilosophy.Still,theirinfluence,immediateand mediate,onsubsequentthoughtmustnotbeunderestimated.TheMegarians,intheirdoctrineofbodilessforms,foreshadowedthe PlatonictheoryofIdeas,andbothAntisthenesandAristippusinfluencedthePlatonicdoctrineofthehighestgood.Butimportantas wastheirimmediateinfluence,themediateinfluenceoftheseschoolswasstillmoreimportant.TheageofSocrateswasonethat calledforgreatconstructiveefforts;itwasanagethatcouldappreciatePlatoandAristotle,ratherthanAristippusandAntisthenes. Later,however,therecameatimewhenthepoliticalconditionofGreecewassuchthatmencouldwellbepersuadedtowithdraw fromtheworldofsense,fromtheproblemsofBeingandBecoming,inordertoadoptaselfcentralizedcultureastheonlymeansof

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happiness.ItwasthenthattheinfluenceoftheimperfectlySocraticschoolswasfelt.TheStoaadoptedsubstantiallythemoral teachingsoftheCynics,theScepticismofPyrrhoandtheAcademiessprangfromthedoctrinesoftheMegarians,whiletheschoolof EpicurusrenewedhedonisticethicsbyteachingasystemidenticalinitsprincipaltenetswiththephilosophyoftheCyrenaics. ThereisthusnocontinuityofdevelopmentthroughtheseintercalaryschoolstoPlatoandAristotle.Plato,enteringintothespiritof Socraticphilosophymorefullythantheimperfectdiscipleshaddone,expandedtheSocraticdoctrineofconceptsintothetheoryof Ideas,andgavetoSocraticethicsabroaderfoundationandamoreenduringconsistency.

{1}NoctesAtticae,VI,10. {2}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.257. {3}242B. {4}Met.,IX,3,1046b,29. {5}Diog.Laer.,II,106. {6}Diog.Laer.,VI,1. {7}Diog.Laer.,VI,3. {8}Cf.Simplicius,quotedbyZeller,Socrates,p.300. {9}Met.,V,29,1024b,32. {10}Cratyl.,37. {11}Diog.Laer.,VI,104. {12}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.345,n. {13}Cicero,Academica,II,46,andSext.,Mathem.,VII,191. {14}Cicero,DeOfficiis,III,33andDiog.Laer.,II,91. {15}II,93and98.

CHAPTERIXPLATO
Life.PlatowasbornatAthenssomeyearsafterthebeginningofthePeloponnesianWar.Theexactyearofhisbirthisunknown, but427or428B.C.isthemostprobabledate.Hisfather'snamewasAristo;hismother,Perictione,wasdescendedfromDropides, anearrelativeofSolon.PlatowasoriginallycalledAristocles, Plat n beinganicknamegivenbyhismasteringymnasticson accountofhisbroadbuild. Concerninghisearlylifewedonotpossessmuchreliableinformation.Wemay,however,presumethatheprofitedbyallthe educational advantages that were within the reach of a noble and wealthy Athenian youth. Zeller{1} calls attention to three circumstanceswhichhadadetermininginfluenceonthedevelopmentofPlato'smind.Thefirstofthesewasthepoliticalconditionof Athens.Thecitywasjustthenexperiencingthefulleffectsofdemagogicrule,andtheconditionsathomeandabroadweresuchthat themindofthearistocraticyoungstudentnaturallyturnedtowardsidealisticschemesofstateorganization,schemeswhichwere latertofindexpressioninTheRepublic.ThesecondcircumstanceisthefactthatinearlylifePlatodevotedmuchattentionto poetry,composingpoemsofnomeanartisticvalue.Theseearlystudieswerenotwithouteffectonhisphilosophy;theyinfluenced theentirespiritofhissystemaswellasthelanguage,soremarkableforitsgraceandbeauty,inwhichthatsystemwassetforth. Indeed,itistrue,inasense,thatPlatobecameaphilosopherwithoutceasingtobeapoet.Thecircumstance,however,whichwas mostdecisiveindeterminingthelifeandphilosophyofPlatowasthepersonalinfluenceofSocrates;forthoughhehadstudiedthe doctrinesofHeraclitusunderCratylus,hisphilosophicaltrainingmaybesaidtodatefromhisfirstmeetingwithSocrates. AfterthedeathofSocrates,Plato,whohadspentabouteightyearsasdisciple,beganhistravelspreparatorytoestablishinga schoolofhisown.HefirstrepairedtoMegara,{2}wheresomeofthedisciplesofSocratesweregatheredundertheleadershipof

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Euclid.ThencehewenttoItalytoobtainamoreintimateacquaintancewiththedoctrinesofthePythagoreans.Theexactorderofhis subsequentjourneysisnotcertainstill,thereisnoreasontodoubtthathevisitedEgypt,althoughthetalesthataretoldofthevast storesoflearningwhichheacquiredinthatcountryarefarfromreliable.WemayacceptastruethestoryofhisjourneystoSicily, andofhisrelationswiththeelderDionysius,whosoldhimintoslavery,aswellaswithDionysiustheyounger,whomhetriedto converttohisUtopianschemeofstategovernment. ItwasafterhisfirstjourneytoSicilythatPlatobeganhiscareeratAthensasateacher.Imitatinghismaster,Socrates,hegathered roundhimtheyoungmenofthecity,but,unlikeSocrates,herefusedtoteachinthepublicsquares,preferringtheretirementofthe grovesnearthegymnasiumofAcademus.Therehemethisdisciples,conversingwiththemafterthemannerofSocrates,thoughit isnaturaltosupposethatinhisstyleaswellasinhischoiceofillustrationshedepartedfromtheSocraticexampleofstudied plainness.OnhisreturnfromhisthirdjourneytoSicily,PlatotookuphisresidencepermanentlyinAthens,andthenceforthdevoted himselfunremittinglytoteachingandwriting.Helivedtotheageofeighty,dyinginthemidstofhisintellectuallabors.IfCicero's storybetrue,{3}hediedintheactofwriting;accordingtoanothertraditionprevalentinancienttimes,hediedataweddingfeast. Plato'sCharacter.Eveninantiquity,thecharacterofPlatowasviolentlyassailed.HisdealingswithSocratesandafterwards withhisowndisciples,hisvisitstoSicily,hisreferencestothephilosophicalsystemsofhispredecessors,wereallmadethepretext foraccusationsofselfassertion,tyranny,flatteryoftyrants,plagiarism,andwillfulmisrepresentation.Hisaristocraticwaysandhis disdainoftheostentatiousasceticismoftheCynicsservedasthebasisforchargesofloveofpleasureandimmorality.Theevidence onwhichalltheseaccusationsrestsisoftheflimsiestnature,while,onthecontrary,everythingthatPlatowrotebearstestimonyto the lofty nobility of the man. The truth is that Plato's character was not easily understood. When the idealism and poetic temperamentwhichwerehisbyinstinctandearlytrainingbrokeloosefromtherestraintofSocraticinfluence,hewasmerely realizinginhispersonalcharactertheidealofGreeklifeanidealwhich,byreasonofitsmanysidedness,wasacontradictionand ascandaltothenarrowmindedadvocatesofasceticismandabstemiousness.TheimportancewhichPlatoattachedtoalarger culturewastakenbytheCynicsandhisotheradversariesasasignthathehadabandoned,whereashewasinrealitybutrounding outandperfecting,theSocraticideaofwhataphilosopheroughttobe. Plato'sWritings.{4}WearefortunateinpossessingallthegenuineworksofPlato.ThesocalledPlatonicdialogueswhicharespoken of as lost are certainly spurious. The Divisions mentioned by Aristotle is neither a Platonic nor an Aristotelian treatise; the agraphadogmata,ofwhichAristotlealsomakesmention,ismostlikelyacollectionoftheviewswhichPlatohimsellhadnot committedtowriting,butwhichsomedisciplecollectedfortheuseoftheschool. WhilenothingthatPlatowrotehasbeenlost,itisbynomeanseasytodeterminehowmanyofthethirtysixdialoguesthathave come down to us are undoubtedly authentic. With respect to Phaedrus, Protagoras, The Banquet, Gorgias, The Republic,Timaeus,Thaetetus,and Phaedo ,therecanbenoreasonabledoubt.Others,like Parmenides,Cratylus, TheSophist,arenotsocertainlygenuine;whileinthecaseof Minos,Hipparchus,etc.,thebalanceofevidenceisagainst theirauthenticity.{5} NextcomesthequestionoftheorderorplanofthePlatonicdialogues.Ueberwegmentionsthethreeprincipaltheoriesheldby scholars. They are (1) that Plato wrote according to a definite plan, composing first the elementary dialogues, then the mediatory,andfinallytheconstructivediscourses;(2)thathehadnodefiniteplan,butthatthedialoguesrepresentthedifferent stagesinthedevelopmentofhismind;(3)thathedeliberatelyportrayedinhisdialoguestheseveralstagesinthelifeofSocrates, theidealphilosopher.Zeller,however,verysensiblyremarks{6}thatthequestionhasbeenarguedtoomuchonapriorigrounds, andsuggeststhatthefirstthingtodoistodeterminetheorderinwhichthedialogueswerewrittenataskthatisbynomeans easy. TheformofthePlatonicwritingsis,asiswellknown,thedialogue;thereasonswhyPlatoadoptedthisliteraryformarenotfarto seek.Inthefirstplace,hewasinfluencedbytheSocraticmethod;secondly,hewaspoetenoughtorecognizethedramaticeffectof whichthedialogueiscapable,andtheroomwhichitaffordsforlocalcoloringandportrayalofcharacter.Finally,hemusthave recognizedthatthedialogueaffordedhimtheamplestopportunityofpresentingthelifeofthemodelphilosopherinthewordsand actsoftheidealizedSocrates.PhilosophywasforPlatoamatteroflifeaswellasofthought;"truephilosophy,therefore,couldonly berepresentedintheperfectphilosopher,inthepersonality,words,anddemeanorofSocrates." ThePlatonicdialoguehasbeenwelldescribedasoccupyingamiddlepositionbetweenthepersonalconverseofSocratesandthe purelyscientificcontinuousexpositionofAristotle.{7}Plato,adoptingastricterideaofmethodthanSocratesadopted,excludesthe personalandcontingentelementswhichmadethediscourseofSocratessopicturesque;whileattimes,whenheexplainsthemore difficultpointsofdoctrine,heabandonsalmostaltogethertheinductivemethodforthedeductive,thedialoguewellnighdisappears andgiveswaytounbrokendiscourse.ThisisespeciallytrueoftheTimaeus. Inhisuseofthedialogue,Platoconstantlyhasrecoursetothemythasaformofexpression.Thepoeticalandartisticvalueofthe

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mythisconcededbyall,butitoffersnosmalldifficultywhenthereisquestionofthephilosophicaldoctrinewhichitwasmeantto convey.WhatevermayhavebeenPlato'spurposeinintroducingthemyth,whetheritwastoelucidatebyconcreteimagerysome abstractprinciple,ortomisleadtheunthinkingpopulaceastohisreligiousconvictions,ortoconcealthecontradictionsofhis thought,strivingto"escapephilosophicalcriticismbyseekingrefugeinthelicenseofthepoet,"therecanbenodoubtthatthe mythwasintendedtobeamereallegory,andPlatohimselfwarnsusagainsttakingsuchallegoriesfortruth,theshadowforthe substance. PLATO'SPHILOSOPHY DefinitionofPhilosophy.Plato'sphilosophyisessentiallyacompletionandextensionofthephilosophyofSocrates.What Socrates laid down as a principle of knowledge, Plato enunciates as a principle of Being; the Socratic concept, which was epistemological, is succeeded by the Platonic Idea, which is a metaphysical notion. Socrates taught that knowledge through conceptsistheonlytrueknowledge;therefore,concludesPlato,theconcept,ortheIdea,istheonlytruereality.Thus,forPlato, philosophyisthescienceoftheIdea,or,asweshouldsay,oftheunconditionedbasisofphenomena. InthePhaedrus{8}Platodescribeshowthesoul,atsightofsingularphenomena,ismovedtoaremembranceofitsheavenlyhome andofthearchetypeswhichitcontemplatedinapreviousexistence,andofwhichitnowbeholdstheimperfectcopies.Thereupon, thesoul,fallingintoanecstasyofdelight,wondersatthecontrastbetweentheIdea(archetype)andthephenomenon(copy),and fromthiswonderproceedstheimpulsetophilosophize,whichisidenticalwiththeimpulsetolove.For,whileitistruethatthereisa contrastbetweeneveryIdeaanditsphenomenon,thecontrastismorestrikinginthecaseofthe Ideaofthebeautiful,thisIdea shiningthroughitsvisiblecopiesmoreperfectlythananyotherIdea.Philosophy,then,istheeffortofthehumanmindtorisefrom thecontemplationofvisiblecopiesofIdeastotheknowledgeofIdeasthemselves. Tothequestion,HowisthisknowledgeofIdeastobeattained?Platoanswers,Bymeansofdialectictothisallothertrainingis preliminary.Plato,moreover,iscarefultodistinguishbetween knowledge(epist m )andopinion(doxa),sothat,whenhe definesphilosophyasknowledge,wemustunderstandhimtospeakofknowledgeinthestrictersenseoftheterm.{9} DivisionofPlato'sPhilosophy.Plato,unlikeAristotle,neitherdistinguishedbetweenthedifferentpartsofphilosophy,nor madeeachpartthesubjectofaseparatetreatise.Still,thedoctrinesfoundinthedialoguesmaybeclassedunderthethreeheadsof Dialectic,Physics,andEthicsadivisionwhich,accordingtoCicero,wasmadebyPlatohimself,althoughitismoreprobable thatitwasfirstformulatedbyXenocrates,asSextus{10}says.UnderthetitleDialecticitiscustomarytoincludenotonlylogic,but alsothedoctrineofIdeas.Underthedivision Physics arecomprisedPlato'sdoctrineconcerningtheworldofphenomenain general,histeachingregardingtherelationbetweenIdeaandphenomenon,hiscosmogenetictheories,hisnotionsofmatter,space, andsoforth.Finally,under Ethics areincludednotonlyquestionswhichbelongtothescienceofmorals,butalsothepolitical doctrineswhichplaysoimportantapartinthePlatonicsystem. Dialectic.{11}ItwouldbeidletolooktoPlatoforasystemoflogic.Wefind,indeed,thathementionscertainlawsofthought,but heenunciatesthemaslawsofbeing,makingthemserveametaphysicalratherthanalogicalpurpose.{12}Itisowing,perhaps,to thistendencyofPlato'smindtowardsthemetaphysicalviewthatdefinitionanddivisionreceivemoreofhisattentionthandothe otherproblemsoflogic;dialectic,heteaches,isconcerned(asiseverypartofphilosophy)withtheIdea,or,moreexplicitly,dialectic hasforitsobjecttoreducewhatismanifoldandmultipleinourexperienceofphenomenatothatunityofconceptwhichbelongstoa knowledgeofIdeas,and,furthermore,toestablishanorganicorderamongtheconceptsthusacquired.Dialectichas,therefore,the doubletaskofdefininguniversalconceptsbyinduction(sunag g )andclassifyingthembydivision(diairesis).{13} Definitionanddivisiontogetherwithsomeremarksontheproblemoflanguagearetheonlylogicaldoctrinestobefoundinthe dialogues.Dialectic,however,includes,besideslogicaldoctrines,thetheoryofIdeas,whichisthecenterofallPlatonicthought;for dialecticisthedoctrineoftheIdeainitself,justasphysicsisthedoctrineoftheIdeaimitatedinnature,orasethicsisthedoctrineof theIdeaimitatedinhumanaction.Underthetitleof Dialectic,therefore,thetheoryofIdeasisstudied;itincludesthefollowing questions:(1)originofthetheoryofIdeas;(2)natureandobjectiveexistenceoftheIdeas;(3)theirexpansion intoplurality:formationoftheworldofIdeas. 1.OriginofthetheoryofIdeas.ThetheoryofIdeas,ashasbeenremarkedabove,isanaturaldevelopmentoftheSocratic doctrineofconcepts.Knowledge,asdistinctfromopinion,istheknowledgeofreality.Now,Socratestaughtthatinordertoknowa thingitisnecessaryandsufficienttohaveaconceptofthatthing.Therefore,theconcept,orIdea,istheonlyreality.{14}Todenythat theIdeaisarealityistodenythepossibilityofscientificknowledge. SuchisthefirstandmostimmediatederivationofthetheoryofIdeas.StartingfromSocraticpremises,Platoarguesthatthetheory ofIdeasistheonlyexplanationoftheobjectivevalueofscientificknowledge.Elsewhere,however,asinthe Philebus,{15} he derivesthedoctrineofIdeasfromthefailureofHeraclitusandtheEleaticstoexplainBeingandBecoming.Heraclituswasrightin

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teachingthatBecomingexists;hewaswronginteachingthatBeingdoesnotexist.TheEleatics,onthecontrary,wererightin teachingthatBeingis,buttheywerewronginteachingthatBecomingisnot.ThetruthisthatbothBeingandBecomingexist.When, however,wecometoanalyzeBecomingwefindthatitismadeupofBeingandnotBeing.Consequently,inthechangingworld aroundus,thataloneisrealwhichisunchangeable,absolute,one,namelytheIdea.Forexample,theconcrete,changeablejustis madeuppartlyofwhatwewouldcallthecontingentelement,theelementofimperfection,ofnotBeing,andpartlyoftheone immutableIdea,justice,whichalonepossessesrealbeing.Tosay,then,thattheIdeaofjusticedoesnotexististosaythatthe just(ajustmanorajustaction)isallnotBeingandhasnoreality.AndwhatissaidofjusticemaybesaidofanyotherIdea.The Ideaisthecoreofrealityunderlyingthesurfacequalitieswhichareimperfections,i.e.,unrealities. ThustherealityofBeingandtherealityofscientificknowledgedemandtheexistenceoftheIdea,andthisdoubleaspectofthe IdeaisneverabsentfromPlato'sthought:theIdeaisanecessarypostulateifwemaintain,aswemustmaintain,therealityof scientificknowledgeandtherealityofBeing.ThesearethetworoadsthatleadtotheIdea,theSocraticdoctrineofconceptsand theproblemofBeingandBecoming,aproblemthatwasstated,thoughnotsatisfactorilysolved,byHeraclitusandtheEleatics.{16} BesidesthesephilosophicalprincipleswhichledtothetheoryofIdeas,thereexistedinthemindofPlatowhatmaybecalleda temperamentalpredispositiontoadoptsomesuchtheoryasthedoctrineofIdeasandbymeansofittoexplainknowledgeand reality;forPlatowasapoetandinhimtheartisticsensewasalwayspredominant.HewasaGreekoftheGreeks,andtheGreek eveninhismythologylovedclearlycut,firmlyoutlinedforms,definite,visibleshapes.Itwasnatural,therefore,forPlatonotmerelyto distinguishinthingsthepermanentelementwhichistheirBeingandtheobjectofourknowledge,butalsotoextract,asitwere,this elementfromthemanifoldandchangeableinwhichitwasembedded,andtohypostatizeit,causingittostandoutinaworldofits own,inallitsonenessanddefinitenessandimmutability. 2.ThenatureandobjectiveexistenceoftheIdeas.Fromwhathasbeensaid,itisclearthattheIdeaistheelementof realityinthingstheoneuniform,immutableelement,unaffectedbymultiplicity,change,andpartialnotBeing.Theexpressions whichPlatousestodescribetheIdeaalwaysimplyoneorseveraloftheseattributes.Forinstance,hecallsit ousia,aidios ousia,ont son,pantel son,katatautaon,aeikatatautaechonakin t s,etc.Thename,however,bywhich theIdeaismostcommonlydesignatedis eidos,or idea,whichprimarilydenotessomethingobjective,thoughinasecondary sensethePlatonicIdeaisalsoanideainourmeaningoftheword,aconceptbywhichtheobjectisknown.ButwhethertheIdeabe consideredsubjectivelyorobjectively,andtheobjectiveaspectisalwaystobeconsideredfirst,itisessentiallyuniversal,or,to useAristotle'sphrase,henepipoll n.Wemaycallittheuniversalessenceifwearecarefultodissociatefromtheword essence themeaningofsomethingexistinginthings;fornothingisclearerthanthatPlatounderstoodbytheIdeasomething existingapartfrom(ch ris)thephenomenawhichmakeuptheworldofsense.TheIdeatranscendstheworldofconcrete existence;itabidesintheheavenlysphere,thetoposnoetos,wherethegodsandthesoulsoftheblessedcontemplateit.Itis describedinthePhaedrus{17}asfollows:"Nowoftheheavenwhichisabovetheheavensnoearthlypoethaseversungorever willsinginaworthymanner.Imusttell,forIamboundtospeaktrulywhenspeakingoftruth.Thecolorlessandformlessand intangibleessenceisvisibletothemind,whichistheonlylordofthesoul.Circlingthisintheregionabovetheheavensistheplace of true knowledge." In The Banquet{18} the Idea of beauty is described "beauty only, absolute, separate, simple, and everlasting."Therecanbenodoubt,therefore,thatPlatoseparatedtheworldofIdeasfromtheworldofconcreteexistence.He hypostatized,sotospeak,theIdea,anditwasagainstthisseparation(ch rizein)oftheIdeathatAristotledirectedhiscriticismof Plato'stheory.AccordingtoAristotle,thePlatonicworldofIdeasisaworldbyitself,aprototypeoftheworldwhichwesee,andin thisinterpretationAristotleissupportedandsustainedbyallthelaterScholastics.Itisnolongerseriouslymaintainedthatthe PlatonicIdeasexistmerelyinthehumanmind.MoreworthyofconsiderationistheviewofSt.Augustine,who,followingtheexample ofearlyChristianPlatonists,identifiestheworldofPlatonicIdeaswith themindofGod.Thisview,supportedasitisbythe authorityofsomeofthegreatestofChristianphilosophersaswellasbythatofthelaterPlatonistsandofalltheNeoPlatonists,is notlightlytobesetaside.Ontheotherhand,thestatementsofAristotle{19}areexplicit,andwemustrememberthatAristotlewasan immediatediscipleofPlato;wehavenoreasontosupposethathewillfullymisrepresentedhismasterinthismostimportantpoint, andwehaveeveryreasontobelievethathewasfullycapableofunderstandinghismaster'steaching.{20} SofartheIdeahasbeendescribedastheobjectivecorrelativeofouruniversalconcept;butwhiletheuniversalityofourconceptsis aproductofdialecticalthought,theuniversalityoftheIdeaisobjective,thatis,independentofthehumanmind.Thisobjective universalityisexplainedintheSophist,{21}inwhichPlatoattackstheEleaticdoctrineoftheonenessofBeing,maintainingthatthe Ideaisatthesametimeoneandmany.ButhowaretheunityandmultiplicityoftheIdeatobereconciled?Platoanswersthatthey are reconciled by the community (koin nia) of concepts. As a concept, for example Being, is differentiated into its determinations,suchasmotionandrest,sointheobjectiveorder(asPlatoshowsinthe Parmenides{22} byamorecogent processofdirectargument)theIdeaisidenticalwithanotherthing(tauton)andatthesametimeisdifferentfromotherthings (thateron).Inthisway,wehaveunityinpluralityandpluralityinunity.AScholasticwouldsaythatthefundamentalunityof

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thesubjectisnotincompatiblewiththeformalmultiplicityofitsqualities,andwhilethisisnotpreciselywhatPlatomeant,itis certainlyabetterillustrationofPlato'smeaningthanistheNeoPlatonicinterpretation,accordingtowhichbyIdeasPlatomeant numbers.Itis,however,verylikelythatPlatodidnotclearlyunderstandhowunityandmultiplicitycouldbelongtotheIdea. JustasPlatoattackedtheEleaticdoctrineoftheonenessofBeingsodidhe{23}attacktheEleaticdoctrineofimmobility.TheIdea isactive,for,ifitwereinert,itwouldbecapableneitherofbeingknownbyusnorofconstitutingreality;andtocausethingstobe knownandtoconstitutetheirrealityare,sotospeak,thetwofunctionsoftheIdea.NotonlyistheIdeadescribedasactive, {24}but evenastheonlytruecause.Inaremarkablepassage,{25} Socratesisrepresentedassayingthathewasdissatisfiedwiththe speculationsofthePhysicists,thathewasdisappointedinhishopethatAnaxagoraswouldexplaintheoriginofthings,andthathe finallydiscoveredthatIdeasaretheonlyadequatecausesofphenomena.Aristotle,therefore,isrightinsaying{26}thatheknewofno efficientcausesinthedoctrineofPlatoexceptIdeas,andthusweareforcedtoacceptwithoutattemptingtoexplainthePlatonic doctrinethatIdeas,withoutbeingcaused,arecauses;thatalthoughtheyarenotsubjecttoBecoming,theyarethepowerbywhose agencyallphenomenabecome.Still,injusticetoPlato,itshouldberememberedthatwhilehemaintainsthedynamicfunctionofthe Ideas,holdingthemtobelivingpowers,heisprimarilyconcernedwiththeirstatic,orplastic,function,inasmuchastheyarethe forms,ortypes,ofexistingthings. 3.TheworldofIdeas.PlatohardlyeverspeaksoftheIdea,butalwaysofIdeasintheplural,forthereisaworldofIdeas.Indeed, wemaysaythatforPlatotherearethreeworlds:worldofconcretephenomena,theworldofourconcepts,andtheworldofIdeas (kosmos,ortoposno tos).Therelationbetweenthefirstandthirdoftheseworldswillbediscussedlaterundertheheadof Physics.TherelationbetweentheworldofconceptsandtheworldofIdeasliesinthefactthattheformeristhefaintreflectionofthe latter.ThisishowPlatowoulddescribeit;inmodernterminologyweshouldsaytheworldofIdeasisthelogicalandontological priusoftheworldofconcepts.But,howeverweviewtherelationbetweenthetwoworlds,itcannotbedeniedthatthereisatleasta parallelismbetweenthem.ToeveryconceptcorrespondsanIdea,andtothelawsofthoughtwhichruletheworldofconcepts correspondthelawsofBeingwhichruletheworldofIdeas. Inthefirstplace,justasourconceptsaremany,theIdeasaremany.EverythinghasitsIdea,whatissmallandworthlessaswell aswhatisgreatandperfect.Productsofartaswellasobjectsofnature;substances,qualities,relations,mathematicalfigures,and grammaticalforms,allthesehavetheirIdeas.{27}ThatalonehasnoIdeawhichismereBecoming.ThenumberofIdeas,then,is indefinite. Inthesecondplace,ourconceptspossessalogicalunity,andsoinallthemultiplicityofIdeasthereis aunitywhichmaybe calledorganic.TheIdeasformaseriesdescendinginwellordereddivisionandsubdivisionfromthehighestgeneratothe individual,anditisthetaskofsciencetorepresentthisseries,todescendinthoughtfromtheonetothemultiple.Platohimself{28} attemptedtoperformthistask,naming,asthemostuniversalIdeas, BeingandnotBeing,likeandunlike,unityand number,thestraightandthecrooked,anattemptwhichsuggestsontheonehandthetenoppositesofthePythagoreans andontheotherhandthetenAristoteliancategories.Theclassificationisofcourseincomplete. OfgreaterimportancethanthisincompleteenumerationofthehighestkindsofIdeasisPlato'sdoctrineofthesupremacyofthe Ideaofgood.Asinthematerialuniversethesunisthesourceoflightandlife,illuminingtheearthandfillingeverypartofitwith lifeproducingwarmth,sointhesupersensibleworldofIdeastheIdeaofgoodisthelightandlifeofalltheotherIdeascausingthem bothtobeandtobeknown.{29}ButwhatdoesPlatomeanbythisIdeaofgood?Isitmerelytheabsolutegood,actingasfinalcause, thegoalofhumanactivity,theultimateendofallthings?IfthiswerePlato'smeaning,thegoodmightbedefinedasafinalcause;it couldnotbedefinedasefficientcause,anditcertainlyissodescribed. {30}Moreover,inthePhilebus{31}thegoodisidentifiedwith divinereason.Theonlyrationalinterpretation,therefore,ofPlato'sdoctrineofthegoodisthatbytheIdeaofgoodPlatomeantGod Himself.ItistruethatforuswhoareaccustomedtorepresenttheDeityasaperson,itisnoteasytorealizehowPlatocould hypostatizeauniversalconceptandcallitGod,orhowhecouldconceivethesourceoflifeandenergytobeintelligent,andyet describeitintermsinconsistentwithselfconsciousness.Thecorrectexplanationseemstobethattherelationbetweenpersonality andintelligencedidnotsuggestitselftoPlato.(Notonlyhe,buttheancientphilosophersingeneral,lackedadefinitenotionofwhat personalityis.Plato,itmustbeunderstood,didnotdenythepersonalityofGod.Indeed,heoftenspeaksofGodasaperson.He wassimplyunconsciousoftheproblemwhichsuggestsitselfsonaturallytous,Howtoreconcilethenotionofpersonalitywiththe IdeaofgoodwhichheidentifiedwithGod? FromtheconsiderationoftheIdeaofgoodweareledtothenextdivisionofPlato'sphilosophy,namely,physics;itwasbecauseof hisgoodnessthatGodcreatedphenomena.Wepasstherefore,asitwere,throughtheIdeaofgood,fromtheworldofIdeastothe worldofphenomena. Physics.UnderthisheadareincludedallthemanifestationsoftheIdeaintheworldofphenomena.Nowtheworldofphenomena istheworldofsensepresentation,theregionofchangeandmultiplicityandimperfectionand,therefore,ofpartialnotBeing.It

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presentsastrikingcontrasttotheworldofIdeas,whichstands"inviewlessmajesty"aboveit,andwherethereisnochange,no imperfection,nonotBeing.Yetthesetwoworldshavesomethingincommon:thereisa contact(koin nia)ofthelowerwiththe higher,forthephenomenonpartakes(metechei)oftheIdea.{32}Thustheconcretegood(goodmen,goodactions)partakesof theabsolutegood:ahorseorafireintheconcreteworldpartakesofthehorseinitselforofthefireinitselfwhichexistsinthe worldofIdeas.IntheParmenides{33}theparticipationisexplainedtobeanimitation(mim sis),theIdeasbeingprototypes (paradeigmata)ofwhichthephenomenaareectypes,orcopies(eid la).Thisparticipationis,however,soimperfectthatin beautyandlusterandgrandeurtheworldofphenomenafallsfarshortoftheworldofIdeas. 1.Whence,weareforcedtoask,comesthisimperfection,thispartialnotBeing?Foranswer,Platoisobligedtoassumeaprinciple directlyantitheticaltotheIdea.Hedoesnotcallthisprinciplematter,thewordhul beingfirstusedinthissensebyAristotle;and itisamistaketointerpretPlato'sthoughtasifbytheprincipleofimperfectionhemeantamaterialsubstratumofexistence.The phrasebywhichitisdesignatedvariesinthedifferentdialogues;itiscalled,forexample,space(ch ra),mass(ekmageion), receptacle(pandeches),theunlimited(apeiron),and,accordingtosomeinterpreters,itisnotBeing(m on),andthe greatandsmall.Itisdescribedinthe Timeaus{34}asthatinwhichallthingsappear,growup,anddecay.Consequently,itisa negativeprincipleoflimitation,moreakintospacethantomatter,andAristotleisrightincontrasting {35}hisownideaofthelimiting principlewiththatofPlato.ThesocalledPlatonicmatterisessentiallyanegation,whereasinAristotle'sphilosophynegation (steresis)isbutaqualityofmatter. TheconceptofPlatonicmatterisnoteasytograsp.Itisamereform,yetitisnotaformofthemindinanyKantiansense.Itisa formobjectivelyexisting,andyetitisnotareality.Platohimselfrecognizedthedifficultywhichtheconceptoftheprincipleof limitationinvolved.IntheTimaeus{36}hetellsusthatitisknownbyakindof spuriousreason(logism noth )andishardly amatterofbelief.Theconfessiondoesnotsurpriseus,forinthisattempttodesignatealimitingprincipleliesthefatalflawofthe wholePlatonictheory.Toderivethelimitedfromtheunlimited,thepartialnotBeingfromBeing,isataskwhichneitherPlatonor Spinozacouldfulfillconsistentlywithhisfirstassumptions.AristotledetectedthisweaknessintheidealisticmonismofPlato,aswell asinthematerialisticmonismoftheearlyPhysicists,anditwasinordertosupplythedefectsofboththatheintroducedthedualistic conceptofaworldwhichistheoutcomeofthepotentialandtheactual. Plato,therefore,failedtoaccountsatisfactorilyforthederivationofthesensuousfromthesupersensuousworld.Hehadrecourse,as Aristotleremarks,{37}tosuchwidelydifferentexpressionsasparticipation,community(koin nia),imitation;buthemust havebeenawarethatbythesephrasesheevadedratherthansolvedtherealproblem.Onepoint,however,isbeyonddispute:Plato assumedthatalimitingprinciple,thesourceofallevil,andimperfection,exists.Heassumedit,illogically,indefianceofhisdoctrine thattheIdeaistheonlyreality.Heis,therefore,asonewhowouldbeadualistdidhispremisesallowhimtodepartfromthemonism whichisthestartingpointofallhisspeculation. 2.Inordertoexplaintheworldofphenomena,Platowasobligedtopostulate,besidestheIdeaandtheprincipleoflimitation,the existenceofaworldsoul(Nous),whichmediatesbetweentheIdeaandmatterandistheproximatecauseofalllifeandorder andmotionandknowledgeintheuniverse.Theuniverse,hetaught,isalivinganimal( z onennoun),endowedwiththemost perfectandmostintelligentofsouls,because,ashearguesinthe Timaeus,{38}ifGodmadetheworldasperfectasthenatureof matter(theprincipleoflimitation)wouldallow,Hemusthaveendoweditwithasoulthatisperfect.Thissoulisaperfectharmony:it containsallmathematicalproportions.Diffusedthroughouttheuniverse,ceaselesslyselfmovingaccordingtoregularlaw,itisthe causeofallchangeandallBecoming.ItisnotanIdea,fortheIdeaisuncaused,universal,allBeing,whiletheworldsoulisderived andparticularandispartlymadeupofnotBeing.Althoughitisconceivedbyakindofanalogywiththehumansoul,thequestion whetheritispersonalorimpersonalneversuggesteditselftoPlato.{39} Afterthegeneralproblemofthederivationofthesensuousfromthesupersensuousworldcometheparticularquestionswhich belongtowhatwecallcosmology.Platohimselfinformsus{40}thatsincenatureisBecomingratherthanBeing,thestudyofnature leadsnottotruescientificknowledge(epist me),butto belief only(pistis).Cosmology,therefore,andphysicalsciencein generalhaveavaluefarinferiortodialectic,whichisthescienceofthepureIdea. 3.Astotheoriginoftheuniverse:ThesocalledPlatonicmatteriseternal.Theuniverse,however,asitexistshaditsoriginin time.ThisseemstobethenaturalandobvioussenseofTimeus,28,althoughXenocrates,animmediatediscipleofPlato,wasof opinionthatPlatotaughtthetemporaloriginoftheworldmerelyforthesakeofclearnesstoemphasizethefactthatithadan origin.Now,sincematterexistedfrometernity,theuniversewasnotcreated.Fromoutthechaoswhichwasruledbynecessity (anagke),God,theDemiurgos,orCreator,broughtorder,fashioningthephenomenainmatteraccordingtotheeternalprototypes, theIdeas,andmakingthephenomenaforHewasfreefromjealousyasperfectastheimperfectionofmatterwouldallow.First, Heproducedtheworldsoul;then,asthesphereisthemostperfectfigure,Heformedforthissoulasphericalbodycomposedoffire, air,earth,andwatersubstanceswhichEmpedocleshaddesignatedastherootprinciplesoftheworld,andwhicharenow,forthe

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firsttimeinthehistoryofphilosophy,called elements.Thequestion,Whyaretheelementsfourinnumber?Platoanswersby assigningateleologicalaswellasaphysicalreason,{41}thusexhibitingthetwoinfluences,SocraticandPythagorean,whichmore thananyothercausescontributedtodeterminehisphysicaltheories.Thefourelementsdifferfromoneanotherbythepossessionof definitequalities;alldifferencesofthingsareaccountedforbydifferentcombinationsoftheelementsthemselvesbodiesarelight orheavyaccordingastheelementoffire,whichislight,ortheelementofearth,whichisheavy,prevails. 4.Inhisexplanationoftheworldsystem asitnowis,PlatoshowsstillmoreevidentlytheinfluenceofthePythagoreans,and especiallyofPhilolaus.{42} AddtothisinfluencethenaturaltendencyofPlato'smindtowardstheidealisticandartisticconceptof everything,andthedoctrinethattheheavenlybodiesarecreatedgodsthemostperfectofGod'screatures,fromwhose fidelitytotheirpathsinthefirmamentmanmaylearntorulethelawlessmovementsofhisownsoul{43}willceasetoappearoutof keepingwiththeseriousnessofPlato'sattempttosolvetheproblemsofhumanknowledgeandhumandestiny. 5.InPlato'santhropologicaldoctrinesthemixtureofmythandscienceismorefrequentandmoremisleadingthaninanyother portionofhisphilosophy.Astotheoriginofthesoul,heteaches{44}thatwhentheCreatorhadformedtheuniverseandthestars Hecommandedthecreatedgodstofashionthehumanbody,whileHeHimselfproceededtoformthehumansoul(oratleastthe rationalpartofit),takingforthispurposethesamematerialswhichHehadusedtoformtheworldsoul,mixingtheminthesame cup,thoughthemixturewasofinferiorpurity. Platorejects{45}thedoctrinethatthesoulisaharmonyofthebody,onthegroundthatthesoulhasstrivingswhicharecontraryto theinclinationsofsense,andwhichproveittobeofanaturedifferentfromthatofthebody.Thesoulisexpresslydefined{46}asa selfmovingprinciple.Itisrelatedtothebodymerelyasa causamovens.How,then,diditcometobeunitedtothebody? Plato{47}answersbythe"figure,"orallegory,inwhichisconveyedthedoctrineofpre xistence.IntheTimaeus,however,the mythicalformofexpressionislaidaside,aswhen,forexample,{48}thesoulissaidtohavebeenunitedtothebodybyvirtueofa cosmiclaw. Thedoctrineofprexistencegaverisetothedoctrineof recollection,althoughsometimes,asinthe Meno,{49} theprevious existenceofthesoulisprovedfromthepossibilityoflearning.Thedoctrineofrecollectionimpliesthatinoursupercelestialhomethe soulenjoyedaclearanduncloudedvisionoftheIdeas,andthat,althoughitfellfromthathappystateandwassteepedintheriverof forgetfulness,itstillretainsanindistinctmemoryofthoseheavenlyintuitionsofthetruth;sothatthesightofthephenomenamere shadowsoftheIdeasarousesinthesoulaclearerandfullerrecollectionofwhatitcontemplatedinitspreviousexistence.The processoflearningconsists,therefore,inrecallingwhatwehaveforgotten:tolearnistoremember. Ifprexistenceisonepoleintheidealcircleofthesoul'sexistence, immortalityistheother.Thesojournofthesoulintheworldof everchangingphenomenaisbutaperiodofpunishmentwhichendswiththedeathofthebody.Underlyingthemythicallanguagein whichPlatoconveyedhispsychologicaldoctrines,thereisadeepseatedconvictionoftherealityofthefuturelife,agenuinebeliefin theimmortalityofthesoul.Indeed,PlatoisthefirstGreekphilosophertoformulateinscientificlanguageandtoestablishwith scientificproofananswertothequestion,Doesdeathendallthings?Hitherto,theimmortalityofthesoulhadbeenpartofthe religioussystemsofAsiaandofGreece;nowitappearsforthefirsttimeasascientificthesis,aspartofapurelyrationalsystemof philosophy. Thedialoguewhichdealsexpresslywiththeproblemofimmortalityisthe Phaedo;thereSocratesisrepresentedbythenarratoras discoursingonthefutureexistence,whilethejailerstandsatthedooroftheprisonwiththefataldraughtinhishand.Thearguments whichSocratesusesmaybesummedupasfollows: 1.Oppositesgenerateopposites.Outoflifecomesdeath:therefore,outofdeathcomeslife.{50} 2.Thesoul,beingwithoutcomposition,isakintotheabsolutelyimmutableIdea.Thebody,onthecontrary,is,byitscomposition, akintothingswhichchange.Whenthebodyisdestroyed,thesoul,byvirtueofitsaffinitytotheindestructible,isenabledtoresistall decayanddestruction.{51} 3.Ifthesoulexistedbeforethebody,itisnaturaltoexpectthatitwillexistafterthebody.Thatitexistedbeforethebodyisprovedby thedoctrineofrecollection.{52} 4.Besidesthesearguments,thefollowingproofisusedbyPlato. {53}Thedissolutionofanythingisaccomplishedbytheevilwhichis opposedtoit.Now,moralevilistheonlyevilwhichisopposedtothenatureofthesoul;if,then,sindoesnotdestroythesoul,asit certainlydoesnot,thereasonmustbethatthesoulisindestructible. UnderlyingalltheforegoingargumentsistheonepivotalthoughtofPlato'spsychology,that lifenecessarilybelongstothe Ideaofthesoul.ThisthoughtisbroughtoutinthelastoftheSocraticarguments.

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5.AnIdeacannotpassintoitsopposite,aScholasticwouldsayessencesareimmutable.AnIdea,therefore,whichhasadefinite conceptattachedtoitexcludestheoppositeofthatconcept.Now,lifebelongstotheIdeaofthesoul.Consequently,thesoul excludesdeath,whichistheoppositeoflife.Adeadsoulisacontradictioninterms.{54} Thesame ontologicalargument occursin Phaedrus,245,anditisevidentlythechiefargumentonwhichPlatobaseshis convictionthatthesoulisimmortal.YetinthePhaedo,aftereachofSocrates'listenershassignifiedhisacceptanceoftheproof, SocratesismadetoagreewithSimmiasthatthereisnolongerroomforanyuncertaintyexceptthatwhicharisesfromthe greatnessofthesubjectandthefeeblenessofthehumanmind.{55} Closelyalliedwiththedoctrineofimmortalityisthedoctrineof transmigrationofsouls andof futureretribution.Plato recognizedthatimmortalityinvolvestheideaoffutureretributionofsomesort,justasthenecessityofafutureretributioninvolves immortality.Hedidnotdeterminescientificallytheprecisenatureofretributioninthenextlife.Hewascontentwithadoptingthe transmigrationmythswhichhederivedfromthemysteries.Yet,forPlato,thesemythscontainedagermoftruth,althoughthemost thatcanbesafelysaidisthatheseriouslymaintainedthedoctrineoftransmigrationinagenericsense:thedetailssocarefullyset forthintheTimaeusandinthePhaedoarenottobetakenaspartofPlato'sscientificthought. WhenwespeakofimmortalitywemustnotimaginethatPlatoheldeverypartofthesoultobeimmortal.Heenumeratesthreeparts ofthesoul,therational(logos),theirascible(thumos),andtheappetitive(epithumia)parts.Thesearenotfaculties orpowersofonesubstance,butparts(mer )thedistinctionofwhichisprovedbythefactthatappetitestrivesagainstreason,and angeragainstreasonandappetite.{56} Reasonresidesinthehead;theirasciblesoul,theseatofcourage,isintheheart;and appetite,theseatofdesire,isintheabdomen.{57} Ofthesethree,therationalpartaloneisimmortal.ItaloneisproducedbyGod.BymaintainingthatthesoulhaspartsPlatoweakens hisdoctrineofimmortalityandexposesittomanyobjections. Plato in his theory of knowledge bases his distinction of kinds of knowledge on the distinction of objects. Objects of knowledge{58}aredividedasfollows:

Supersensibleobjects(No tongenos) Ideas(Ideai) Mathematicalentities(Math matika) Sensibleobjects(Horatongenos) Realbodies(S mata) Semblancesofbodies(Eikones)

Tothiscorrespondsthedivisionofknowledge:

Supersensibleknowledge(No sis) Intellect(Nous) Reason(Dianoia) Opinion:senseknowledge(Doxa) Senseperception(Pistis) Imagination(Eikasia)

Knowledgebeginswithsenseperception.Thesenses,however,cannotattainaknowledgeoftruth.Theycontemplatetheimperfect copiesoftheIdeas;aslongaswelookupontheobjectsofsensewearemerelygazingattheshadowsofthingswhich,accordingto thecelebratedAllegoryoftheCave,{59}aremovingwherewecannotseethem,namely,intheworldofIdeasfromwhichthesoul hasfallen.(YetthoughthesenseperceivedworldcannotleadustoaknowledgeofIdeas,itcananddoesremindusoftheIdeas whichwesawinapreviousexistence.Itisbythedoctrineofrecollection,therefore,thatPlatobridgesoverthechasmbetween senseknowledge and a knowledge of reality. Phenomena are not the causes, but merely the occasions of our intellectual knowledge;forinknowledge,asinexistence,theuniversal,accordingtoPlato,isthepriusoftheindividual. ThedoctrineofthefreedomofthewillassumesanovelphaseinthephilosophyofPlato.Platounequivocallyassertsthatthewill isfree.{60} Notonlyisfreedomofchoiceaqualityofadulthumanactivity,butitisfreechoicealsothatdecidesourparentage, hereditarytendencies,physicalconstitution,andearlyeducation,forallthesearetheresultofactionsfreelyperformedduringthe previous existence of the soul. Notwithstanding this doctrine of freedom, Plato{61} holdsthe Socratic principle that no one is voluntarilybad.

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Plato'sphysiologicaldoctrinesareofinterestasservingtoshowthefutilityofattemptingtoexplainthecomplicatedphenomena oflifewithsuchinadequateexperimentaldataashehadathiscommand.Hewasforcedbyhisphilosophicalprinciplestoneglect observationandtounderestimatesenseknowledge.Aristotle,whoattachedgreatervaluetoempiricalknowledge,wasfarmore successfulinhisinvestigationofnaturalphenomena. Ethics.UnderthisheadareincludedPlato'sethicalandpoliticaldoctrines.IfPlato'sphysicswasstyledthestudyoftheIdeainthe worldofphenomena,thisportionofhisphilosophymaybecalledthestudyoftheIdeainhumanactionandhumansociety.Ethics, however,isvastlymoreimportantthanphysicsinthePlatonicsystemofthought;forphysicsistreatedasifitwerescarcelymore thanascienceoftheapparent,whilesuchistheimportanceattachedtoethicsthatPlato'sphilosophyasawholehasbeen describedasprimarilyethical.Andthedescriptionistruetoacertainextent.AllPlatonic,aswellasSocratic,speculationstartswith aninquiryaboutthegoodandthebeautiful,andproceeds,inthecaseofPlato,throughthedoctrineofconceptstothetheoryof Ideas.Nevertheless,whileSocraticinfluenceismoreapparentinPlato'sethicsthaninanyotherportionofhisphilosophy,itistrue thatthesystemofethicsinitscompletedformispartofthePlatonicstructure,andisconditionedbythemetaphysics,anthropology, andphysicsofPlato,aswellasbytheSocraticinquiriesconcerningvirtue. 1.Thehighestgood,subjectivelyconsidered,ishappiness{62};objectively,itistheIdeaofgood,which,ashasbeenseen,is identifiedwithGod.{63} Consequently,theaimofman'sactionsshouldbetofreehimselffromthebondsoftheflesh,fromthe trammelsofthebodyinwhichthesoulisconfined,andbymeansofvirtueandwisdomtobecomeliketoGod,eveninthislife.{64} Here,however,PlatoshowsamoderationwhichpresentsastrikingcontrasttothenarrowmindednessandintoleranceoftheCynics aswellastothesensualismoftheHedonists;forthoughvirtueandwisdomarethechiefconstituentsofhappiness,thereisplace alsoforrightopinion,art,andforsuchpleasuresasaregenuineandfreefrompassion.{65} 2.Virtuediffersfromtheotherconstituentsofhappinessinthis,thatitaloneisessential.Itisdefined{66}astheorder,harmony,and healthofthesoul,whileviceisthecontrarycondition.Socrateshadidentifiedallvirtuewithwisdom;Platomerelyassignstowisdom thehighestplaceamongvirtues,reducingallvirtuestofoursupremekinds, wisdom,fortitude,temperance,andjustice.{67} HediffersalsofromSocratesinhisattempttoreducetheideaofvirtuetoitspracticalapplications.Socrates,ashasbeenpointed out,basedallpracticalvirtueonexpediency;Plato,onthecontrary,abandonedtheutilitarianview,andbyattachingtovirtuean independentvalueinculcatedgreaterpurityofintention. 3.ItisintheStatethatwefindthemostimportantapplicationsofPlato'sdoctrineofvirtue.Manshouldaimatbeingvirtuous,and could,eveninhissavagecondition,attainvirtue.Withouteducation,however,virtuewouldbeamatterofmerechance,andwithout theStateeducationwouldbeimpossible.While,therefore,theStateisnottheaimandendofhumanaction,itistheindispensable conditionofknowledgeandVirtue.{68} Accordingly, theStateshouldhaveforitsobjectvirtue,or,asweshouldsay,theestablishmentandmaintenanceof morality.Now,theonlypowerthatcanremovefromvirtuewhatiscontingentandcasualandcanplacemoralityonafirmfoundation isphilosophy.Consequently,inthePlatonicState,philosophyisthedominantpower,andPlatoteachesexpresslythat"unless philosophersbecomerulersorrulersbecometrueandthoroughstudentsofphilosophy,therewillbenoendtothetroublesofstates andofhumanity."{69}TheidealStateismodeledontheindividualsoul,fortheStateisthelargerman.Now,inthesoulthere arethreeparts;intheState,therefore,therearethreeorders,rulers,warriors,andproducers.{70} InthedetailsofhisschemeforthegovernmentoftheidealState,Platoisledbyhisaristocratictendenciestoadvocateasystemof stateabsolutism.Heabolishesprivateinterestsandprivatepossessions.Hesacrificestheindividualandthefamilytothe community.HesubordinatesmarriageandeducationtotheinterestsoftheState.Heacknowledges,however,thathisschemesare difficultofrealization,anditisforthisreasonthatinthe Lawshesketchestheschemewhich,thoughinferiortotheschemeoutlined inTheRepublic,isnearertothelevelofwhattheaverageStatecanattain. ReligionandAEsthetics.Thistitledoesnot,likephysicsandethics,designateaportionofPlato'sphilosophy.Itismerelya convenientheadingunderwhicharegroupedthedoctrinesofPlatoconcerningtheexistenceofGodandthenatureofthebeautiful. 1.Religion.Plato,aswehaveseen,identifiestruereligionwithphilosophy.Thehighestobjectofphilosophicalspeculationandthe objectofreligiousworshipareoneandthesame,forphilosophyisamatteroflifeandloveaswellasoftheoeticalthought.Atheism, therefore,isasirrationalasitisimpious.The existenceofGodisevidentfromtheorderanddesignwhichPlatorecognizesas existingnotonlyinanimalorganismsbutalsointhelargerworldofastronomy,inthecosmoswhosesoulissomuchsuperiortothe soulsofanimalsandofmen.{71}BesidesthisteleologicalargumentPlatomakesuseoftheargumentfromefficientcause.{72}He combatstheprinciplesoftheearlyPhysicists,accordingtowhomallthings,includingreasonitself,cameoriginallyfrommatter.This heconsiderstobeaninversionofthetruesequence;forreasonprecedesmatterandisthecauseofallmaterialmotionandofall theprocessesofmatter.

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TheDivinityistheAbsoluteGood,theIdeaofGoodness.PlatoextolsHispower,Hiswisdom,andHisallincludingknowledgeand freely criticises the prevailing anthropomorphic notionsof God. God is supremely perfect: He will never show Himelf to man otherwisethanHereallyis;foralllyingisalienHisnature.HeexercisesoverallthingsaProvidencewhichordersandgoverns everythingforthebest;{73}sometimes{74}PlatospeaksofGodasapersonalBeing.BesidesthissovereignDivinity,Platoadmitsthe existenceofsubordinatecreatedgods.{75}ItistheywhomediatebetweenGodandmatter,andfashionthebodyofmanas wellastheirrationalpartsofhissoul.Chiefamongthecreatedgodsaretheworldsoul,thesoulsofthestars,andthedemonsof ether,air,andwater. Withregardtopopularmythology,Platoemploysthenamesofthegods;hespeaksofZeus,Apollo,andtheotherdivinities.But"the existenceofthesedivinities,asheldbytheGreeks,heneverbelieved,nordoesheintheleastconcealit."{76} 2.AEsthetics.WhenweconsidertheimportanceofartinthethoughtandcivilizationofGreece,wearesurprisedatthescant attentionwhichaestheticsreceivedfromGreekphilosophersbeforePlato.AndevenPlato,thoughheconcernedhimselfwiththe analysisofthebeautifulintoitsmetaphysicalconstituents,seemstohaveoverlookedthenecessityofapsychologicalstudyofthe sentimentofthebeautiful. AlthoughthegoodisthehighestoftheIdeas,thebeautifulisofgreatestinterestinphilosophy,becauseitshinesmoreclearly throughtheveilofphenomenathandoesanyoftheotherIdeas.Fortheessenceofthebeautifulisharmony,symmetry,andorder, qualitieswhichstrikethemindoftheintelligentobserveroftheworldofphenomena,eventhoughhefailtopenetratetothedepths ofthephenomenonwherethegoodlieshidden. Byaconvenientphrase(kalokagathon)theGreeksidentifiedthebeautifulwiththegood.Thephrase,however,iscapableoftwo interpretations.Itwascommonlyunderstoodtomeanthatthebeautifulisgood.Plato,followingSocrates,interpretedittomean that thegoodisbeautiful.Corporealbeauty,hetaught,islowestinthescaleofbeautifulthings;nextcomefairsouls,fair sciences,andfairvirtues;highestofallisthepureandabsolutebeautytowhichnoneofthegrossnessofthephenomenoncleaves. Now,thegoodisharmoniousandsymmetricalBeing.Thegood,therefore,isbeautiful,andthephenomenonwhichpartakesofthe goodpartakesinlikemannerofthebeautiful.{77} Arthasforitsobjecttherealizationofthebeautiful.Allhumanproductsareimitations;butwhile,forexample,goodactionsare imitationsof theIdeaof good,andbeautifulactions areimitationsof theIdeaof thebeautiful,works ofartareimitations of phenomena,imitationsofimitations.Consequently,artisnottobecomparedwithdialectic,norwithindustry,norwiththescience ofgovernment;itismerelyapastimeintendedtoaffordpleasureandrecreation,strangedoctrine,surely,foronewhowashimself apoet!Likeotherpastimes,itmustbecontrolled,forarttoooftenflattersthevulgartasteofthewickedandthebase.Plato, accordingly,taughtthatallartisticproductions,theworksofsculptorsandpaintersaswellasthoseofpoetsandrhetoricians,should besubmittedtocompetentjudges,towhomshouldbedelegatedtheauthorityoftheState; {78} forrhetoricandalltheotherarts shouldbeplacedattheserviceofGod,andshouldbesoexercisedastoassistthestatesmaninestablishingtheruleofmorality.{79} HistoricalPosition.Thereisscarcely,aportionofPlato'sphilosophywhichdoesnotbetraytheinfluenceofhispredecessors. TheSocraticprinciplewashisstartingpoint.ThePythagoreanschooldeterminedtoalargeextenthiscosmologicaldoctrinesaswell ashisspeculationsaboutthefuturelife.Empedocles,Anaxagoras,andtheEarlierIoniansinfluencedhiscosmogenetictheoriesand hisdoctrineofelements,whileHeraclitus,ZenotheEleatic,andProtagorastheSophistcontributedeachinhisownwaytothe Platonictheoryofknowledge.YetitgoeswithoutsayingthatPlatowasnomerecompiler.HemodifiedeventheSocraticteaching beforemakingitpartofhisphilosophicalsystem,andwhateverhederivedfromthosewhowentbeforehimhemoldedandwrought soastofititforitsplaceinthevastphilosophicaledificethefoundationofwhichisthe theoryofIdeas.ThisdistinctivelyPlatonic theoryisthebasisonwhichreststhewholesuperstructureofphysics,dialectic,ethics,theology,andaesthetics.Itisalsothe unifyingprincipleinPlato'ssystemofthought.Whethertheproblemhediscussesbetheimmortalityofthesoul,thenatureof knowledge,theconditionsofthelifeafterdeath,themissionoftheState,orthenatureofthebeautiful,hisstartingpointisalways theIdea.Itis,therefore,noexaggerationtosaythatwiththedoctrineofIdeastheentiresystemofPlatonicphilosophystandsor falls.Consequently,ourjudgmentofthevalueofthecontentsofPlato'sphilosophymustbepostponeduntilwecanenterwith AristotleintoacriticalexaminationofthevalueofthetheoryofIdeas.Butwhatevermaybeourjudgmentastothevalueofhis philosophy,noadversecriticismcandetractfromhispreeminentclaimtothefirstplaceamongthemastersofphilosophicalstyle. Eventhoughwerefusetocallhim"profound,"wecannotbutsubscribetotheverdictbywhichallageshaveagreedtogivetohim thetitlesdivineandsublime.Subsequentspeculation,subsequentdiscovery,andsubsequentincreaseinthefacilitiesforacquiring knowledgehavecorrectedmuchthatPlatotaughtandaddedmuchtowhathesaid,andyetnotasinglemasterhasappearedwho coulddreamofrivaling,nottosayexcelling,theliteraryperfectionofhisphilosophicaldialogues.Thisliteraryperfectiongoesdeeper thanwords.Itincludesapeculiarcharmofmanner,bywhichPlatoliftsusfromthesordidworldofmaterialthingstoaworldof exaltedtypesandennoblingideals.Hisaimasaphilosopheristodemonstratethattrueknowledgeandtruerealityshouldbe sought,notinthethingsofearth,butinthoseofthatotherworldbeyondtheheavens,wherethereisnoimperfection,change,or

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decay.ItisthischarmofmannerthatJouberthadinmindwhenhewrote:"Platoshowsusnothing,buthebringsbrightnesswith him;heputslightintooureyes,andfillsuswithaclearnessbywhichallobjectsafterwardsbecomeilluminated.Heteachesus nothing;buthepreparesus,fashionsus,andmakesusreadytoknowall.Thehabitofreadinghimaugmentsinusthecapacityfor discerningandentertainingwhateverfinetruthsmayafterwardspresentthemselves.Likemountainair,itsharpensourorgansand givesusanappetiteforwholesomefood."

{1}Plato,etc.,pp.7ff {2}Somehistoriansdoubttheaccuracyofthisstatement,whichrestsontheauthorityofHermodorus,adiscipleofPlato. cf.Zeller, op.cit.,p.14,note26. {3}Cf.Cicero,DeSenectute,V,13. {4}Cf.Ueberweg,HistoryofPhilosophy,Englishtrans.,pp.108ff. {5}ThepagingemployedincitationsfromPlato's WorksisthatoftheStephanusedition(Paris,1578).Thispagingispreservedin themorerecenteditions,forexample,Bekker's(Berlin,18161823),Didot's(Paris,1846ff.),andalsoinJowett'stranslation( The DialoguesofPlato,Oxford,1871;thirdedition,NewYorkandLondon,1892).Forgeneralbibliography,cf.Weber,op.cit.,p. 77,n.;Ueberweg,op.cit.,p.x7;totheselistsaddRitchie,Plato(NewYork,1902).{6}Plato,pp.118ff. {7}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.153. {8}Phaedrus,250. {9}Cf.Gorgias,454D;Meno,97E. {10}Mathem.,VII,16. {11}Cf.Lutoslawski,OriginandGrowthofPlato'sLogic,etc.(London,1897). {12}Cf.Phaedo,100A;Tim.,28A. {13}Cf.Phaedrus,265E. {14}Cf.Tim.,51. {15}Phileb.,54B. {16}Cf.Arist.,Met.,I,6,987a,29. {17}Phaedrus,247. {18}Ibid.,210. {19}Met.,1,9,990b;XIII,4,1078;Phys.,IV,2,209b,etalibi. {20}Forbibliography,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.244,noted. {21}Cf.especially256. {22}Parm.,137. {23}Sophis.,248. {24}Phaedo,96ff. {25}Phaedo,loc.cit. {26}Met.,I,9,991,992;DeGen.etCorr.,II,9,335b. {27}Cf.Parm.,130. {28}Thaet.,184,186. {29}Cf.Rep.,VI,508. {30}Cf.Rep.,loc.cit. {31}Phileb.,22C.

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{32}Cf.Arist.,Met.,I,6,987b,9. {33}Parm.,132D. {34}Tim.,48ff. {35}Phys.,IV,2,209b;ibid.,210a. {36}Tim.,52. {37}Met.,I,6,987b. {38}Tim.,30,35. {39}Cf.Zeller,Plato,p.358. {40}Tim.,59C. {41}Cf.Tim.,31B. {42}Cf.ibid.,33B. {43}Cf.ibid.,38E. {44}Ibid.,41A, {45}Phaedo,93,95. {46}Phaedrus,245C. {47}Ibid.,246ff. {48}Timaeus,41D. {49}Meno,81. {50}Phaedo,70E. {51}Op.cit.,7881. {52}Op.cit.,7279. {53}Rep.,X,609. {54}Phaedo,103ff. {55}Op.cit.,107. {56}Rep.,IV,436A. {57}Cf.Cicero,TusculanaeDisputationes,I,20. {58}Cf.Rep.,VI,509;Ueberweg,op.cit.,p.122 {59}Rep.,VII,514. {60}Cf.Rep.,X,617;Tim.,42. {61}Tim.,86D. {62}Symp.,204E. {63}Cf.Thaet.,176A. {64}Phaedo,64ff. {65}Cf.Phileb.,28,60,62. {66}Rep.,IV,443. {67}Cf.ibid.,IV,441. {68}Cf.Rep.,VI,490ff.

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{69}Ibid.,V,473. {70}Ibid.,III,415. {71}Cf.Phileb.,30. {72}Laws,X,893. {73}Tim.,30. {74}AsinTim.,37. {75}Tim.,41. {76}Zeller,Plato,p.500. {77}Cf.Symp.,208;Phileb.,64E. {78}Cf.Rep.,II,377;Gorgias,501ff. {79}Phaedrus,273.

CHAPTERXTHEPLATONICSCHOOLS
TheLaws,which,accordingtothemostprobableopinion,waswrittenbyPlato,thoughitwasnotmadepublicuntilafterhisdeath, bearsevidenceoftheinfluencewhich,inthelateryearsofhislife,thephilosophyofthePythagoreansexercisedonhismind, inclininghimtoattachmoreandmoreimportancetothemysticelementinphilosophyandtothenumbertheory.Itwasthis phaseofPlatonicthoughtthatwastakenupanddevelopedbythePlatonicAcademies,whileinthebandsofAristotletheteachings oftheearlierdialogueswerecarriedtoahigherdevelopment.DuringthelifetimeofPlatotherewaslittle,ifany,dissensionamong themembersoftheschoolwhichassembledinthegroveofAcademus;afterPlato'sdeath,however,Aristotlesetupaschoolofhis own,inoppositiontothemembersoftheAcademy,whoclaimedtopossessintheirscholarchtheauthorizedheadofthePlatonic school. ThefirstscholarchwasSpeusippus,thenephewofPlato,who,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,{1} receivedhisappointmentfrom Platohimself.HeinturnwassucceededbyXenocrates,{2}andinthismannerthesuccessionofscholarchscontinueddowntothe sixthcenturyoftheChristianera.{3} ItiscustomarytodistinguishinthehistoryofthePlatonicschoolthreeperiods,knownasthe Old,the Middle,andthe New Academy.TotheOldAcademybelongedSpeusippus,Xenoerates,HeraclidesofPontus,PhilipofOpus,Crates,and Crantor;ArcesilausandCarneadesaretheprincipalrepresentativesoftheMiddleAcademy,whilePhiloofLarissaand AntiochusofAscalonarethebestknownmembersoftheNewAcademy. Sources. Our sourcesof information concerningthe history of the doctrines of the three Academies are for the most part secondary;theyarescantyandcannotberelieduponinmattersofdetail.Asfar,however,asageneralcharacterizationofeach schoolisconcerned,ourmaterialsaresufficientlyampleandtrustworthy. OldAcademy.TheOldAcademyflourishedfromthedeathofPlato(347B.C.)untiltheappearanceofArcesilausasscholarch (about250B.C.).ItisdistinguishedbyitsinterpretationofthePlatonictheoryofIdeasinaccordancewiththe numbertheoryof thePythagoreans. Speusippus seems to have substituted numbers for Ideas, assigning to them all the attributes, including separate existence,whichPlatoinhisearlierdialogueshadattributedtotheIdeas. {4} Although,accordingtoTheophrastus,Speusippus devotedbutlittleattentiontothestudyofthenaturalsciences,ononeimportantpointofphysicaldoctrinehedifferedfromPlato, maintaining,ifwearetobelieveourNeoPythagoreanauthorities,thattheelementsarefive,notfour,andderivingthesefive,after themannerofPhilolaus,fromthefiveregularfigures.{5}If,asisprobable,Aristotle,inAnalyticaPosteriora,II,13,97a,6,is speakingofSpeusippus,thelattermaintainedthatinordertoknowanythingwemustknoweverything. Xenocrates continuedtocombine,asSpeusippushaddone,thenumbertheoryofthePythagoreanswithPlato'sdoctrineof Ideas.Hewentfarther,however,thanSpeusippusinhisapplicationofnumbertotheologicalnotions,developingasystemof

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demonologywhichsuggestsinitselaboratenessthedoctrinesoftheNeoPlatonists. HeraclidesofPontusisremarkableforhavingtaughtthediurnalrevolutionoftheearthonitsaxis,andtheimmobilityofthe fixedstars.TheseviewswerefirstproposedbyHicetasofSicilyandbyEcphantus,whowasalsoaSicilian.Ourauthoritiesare Theophrastus{6}andPlutarch.{7} Philip ofOpusisgenerallybelievedtobetheauthorof Epinomis andtheeditorofthe Laws,ofwhichthe Epinomis isa continuation. CratesandCrantordevotedthemselvesmainlytothestudyofethicalproblems. MiddleAcademy.TheMiddleAcademywas"characterizedbyaneverincreasingtendencytoscepticism."Chronologically,it belongstothethirdperiodofGreekphilosophy,andinitsspiritandcontentsitismoreinkeepingwiththepostAristotelianagethan withthetimeofPlatoandAristotle. Arcesilaus,whowasbornabout315B.C.,isregardedasthefounderoftheMiddleAcademy.Hecombatedthedogmatismofthe Stoics,maintainingthatas,accordingtotheStoics,thecriterionoftruthisperception,andasafalseperceptionmaybeas irresistibleasatrueone,allscientificknowledgeisimpossible.Itis,therefore,heconcluded,thedutyofawisemantorefrainfrom givinghisassenttoanyproposition,anattitudeofmindwhichtheAcademicianscalledforbearance(apoche).Still,Arcesilaus wouldgrantthatadegreeofprobabilitysufficientforintelligentactionispossible.{8} Carneadeslivedfromabout210to129B.C.Consequently,hewasnottheimmediatesuccessorofArcesilaus,whoseprinciples hedevelopedintoamorepronouncedsystemofScepticism.Heheldthatthereisnocriterionoftruth;thatwhatwetaketobetrueis onlytheappearanceoftruth,phainomenonal theswhichCicerorendersprobabilevisum.{9} NewAcademy.AfterthedeathofCarneades,theAcademyabandonedScepticismandreturnedtothedogmatismofitsfounder. PhiloofLarissaandAntiochusofAscalonintroducedintotheAcademyelementsofStoicismandNeoPlatonismwhichbelong tothethirdperiodofGreekphilosophy. HistoricalPosition.TheAcademics,althoughtheyweretheofficialrepresentativesofPlatonicphilosophy,failedtograspthe truemeaningofthetheoryofIdeas.ByintroducingPythagoreanandotherelementstheyturnedthetraditionofthePlatonicschool outofthelineofitsnaturaldevelopment,andendedinadoptingascepticismoradogmaticeclecticism,eitherofwhichisfarfrom whatshouldhavebeenthelogicaloutcomeofPlato'steaching.TheyaretoPlatowhattheimperfectlySocraticschoolsareto Socrates.Thecontinuity,therefore,ofPlatonicthoughtisnottobelookedforintheseschoolsbutratherintheschoolfoundedby Aristotle.

{1}IV,1. {2}Ibid.,IV,14. {3}Cf.Ueberweg,op.cit.,I,485ff. {4}Arist.,Met.,VII,2,1028b,19. {5}Cf.Zeller,Plato,p.578,n. {6}apudCicero,Acad.,II,39. {7}Placita,III,13. {8}Cf.Cicero,DeOrat.,III,13. {9}Cf.Stckl,Lehrbuch,I,173;Englishtrans.,Vol.1,p.95;Zeller,Stoics,etc.,p.538.

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CHAPTERXIARISTOTLE
The Socratic doctrine of concepts introduced into philosophy the notion of the universal. No sooner, however, had Socrates formulatedthedoctrineofuniversalconceptsthantheCynicsarosedenyingthatanythingexistsexcepttheindividual.Thusitat oncebecamenecessarytodefinethetruerelationbetweentheuniversalandtheindividual.ThiswastheaimofPlato'stheoryof Ideas,inwhichtherelationwasexplainedby derivingtheindividual (inrealityandinknowledge) fromtheuniversal. Aristotle,judgingthatPlato'sexplanationwasafailure,openeduptheproblemoncemore,andendeavoredtosolveitbyderiving theuniversal(inrealityandinknowledge)fromtheindividual.Thecontinuityofphilosophicthoughtis,therefore,tobetracedfrom Socrates,throughPlato,toAristotle,asiftheimperfectSocraticandPlatonicschoolshadnotexisted. Life.{1} AristotlewasbornatStagira,aseaporttownofthecolonyofChalcidiceinMacedonia,intheyear384B.C.Hisfather, Nicomachus,wasphysiciantoKingAmyntasofMacedon,andif,asisprobable,theprofessionofmedicinewaslonghereditaryin thefamily,wemaysupposethatthiscircumstancewasnotwithoutitsinfluenceindeterminingAristotle'spredilectionfornatural science.Whenhewaseighteenyearsold,AristotlewenttoAthens,wherefortwentyyearshefollowedthelecturesofPlato.Many storiesaretoldconcerningthestrainedrelationsbetweentheagedteacherandhisillustriousscholar,storieswhich,however,are withoutanyfoundation.Theremayindeedhavebeendifferencesofopinionbetweenmasterandpupil,buttherewasevidentlyno openbreachoffriendship,forinlateryearsAristotlecontinuedtocounthimselfamongthePlatonicdisciples,{2} associatedwith Xenocratesontermsofintimatefriendship,andshowedineverywaythathisrespectforhisteacherwasnotlessenedbythe divergenceoftheirphilosophicalopinions.ManyofthetalestoldtoAristotle'sdiscreditaretracedtoEpicurusandtheEpicureans, calumniatorsbyprofession(grubbersofgossip,asZellercallsthem),anditistoberegrettedthatwriterslikeSt.Gregory NazianzenandJustinMartyrweremisledbystatementswhichweremanifestlymadewithhostilepurpose.Wearesafe,therefore,in supposingthatAristotlewasdiligentandattentivepupil,andthathedidnotgiveexpressiontohiscriticismofPlato'stheoriesuntil afterhehadlistenedtoeverythingthatPlatohadtosayinexplanationanddefenseofhisviews. AfterPlato'sdeathAristotlerepaired,incompanywithXenocrates,tothecourtofHermias,lordofAtarneus,whosesisterorniece, Pythias,hemarried.In343hewassummonedbyPhilipofMacedontobecomethetutorofAlexander,whowastheninhisthirteenth year.TheinfluencewhichheexercisedonthemindofthefutureconquerorisdescribedinPlutarch's Alexander.WhenAlexander departedonhisAsiaticcampaignAristotlereturnedtoAthens.Thiswasabouttheyear335.Itispossiblethat,asGellius{3}says, Aristotlehad,duringhisformerresidenceatAthens,givenlessonsinrhetoric;itiscertainthatnowforthefirsttimeheopeneda schoolofphilosophy.Hetaughtinagymnasiumcalledthe Lyceum,discoursingwithhisfavoritepupilswhilestrollingupanddown theshadedwalksaroundthegymnasiumofApollo,whencethenamePeripatetics(fromperipate ).{4} Through the generosity of his royal pupil, Aristotle was enabled to purchase a large collection of books, and to pursue his investigationsofnatureunderthemostfavorablecircumstances.Hiswritingsprovehowfullyheavailedhimselfoftheseadvantages: hebecamethoroughlyacquaintedwiththespeculationsofhispredecessorsandneglectednoopportunityofconducting,either personallyorthroughtheobservationsofothers,asystematicstudyofnaturalphenomena.TowardstheendofAlexander'slifethe relationsbetweenthephilosopherandthegreatcommanderbecamesomewhatstrained.Still,socompletelywasAristotleidentified inthemindsoftheAthenianswiththeMacedonianpartythatafterAlexander'sdeathhewasobligedtofleefromAthens.Thecharge whichwasmadethepretenseofhisexpulsionfromthecitywasthestereotypedoneofimpiety,towhichchargeAristotledisdained toanswer,saying(asthetraditionis)thathewouldnotgivetheAtheniansanopportunityofoffendingasecondtimeagainst philosophy.Accordingly,heleftthecity(in323),repairingtoChalcisinEuboea.Therehediedintheyear322,afewmonthsbefore thedeathofDemosthenes.Thereisabsolutelynofoundationforthefablesnarratedbysomanyancientwritersandcopiedbysome oftheearlyFathers,thathediedbypoisonorthathecommittedsuicidebythrowinghimselfintotheEuboeanSea"becausehe couldnotexplainthetides." Aristotle'sCharacter.Eusebius,inhis PraeparatioEvangelica,XV,2,enumeratesandrefutestheaccusationswhich werebroughtagainstAristotle'spersonalcharacter,quotingfromAristocles,aPeripateticofthefirstcenturyB.C.Theseaccusations arepracticallythesameasthosewhichgainedcurrencyamongtheenemiesanddetractorsofPlato,andareequallydevoidof foundation.FromAristotle'swritings,fromfragmentsofhisletters,fromhiswill,aswellasfromthereliableaccountsofhislife,we areenabledtoformatolerablycompletepictureofhispersonalcharacter.Noble,highminded,thoroughlyearnest,devotedtotruth, courteoustohisopponents,faithfultohisfriends,kindtowardshisslaves,hedidnotfallfarshortoftheidealmorallifewhichhe sketchedinhisethicaltreatise.ComparedwithPlato,heexhibitedgreateruniversalityoftaste;hewasnotanAthenian;inacertain sense,hewasnotaGreekatall.Heexhibitedinhischaractersomeofthatcosmopolitanismwhichafterwardsbecameatraitofthe idealphilosopher. Aristotle'sWritings.{5}ItisquitebeyonddisputethatsomeoftheworkswhichAristotlecompiledorcomposedhavebeenlost. Thus,forexample,the anatomai (containinganatomicalcharts),the periphit n (theexistingtreatise DePlantis isby

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Theophrastus),thepoliteiai(acollectionofconstitutionsofstates;theportionwhichtreatsoftheConstitutionofAthenshasbeen discoveredinrecentyears),andtheDialoguesareamongthelostworks.Itisequallycertainthatmanyportionsofthecollected worksofAristotleaswenowpossessthemareofdoubtfulauthenticity,whileitispossiblethatastilllargernumberofbooksor portionsofbooksarelittlemorethanlecturenotesamplifiedbythepupilswhoeditedthem.Itiswell,forexample,forthestudentof the Metaphysics toknowthat,ofthefourteenbookswhichcomposeit,thefirst,third,fourth,sixth,seventh,eighth,andninth constitutetheworkasbegunbutnotfinishedbyAristotle.Oftheremainingbooks,thesecondandonehalfoftheeleventhare pronouncedspurious,whiletherestareindependenttreatiseswhichwerenotintendedtoformpartoftheworkonfirstphilosophy. Withoutenteringintothemoreminutequestionsofauthenticity,wemayacceptthefollowingarrangementofAristotle'sworks,with theirLatintitles.{6}LOGICALTREATISES ConstitutingtheOrganon:(1)Categoriae,(2)DeInterpretatione,(3)AnalyticaPriora,(4)AnalyticaPosteriora,(5) Topica,(6)DeSophisticesElenchis.ThesewerefirstincludedunderthetitleofOrganoninByzantinetimes. METAPHYSICALTREATISE Theworkentitledmetataphusika(oratleastaportionofit)wasstyledbyAristotlepr t philosophia.Itspresenttitleis probablyduetotheplacewhichitoccupied(afterthephysicaltreatises)inthecollectioneditedbyAndronicusofRhodes(about70 B.C.). PHYSICALTREATISES (1) PhysicaAuscultatio,or Physica,(2) DeCaelo,(3) DeGenerationeetCorruptione,(4) Meteorologica,(5) HistoriaeAnimalium,(6)DeGenerationeAnimalium,(7)DePartibusAnimalium. PSYCHOLOGICALTREATISES (1) De Anima, (2) De Sensu et Sensibili, (3) De Memoria et Reminiscentia, (4) De Vita et Morte, (5) De LongitudineetBrevitateVitae,andotherminorworks. ETHICALTREATISES (1)EthicaNicomachea,(2)Politica.TheEudemianEthicsistheworkofEudemus,althoughitisprobablethatitwasintended asarecensionofanAristoteliantreatise. RHETORICALANDPOETICALTREATISES (1)DePoetica,(2)DeRhetorica.Thesearespuriousinparts. Gellius{7} speaksofatwofoldclassofAristotelianwritings,the exoteric,whichwereintendedforthegeneralpublic,{8} andthe acroatic,whichwereintendedforthoseonlywhowereversedinthephraseologyandmodesofthoughtoftheschool.Alltheextant worksbelongtothelatterclass.ThestoryofthefateofAristotle'sworksasnarratedbyStrabo{9}andrepeatedwiththeadditionofa fewdetailsbyPlutarch,{10}isregardedasreliable.IttellshowthelibraryofAristotlefellintothehandsofTheophrastus,bywhomit wasbequeathedtoNeleusofScepsis.AfterthedeathofNeleusthemanuscriptswerehiddeninacellar,wheretheyremainedfor almosttwocenturies.WhenAthenswascapturedbytheRomansin84B.C.,thelibrarywascarriedtoRomebySulla.AtRomea grammariannamedTyrannionsecuredseveralcopies,thusenablingAndronicusofRhodestocollectthetreatisesandpublishthem. Itmustnot,however,beinferredthatthemanuscriptshiddeninthecellarfortwohundredyearsweretheonlyexistingcopyof Aristotle'sworks,orthatduringallthoseyearsthePeripateticphilosopherswerewithoutacopyoftheworksofAristotle. The subsequenthistoryoftheCorpusAristotelicumandthestoryoftheSyriac,Arabian,andLatintranslationsbelongtothehistory ofmediaevalilosophy. ARISTOTLE'SPHILOSOPHY GeneralCharacterandDivision.Aristotle'sconceptofphilosophyagrees,inthemain,withthatofPlato.Philosophyis the scienceoftheuniversalessenceothatwhichisactual.{11}Aristotleis,however,moreinclinedthanPlatowastoattacha theoreticalvaluetophilosophy.Thedifferencebetweenthetwophilosophersisstillgreaterintheirrespectivenotionsofphilosophic method.Aristotledoesnotbeginwiththeuniversalandreasondowntotheparticular;onthecontrary,heStartswithparticulardata ofexperienceandreasonsuptotheuniversalessence.Hismethodisinductiveaswellasdeductive.Consequently,heismore consistentthanPlatoinincludingthenaturalsciencesinphilosophyandconsideringthempartofthebodyofphilosophicdoctrine.In fact,Aristotlemakesphilosophytobecoextensivewithscientificknowledge."Allscience(dianoia)iseitherpractical,poietical, ortheoretical."{12}Bypracticalsciencehemeanspoliticsandethics;undertheheadpoietic(poi tike)heincludesnotonlythe philosophyofpoetrybut the knowledgeof theotherimitative arts, while bytheoreticalphilosophy he understands Physics, Mathematics, and Metaphysics. Metaphysics is philosophy in the stricter sense the word: it is the knowledge of

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immaterialBeingorofBeinginthehighestdegreeofabstraction(perich ristakaiakin ta);itisthepinnacleof all knowledge, the theological science. In this classification logic has no place, being apparently regarded as a science preparatorytophilosophy. OurstudyofAristotle'sphilosophywill,therefore,include:(A) logic;(B)theoreticalphilosophy,including(a)metaphysics,(b) physics.(c)mathematics;(C)practicalPhilosophy;(D)poieticalphilosophy. A.Logic,includingTheoryofKnowledge.Aristotledoesnotemploytheword logicinthemodernmeaningoftheterm. Thesciencewhichwecalllogic,andofwhichheisrightlyconsideredthefounder,wasknowntohimas analytic.TheOrganon, asthebodyoflogicaldoctrinewasstyledbythelaterPeripatetics,consistsofsixparts,ortreatises 1.The Categoriae.InthefirstofhislogicaltreatisesAristotlegiveshisclassification,orenumeration,ofthehighestclasses (categories)intowhichallconcepts,andconsequentlyallrealthings,aredivided;theyare substance,quantity,quality, relation,action,passion,place,time,situation,and habitus.Heintimatesthattheseareintendedasclassesofthings expressedbyisolatedwords,taaneusumplok slegomena,thatistosay,bywordswhichdonotformpartofaproposition. Theyaretobedistinguished,therefore,fromthepredicables,orclassesofthepossiblerelationsinwhichthepredicateofa propositionmaystandtothesubject.Thepredicablesaredefinition(hopos),genus,difference,property,andaccident. TherecanbenoreasonabledoubtastotheoriginalityoftheAristotelianarrangementofcategories.Itistruethatthereisaremote analogybetweenthecategoriesandthedistinctionsofthegrammarian;buttheanalogycanbeexplainedwithoutsupposingthat Aristotleexpresslyintendedtoconformhiscategoriestothegrammaticaldivisionsofwords.ItisalsotruethatAristotledoesnot alwaysenumeratethecategoriesinthesamemanner.{13} 2.The DeInterpretatione.Inthesecondofthelogicaltreatises,Aristotletakesupthestudyofthe proposition andthe judgment.Hedistinguishesthedifferentkindsofpropositions,andtreatsoftheiroppositionandconversion.Thisportionofhis workformsthecoreofmodernlogicalteaching. 3.TheAnalyticaPrioracontainsthetreatiseonreasoning,deductiveandinductive.Inhisdoctrineofthe syllogismAristotle admitsonlythreefigures.(Thesyllogism,heteaches,isbasedonthe LawofContradiction andthe LawofExcluded Middle.)Hementionsthreerulesofthesyllogism. Induction (epag g )hedefinesasreasoningfromtheparticulartothe general,andthoughthesyllogism,whichproceedsfromthegeneraltotheparticular,ismorecogent, initself,inductionis,forus, easiertounderstand.TheonlykindofinductionadmittedbyAristotleiscompleteinduction. 4.IntheAnalyticaPosterioraAristotletakesupthestudyofdemonstration(apodeixis).Truedemonstration,asindeedalltrue scientificknowledge,dealswiththeuniversalandnecessarycausesofthings.Consequently,alltruedemonstrationconsistsin showingcauses,andthemiddleterminademonstrationmust,therefore,expressacause.Notalltruths,however,arecapableof demonstration.Thefirstprinciplesofasciencecannotbedemonstratedinthatscience,andprincipleswhicharefirst,absolutely, areindemonstrable:theybelongnottoreason,buttointellect(Nous).Totheclassofindemonstrabletruthsbelongalsotruthsof immediateexperience.{14} 5.TheTopicahasforsubjectmatterthedialecticalorproblematicsyllogism,whichdiffersfromdemonstrationinthis,thatits conclusionsarenotcertainbutmerelyprobable;theybelongtoopinionratherthantoscientificknowledge.The Topicaalsotreats ofthepredicables. 6.ThetreatiseDeSophisticisElenchiscontainsAristotle'satudyoffallacies,orsophisms.Itcontainsalsoanattackonthe Sophistsandtheirmethods.BeforeweproceedtoexplainAristotle'smetaphysicaldoctrinesitisnecessarytotakeuptheprinciples ofhistheoryofknowledgeaswefindthemintheAnalyticaPosterioraandelsewhereinhislogicalandmetaphysicaltreatises. TheoryofKnowledge.NowheredoesthecontrastbetweenthephilosophyofPlatoandthatofAristotleappearsoclearlyasin theirtheoriesofknowledge. 1.Platomakesexperiencetobemerelytheoccasionofscientificknowledge.Aristotleregardsexperienceasthetruesourceand truecauseofallourknowledgeintellectualaswellassensible.{15} 2.Platobeginswiththeuniversal(Idea)andattemptstodescendtotheparticular(Phenomenon);Aristotle,whileherecognizesthat there is no science of the individual as such ( h d' epist m t n katholou),{16} maintains, nevertheless, that our knowledge of the individual precedes our knowledge of the universal: ek t n kath hekasta gar tou katholou.{17} 3.Platohypostatizedtheuniversal,attributingtoitaseparateexistence.This,accordingtoAristotle,istoreducetheuniversal toauselessform;for,iftheuniversalexistsapartfromtheindividual,therecanbenotransitionfromaknowledgeoftheonetoa

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knowledgeoftheother.Theuniversal,Aristotleteaches,isnotapartfromindividualthings.{18} 4.Finally,accordingtoPlato,theuniversal,asitexistsapartfromphenomena,isafullblownuniveral,endowedwiththeformal characterofuniversality;accordingtoAristotle,theformalaspectofuniversalityisconferredbythemind,and,therefore, the universal,assuch,doesnotexistinindividualthings,butinthemindalone.Thisistheonlyintelligibleinterpretationofsuch passagesasMetaphysics,III,4,999andDeAnima,II,5,417,inwhichAristotlemaintainsthattheindividualaloneexistsand thattheuniversalissomehow(p s)inthemind.{19} Aristotle'stheoryofknowledge,asisevidentfromthefourprinciplesjustexplained,recognizestwofundamentalattributesof intellectual knowledge: its essential dependence on senseknowledge and its equally essential superiority to sense knowledge.Aristotleisascarefultoavoidsensismontheonehandasheistoescapeidealismontheother;for,thoughheadmits thatallknowledgebeginswithexperience,hecontendsthatintellectualthought(no sis)isconcernedwiththeuniversal,or intelligible(no ton),whilesenseknowledgehasforitsobjecttheindividual,thesenseperceived(aisth ton).Thedistinctionof objectsismadethebasisandgroundofadistinctionoffacultiesandofkindsofknowledge.{20} If,then,thereisadistinctionbetweensenseknowledgeandthought,andifallknowledgebeginswithsenseknowledge,howdo werisefromtheregionofsensetothatofintellect?Aristotleanswersbydistinguishingfirstandsecondsubstance.The firstsubstance (ousiapr t )istheindividual,whichcanneitherexistinanothernorbepredicatedofanother. Second substanceistheuniversal,which,assuch,doesnotexistinanother,butmaybepredicatedofanother.Intheindividualsubstance we distinguish, on closer examination, two elements, the hupokeimenon or undetermined, determinable substratum, the matter(hul ),andthedeterminingprinciple,orform(eidos),bywhichthesubstanceismadetobewhatitis. {21}Theessential nature,therefore,theunalterableessencecorrespondingtotheconncepttheobject,consequently,ofintellectualknowledgeis theform.Matter,itistrue,ispartoftheessentialnature,{22}butitis,asitwere,theconstantfactor,alwaysthesame,andofitself undifferentiated;itentersintoadefinitionas materiacommunis,andwhenwedesignatetheformofanobject,implyingthe presenceofmatterinitsgeneralconcept,wehaveansweredthequestion,Whatisthatobject?Theform,then,consideredapart fromthematter,istheessenceoftheobjectasfarasintellectualknowledgeisconcerned;forintellectualknowledgehasforits objecttheuniversal,andsincematteristheprincipleofindividuation,andformtheprincipleofspecification,theconclusionofthe inquiryastotheobjectofintellectualknowledgeisthatmatterandtheindividualqualitiesarisingfrommatterbelongtosense knowledge,whiletheformalone,whichistheuniversal,belongstointellectualknowledge. {23}Returningnowtothequestion,How dowerisefromtheregionofsensetotheregionofintellect?theobjectofsenseknowledge,werepeat,isthewhole,theconcrete individualsubstance.Thought,penetrating throughthesense qualities,reachesthe form,orquiddity,lying atthe core ofthe substance,andthisform,consideredapartfromthematerialconditionsinwhichitisimmersed,istheproperobjectofintellectual knowledge.Thus,theacquisitionofscientificknowledgeisatruedevelopmentofsenseknowledgeintointellectualknowledge,if bydevelopmentisunderstoodtheprocessbywhich,undertheagencyoftheintellect,thepotentiallyintelligibleelementsofsense knowledgearebroughtoutintoactualintelligibility.Aristotlehimselfdescribestheprocessasoneof induction (epag g )or abstraction(aphairesis).{24} B.TheoreticalPhilosophy,a.Metaphysics.IntheforegoingaccountofAristotle'stheoryofknowledgeithasbeenfound necessarytomentionform,matter,andsubstance,notionswhichproperlybelongtothisdivisionofhisphilosophy. I.Definitionofmetaphysics.Metaphysics,orfirstphilosophy,isthescienceofBeingasBeing.{25}Otherscienceshaveto dowiththeproximatecausesandprinciplesofBeing,and,therefore,withBeinginitslowerdeterminationsMetaphysicsconsiders Beingassuch,initshighestormostgeneraldeterminations,andconsequentlyitisconcernedwiththehighest,orultimate,causes. Accordingly,onmetaphysicsdevolvesthetaskofconsideringtheaxiomsofallsciencesinsofarastheseaxiomsarelawsofall existence. For this reason it is that in the Metaphysics Aristotle takes up the explanation and defense of the Law of Contradiction. 2. Negativeteaching.Beforeproceedingtoanswertheproblemofmetaphysics,WhataretheprinciplesofBeing?Aristotle passesinreviewtheanswersgivenbyhispredecessors.HenotonlyrecountsthedoctrinesandopinionsofthepreSocratic philosophers,therebyaddingtohismanytitlesthatof FounderoftheHistoryofPhilosophy,buthealsopointsoutwhat seemtohimtobetheshortcomingsandimperfectionsofeachschoolorsystem.His criticismofPlato'stheoryofIdeasis deservingofcarefulstudy,becauseitisanunprejudicedexaminationofagreatsystemofthoughtbyonewhowasunusuallywell equippedforthetask,andalsobecauseitisthemostnaturalandintelligibleintroductiontothepositiveportionofAristotle's Metaphysicsinwhichheexpoundshisownviews. BothPlatoandAristotlemaintainthatscientificknowledgeisconcernedwiththeuniversal(compareSocraticdoctrineofconcepts). Theyagreeinteachingthattheworldofsenseissubjecttochangeandthatwemustgobeyondittofindtheworldofideas.Here, however,theypartcompany.PlatoplacestheworldofIdeas,theregionofscientificknowledge,outsidephenomena;Aristotleplaces

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itinthesensibleobjectsthemselves.itis,therefore,againstthedoctrineofaseparateworldofIdeasthatallAristotle'scriticismof Plato'stheoryisdirected. (a)Inthefirstplace,Aristotlecontends{26}thatthePlatonictheoryofIdeasiswhollybarren.TheIdeaswereintendedtoexplain howthingscametobeandhowtheycametobeknown;buttheycannotbeprinciplesofBeing,sincetheyarenot existentin things,andtheycannotbeprinciplesofknowledge,sincetheyexistapartfromandhavenointelligiblerelationtothethingstobe known.TosupposethatweknowthingsbetterbyaddingtotheworldofourexperiencetheworldofIdeas,isasabsurdasto imaginethatwecancountbetterbymultiplyingthenumberstobecounted.Inaword,theIdeasareameaninglessduplicationof sensibleobjects. (b)Inthenextplace,Aristotle{27}recognizesinthetheoryofIdeasanattemptatsolvingthe problemofmotionandchange. Indeed,sincetheIdeasaretheonlyreality,theymustcontaintheprincipleofchange,forchangeisareality;butPlato,byseparating theIdeasfromtheworldofphenomena,andbyinsistingonthestaticratherthanonthedynamicphaseoftheIdeas,precludedall possibilityofaccountingforchangebymeansoftheIdeas.{28} (c)Moreover,Aristotlefindsseveral contradictionsinthePlatonictheory.HeisnotsatisfiedwiththePlatonicdoctrineof communitybetweentheIdeaandthephenomenon;for,iftheparticipationoftheIdeabythephenomenonisanythingmorethana merefigureofspeech,ifthereisreallypartoftheIdeainthephenomenon,theremustbeaprototypeonwhichthisparticipationis modeled.Ifsuchaprototypeexists,thereis,forexample,atritosanthrposinadditiontotheabsoluteIdeaofmanandthemanwho existsintheworldofphenomena.ThesignificantfactisthatPlatoatonetimedescribestheparticipationas methexisatanother asmim sisandendsbyleavingitunexplained.{29} (d)Finally, thereasonwhyPlatointroduced thedoctrineof Ideas was becausescientific knowledge must haveforitsobject somethingotherthan thephenomenon. Now,scientificknowledgehasanobject,ifIdeas exist. The validityofscientific knowledgedoesnotrequirethattheIdeashouldexistapartfromthephenomenonitself{30} 3.Positiveteaching.Metaphysics,ashasbeensaid,istheinquiryintothehighestprinciplesofBeing.Aprinciple(arch )isthat bywhichathingisorisknown.{31}Thefirstproblemofmetaphysicsis,therefore,todeterminetherelationbetweenactualityand potentiality,thefirstprinciplesofBeingintheorderofdetermination,ordifferentiation.Actuality(entelecheiaenergeia)is perfection,potentiality(dunamis)isthecapabilityofperfection.Theformeristhedeterminingprincipleofbeing,thelatterisof itselfindeterminate.Actualityandpotentialityareaboveallcategories;theyarefoundinallbeingswiththeexceptionofOne,whose beingisallactuality.Increatedbeing,then,asweshouldsay,thereisamixtureofpotencyandactuality.Thismixtureis,soto speak,thehighestmetaphysicalformula,underwhichareincludedthecompositionsofmatterandform,substanceandaccident,the soulanditsfaculties,activeandpassiveintellect,etc.Thedualismofactualandpotentialpervadesthemetaphysics,physics, psychology,andeventhelogicofAristotle. Still,potencyandactualityareprinciplesofBeinginitsmetaphysicaldeterminations.Inthephysicalorder,thereenterintothe constitutionofconcretebeingfourotherprinciplescalled causes (aitiai).Acauseisdefinedas thatwhichinanyway influencestheproductionofsomething:itis,therefore,aprincipleintheorderofphysicaldetermination.Theclassesof causesare_four, matter (hul ), form (eidos or morph ), efficientcause (tokin tikon),andfinalcause(tohou heneka).{32}Ofthese,matterandformareintrinsicconstituentsofbeing,whileefficientandfinalcausesareextrinsicprinciples. Nevertheless,theselatteraretruecausesinasmuchastheeffectdependsonthem. Matter,ormaterialcause,isthatoutofwhichbeingismade;bronze,forexample,isthematerialcauseofthestatue.Matter isthesubstratum(hupokeimenon),indeterminatebutcapableofdetermination.Itisthereceptacle(dektikon)ofBecoming anddecay.{33}Itcanneitherexistnorbeknownwithoutform.Inaword,itispotency.Matterintheconditionofabsolutepotentiality iscalled firstmatter (hulepr t ),thatis,matterwithoutanyform. Secondmatter ismatterintheconditionofrelative potentiality.Secondmatterpossessesaform,butbecauseofitscapabilityoffurtherdeterminationitisinpotencytoreceiveother forms. Form,orformalcause,isthatintowhichathingismade.Itistheprincipleofdeterminationovercomingtheindeterminatenessof matter.Withoutitmattercannotexist:itisactuality.TheAristoteliannotionofform,likethePlatonicnotionofIdea,wasintendedasa protest against the scepticism of the Sophists and the panmetabolism of the Heracliteans. Form is the object of intellectual knowledge,theunalterableessenceofthings,whichremainsunchangedamidthefluctuationsofaccidentalqualities.LiketheIdea, theformistheplentitudeofactualbeing,forwhilematterisareality,itisrealmerelyasapotency.Thereis,however,aradical differencebetweentheformandtheIdea;theformexistsinindividualbeings,theIdeaexistsapartfromthem:Aristotlemerely distinguishedmatterandform;PlatonotonlydistinguishedbutalsoseparatedtheIdeafromthephenomenon. Theunionofmatterandformconstitutestheindividualorconcrete,substance( tosunolon,ousiapr t ).Frommatterarise

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theimperfections,limitations,andindividuatingqualities;fromformcometheessential,unalterableattributes,thespecificnatureof thesubstance.Matter,then,beingpresupposedasthecommonsubstratumofmaterialexistence,asubstanceisconstitutedinits essentialnaturebytheform.HenceitisthatAristotleidentifiestheformwiththeessence,thequiddity( totieneinai),{34}the universalnatureofasubstance.Formisasecondsubstance(ousiadeutera)which,whileitcannotinhereinanotherasina subject,may,onaccountofitsuniversality,bepredicatedofmany.Itwould,however,beaseriousmistaketorepresentAristotleas reducingallrealitytoform,andendingasPlatohadbegun,withthedoctrineofmonism.Formatter,initsgenericconcept,enters intothedefinitionofthespecificnature,andwhileitisnotanactual,itisarealprincipleofbeing.{35} Aristotlefurtherdevelopshistheoryoftherelationbetweenmatterandformbyteachingthatmatterisdestinedtoreceiveform.It tendstowardsitsformwithsomethingakintodesire:fortheabsenceofformisnotmerenegation;itis privation (ater sis). Aristotle,however,explains{36}thatmatterisnotpureprivation.Itisapositivesomethingwhich,ofitsnature,isdisposedtobecome determinedbymeansofform. Efficientcause isthethirdprincipleofbeing.Itisdefinedasthat bywhich (thatis,bytheagencyofwhich)theeffectis produced.Ultimately,itisformconsideredasoperative,fornoagentcanactexceptbyvirtueoftheform,whichistheprincipleofits actionaswellasofitsbeing.{37}HencetheScholasticadage,Ageresequituresse.Moreover,allactionismotion(kinsis),and motionisdefinedasthepassingfrompotencytoactuality: hetoudunameontosentelecheiahetoiouton.{38} This identificationofactionwithmotion,andthedefinitionofmotionintermsoftheactualandpotential,leadatoncetoaconclusion whichis,atfirstsight,startlinginitsuniversality,thatallnaturalprocessesareprocessesofdevelopment,andthatactionmerely bringsoutlatentpossibilitiesbybringingintoactualitythoseperfectionswhichwerealreadycontainedaspotenciesinthematter. Thisgeneralization,itmayberemarked,isinperfectharmonywithmodernphysicalprinciples,as,forexample,withtheLawofthe ConservationofEnergy.Aristotle,itistrue,doesnotenterintothequestionofquantitativerelationsbetweenthepotentialandthe actual.Butthehigherthehumanmindrisesinitsinquiries,thelessattentionitpaystoquestionsofquantitativeequivalence,andthe moreimportanceitattachestothegeneralnotionofinternaldevelopment. Finalcause,thefourthprincipleofbeing,thatonaccountofwhichtheeffectisproduced,is,inacertainsense,themostimportant ofallthecauses.{39}Itnotonlydetermineswhethertheagentshallact,butitalsodeterminesthemodeandmanneroftheaction andthemeasureoftheeffectproduced,sothatifwecouldknowthemotiveorendofanaction,weshouldbeinpossessionofa mostfruitfulsourceofknowledgeconcerningtheresultofthataction.Thefinalcause,liketheefficient,is,inultimateanalysis, identicalwithform;itistheformoftheeffect,presentedinintentionandconsideredasamotive,inasmuchasbyitsdesirabilityit impelstheagenttoact. Bythereductionofefficientandfinalcausestoformalcausetheultimateprinciplesof(finite)beingarereducedtotwo,matterand form. These are the two intrinsic, essential constituents of the individual, concrete object, matter being the source of indeterminateness,potency,andimperfection,whileformisthesourceofspecificdetermination,actuality,andperfection. TheAristoteliandoctrineofcausesisasynthesisofallprecedingsystemsofphilosophy.TheEarlierIoniansspokegenericallyof cause;theLaterIoniansdistinguishedmaterialandefficientcauses;Socrates,developingthedoctrineofAnaxagoras,introducedthe notionoffinalcause;PlatowasthefirsttospeakofformalcausesunlessthePythagoreannotionofnumbermayberegardedas anattempttofindaformalprincipleofbeing.Thusdidthegenericnotionofcausegraduallyundergodifferentiationintothefour kindsofcause.Aristotlewasthefirsttoadverttothishistoricaldialecticoftheideaofcause,andtogivethedifferentkindsofcause aplaceinhisdoctrineoftheprinciplesofbeing.Consequently,theAristoteliandoctrineofcauseisatruedevelopment,atransition fromtheundifferentiatedtothedifferentiated,andnowheredowerealizemoreclearlythaninthisdoctrineofcausethatAristotle's philosophyistheculminationofallthephilosophieswhichprecededit. AccordingtoAristotle,metaphysicsisrightlycalledthetheologicalscience,becauseGodisthehighestobjectofmetaphysical inquiry.For,althoughwemayinouranalysisoftheprinciplesofbeingdescendtothelowestdetermination,or,rather,tothelack ofalldetermination,materiaprima,wemayturnintheoppositedirection,andbyfollowingtheascendingscaleofdifferentiation arriveatthenotionofpureactuality,orBeinginthehighestgradeofdeterminateness.Aristotle,inhisproofsoftheexistenceofGod, didnotsetasidetheteleologicalargumentofSocrates.{40}Devotedashewastotheinvestigationofnature,andespeciallytothe studyoflivingorganisms,hecouldnotfailtobestruckbytheadaptationeverywheremanifestinnaturalphenomena,andparticularly inthephenomenaoflife.Herecognized,however,thattheteleologicalisnotthestrongestargumentfortheexistenceofaSupreme Being.Accordingly,wefindhimestablishingtheexistenceofGodbymeansofproofsmoreproperlymetaphysicalthanwasthe argumentfromdesign.Heargues,forexample,{41}that,althoughmotioniseternal,therecannotbeaninfiniteseriesofmoversand moved;theremust,therefore,beone,thefirstintheseries,whichisunmoved,thepr tonkinounakin ton.Again,{42} he arguesthat theactualis,ofitsnature,antecedenttothepotential.Consequently,beforeallmatter,andbeforeall compositionofactualandpotential,pureactualitymusthaveexisted.Actualityis,therefore,thecauseofallthingsthatare,and,

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sinceitispureactuality,itslifeisessentiallyfreefromallmaterialconditions;itisthethoughtofthought(nosisnoses). Tothequestion,WhatdoesAristotleunderstandbytheprimummovensimmobileandtheactuspurus?theanswerseems tobethatbytheformeroftheseexpressionshemeantsomethingotherthantheSupremeBeing.Inthe Physics,wherehespeaks of primummobile,orratherofthe primamoventianonmota,{43} hedescribesthefirstbeingasthefirstintheorderof efficientcauses,anintelligence,theprimumcoelum.This,whichismovedbythesightofthesupremeintelligenceofGod,not, therefore,byanyefficientcause,butbyafinalcauseonly,setsinmotionthewholemachineryofefficientcausesbeneathit.Inthe Metaphysics,however,ourphilosopherpursueshisinvestigationintotherealmsbeyondthefirstheaven,andfindsthatthe intelligencewhichmovesbyitsdesirabilitythesoulofthefirstheavenistheintelligenceofintelligence,pureactuality,God. {44}This istheinterpretationofSt.Thomas,{45}who,whileheregardsGodastheimmediateefficientcauseofthefirstmotionoftheuniverse, interpretsAristotletomeanthattheFirstIntelligencemovesmerelybythedesirewhichHeinspires,drawingtowardsHimthesoulof thefirstheaven.AnditisnaturaltoexpectthatinthephilosophyofAristotlethereshouldbeasupremeinthephysicalorderaswell asasupremeinthemetaphysicalorder;thatthemetaphysicalconceptofFirstIntelligenceshouldcompleteandroundoutthe physicalconceptofafirstmover.{46} Godisone,formatteristheprincipleofplurality,andtheFirstIntelligenceisentirelyfreefrommaterialconditions.Hislifeis contemplativethought;neitherprovidencenorwilliscompatiblewiththeeternalreposeinwhichHedwells.{47}Nevertheless, AristotlesometimesspeaksofGodastakinganinterestinhumanaffairs. {48}ThetruthisthatAristotle'sideaofGodwas,likePlato's, farfrombeingaclearorevenacoherentconcept.Aristotlewascontentwithdeducingfromhisphilosophicalprinciplestheideaofa Supreme SelfConscious Intelligence, but he had no adequate conception of the relation between selfconsciousness and personality.ItwasleftforChristianphilosophytodetermineanddevelopthenotionofdivineperson. WefindthesameindefinitenessinAristotle'saccountoftheoriginoftheWorld.Theworld,hetaught,iseternal;formatter,motion, andtimeareeternal.Yettheworldiscaused. {49}Buthow,accordingtoAristotle,istheworldcaused?Brentano {50}believesthat Aristotletaughtthedoctrineofcreation exnihilo,andtherecanbenodoubtthatSt.AugustineandSt.Thomas{51} sawno contradictioninmaintainingthatabeingmaybeeternalandyetcreated.ThemostconservativecriticsmustgrantthatwhileAristotle doesnotmaintaintheoriginoftheworldbycreation,heteachesthepriorityofactwithrespecttopotency,thusimplyingthatsince thefirstpotencywascaused,itmusthavebeencausedexnihilo.Hispremises,ifcarriedtotheirlogicalconclusion,wouldleadto thedoctrineofcreation.{52} b. Physics.Physics,thestudyofnature,considersexistence,notasitisinitself,butsofarasitparticipatesinmovement (kin se smetechei).{53} Natureincludeseverythingwhichhasinitselftheprincipleofmotionandrest.Theworksofnature differfromtheproductsofartbecause,whilethelatterhavenotendencytochange(theiroriginatingprinciplebeingexternalto them),natureisessentiallyspontaneous,thatis,selfdeterminingfromwithin.{54} Naturedoesnot,however,developthisinternal activityexceptaccordingtodefinitelaw.Thereisnosuchthingasaccidentorhazard:"Naturedoesnothinginvain." {55}"Natureis alwaysstrivingforthebest."{56}Thus,althoughAristotleexpresslyrejectsthePlatonicideaofaworldsoul,herecognizesinnaturea definiteteleologicalconcept,aplanofdevelopment,towhichtheonlyobstacleismatter;formatteritis,that,byresisting theform,forcesnature,asitwere,tobecontentwiththebetterinlieuofthebest.Thestrivingofnatureis,therefore,throughthe lessperfecttothemoreperfect.{57} Space(topos)isneithermatternorform;itisnottheintervalbetweenbodies.Itis"thefirstandunmovedlimitoftheenclosing,as againsttheenclosed,"totouperiechontosperasakin tonpr ton,{58}thatistosay,thesurface(ofthesurroundingair, water,orsolidsubstance)whichisimmediatelycontiguoustothebodysaidtobeinspace,andwhich,thoughitmaychange,is considered as unmoved, because the circumscribed limits remain the same. Particular space is, therefore, coterminous with extendedbody,andspaceingeneraliscoterminouswiththelimitsoftheworld.Spaceisactuallyfinite,yetpotentiallyinfinite, inasmuchasextensioniscapableofindefiniteincrease.{59} Time(chronos),which,likespace,istheuniversalconcomitantofsensibleexistence,isthemeasureofthesuccessionofmotion, arithmoskin se skatatoproteronkaihusteron.{60}Theonlyrealityintimeisthepresentmoment;inordertojointhe pastandthefuturewiththepresent,thatis,inordertomeasuremotion,mindisrequired.Iftherewerenomind,therewouldbeno time.{61}movement(kin sis)isthemodeofexistenceofapotentialbeingbecomingactualized,htoudunameiontosentelecheia htoiouton.{62}Motionnotrequire,nordoesitpostulate,avacuum,sincewemayimaginethatanotherbodyleavesthespacewhich themovingbodyenters.{63}Besidessubstantialchange,ofwhichmatteristhesubstratum,threekindsofmotionarerecognizedby Aristotle,quantitative,qualitative,andspatial(phora). InhisstoichiologyAristotleadoptsthefourelements,orradicalprinciples,whichEmpedoclesintroduced.Heteaches,however,

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thatthecelestialspaceisfilledwithabodydifferentfromthefourelements.Thisseemstobethepartassignedbyhimto ether.{64} Ether,then,isneitherafifthelemententeringwiththeotherfourintotheconstitutionoftheterrestrialworld,nor,asissometimes maintained,anundifferentiatedsubstratum,likethe apeiron ofAnaximander,fromwhichthefourelementsoriginated.Itisthe constituentofcelestialbodies.Thenaturalmotionofetheriscircular;thatoftheotherelementsisupwardordownward,according astheyarenaturallyendowedwithlightnessorwithheaviness.ItishardlynecessarytoremarkthatuntilNewton'stimethereexisted thebeliefthateachparticularbodymovedtowardsitsownplace,upwardordownward,invirtueofthelightorheavyelementswhich itcontained. Aristotle'sastronomicaldoctrineswerenotinadvanceofthenotionsoftheagetowhichhebelonged.Theearth,thecenterof thecosmicsystem,issphericalandstationary.Itissurroundedbyasphereofairandasphereoffire.Inthesespheresarefixedthe heavenlybodies,whichdailyrevolveroundtheearthfromeasttowest,thoughsevenofthemrevolveinlongerperiodsfromwestto east.Outsideallistheheavenoffixedstars,the pr tosuranos.ItisnexttotheDeity,whoimpartedtoitscircumferencea circularmotion,thusmediatelyputtinginmotiontherestofthecosmicmachinery.AristotleagreeswithPlatointeachingthatthefirst heaven,likealltheotherheavenlybodies,isanimated. Itisinhis biologicaldoctrines thatAristotleshowshowfarheexcelsallhispredecessorsasastudentofnature.Whenwe considerthedifficultieswithwhichhehadtocontend,heneverdissectedahumanbody,andprobablyneverexaminedahuman skull;hedidnotinanyadequatesensedissectthebodiesofanimals,althoughheobservedtheirentrails,whenwerememberthat hewasobligedtoreckontimewithouttheaidofawatch,andtoobservedegreesoftemperatureandatmosphericchangeswithout theaidofathermometerorabarometer,werealizethatthewordsofsuperlativepraiseinwhichCuvier,Buffon,andothersspeakof himasanaturalistarefarfrombeingundeserved.Hismistakes {65} areduetoconditionswhichlimitedhispowerofpersonal observation.Despitetheselimitationshedidobserveagreatdeal,andobservedaccurately,discussing,classifying,comparinghis factsbeforedrawinghisconclusions.HisHistoriesofAnimals,forexample,isavastrecordofinvestigationsmadebyhimself andothersontheappearance,habits,andmentalpeculiaritiesofthedifferentclassesofanimals. Lifeisdefinedasthepowerofselfmovement {66}Theprinciplethatallactionisdevelopmentapplieshereaselsewhereinnature. Everywhereintheworldofnaturalphenomenathereiscontinuity;lifeanditsmanifestationsoffernoexception.Nonlivingmatter gives rise to living things: the sponge is intermediate between plants and animals;{67} the monkey (pith koi k boi, kunokephaloi)isintermediatebetweenquadrupedsandman.{68} Theloweranimalsaredividedintonineclasses:viviparous quadrupeds,oviparousquadrupeds,birds,fishes,whales,mollusks,Malacostraca,Testacea,andinsects;ofthesethefirst five classesarebloodpossessing,thelatterfourbeingbloodless.Inhisanatomicalstudieshedividedorgansintohomoiomer (madeupofpartswhicharelikethewholeorgan)andanomoiomer (madeupofpartswhichareunlikethewhole,asthehand ismadeupofthepalmandfingers).{69}Digestionandsecretionaretheresultsofacookingprocess.{70} Thesoulistheprincipleofthatmovementfromwithinwhichlifehasbeendefinedtobe.Itistheformofthebody, psuch estin entelecheiahepr tes matosphusikoudunameiz enechontos,{71}anditsrelationtothebodyisgenericallythe sameasthatofformtomatter. Soul,then,isnotsynonymouswith mind:itisnotmerelytheprincipleofthought;itisthe principleoflife,andpsychologyisthescienceofallvitalmanifestations,butmoreparticularlyofsensationandthought.Thought ispeculiartoman;but,sinceinthehierarchyofexistencethemoreperfectcontainsthelessperfect,thestudyofthehumansoul includesalltheproblemsofpsychology. What,then,isthehumansoul?Itisnotamereharmonyofthebody,assomeoftheolderphilosopherstaught. {72}Itisnotoneof thefourelements,norisitacompoundofthefour,becauseexhibitspowers(ofthought)whichtranscendalltheconditions ofmaterialexistence.{73}Innosense,therefore,canitbesaidtobecorporeal.Andyetitisunitedwiththebody,being,accordingto itsdefinition,theformofthebody.Forthebodyhasmerepotencyoflife;alltheactualityofthebodycomesfromthesoul.Thesoul istherealizationoftheendforwhichthebodyexists,thetotouhenekaofitsbeing:Soulandbody,although distinct, areonesubstance,justasthewaxandtheImpressionstampeduponitareone. {74} Itisworthyofnotethat,asin metaphysicsAristotledistinguishes,withoutseparating,theuniversalfromtheindividual,soinpsychologyhemaintainsontheone handthedistinction,andontheotherthesubstantialunityofsoulandbodyinman. Thesoul,theradicalprincipleofallvitalphenomena,isone;stillwemaydistinguishintheindividualsoulseveral faculties (dunameis)whicharenotpartsofthesoulbutmerelydifferentphasesofitaccordingasitperformsdifferentvitalfunctions.The soulanditsfacultiesare,touseAristotle'sfavoritecomparison,liketheconcaveandtheconvexofacurve,differentviewsofone and the same thing. The faculties of the human soul are: (1) nutritive (threptikon), (2) sensitive (aisth tikon), (3) appetitive (orektikon),(4) locomotive (kin tikon),and(5) rational (logikon).Ofthese,thesensitiveandtherational facultiesclaimspecialattention.{75}

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Sensationisthefaculty"bywhichwereceivetheformsofsensiblethingswithoutthematter,asthewaxreceivesthefigureofthe sealwithoutthemetal,ofwhichthesealiscomposed."{76}Thisformwithoutthematter(eidosaisth ton)iswhattheschoolmen calledthespeciessensibilis;itdiffersessentiallyfromthe"effluxes"ofwhichEmpedoclesspoke,fortheselatterareforms"with matter."Besides,theAristoteliantuposisnot,likethe"efflux,"adiminishedobject,butamediumofcommunicationbetweenobject andsubject.Sensationisamovementofthesoul,{77}and,likeeveryothermovement,ithasitsactiveanditspassivephase.The activephaseiswhatwecallthestimulus;thepassivephaseisthespecies.Now,theactiveandpassivephasesofamovement areoneandthesamemotion.Thespecies,therefore,ismerelythepassivephaseofthestimulus,ortheoperationoftheobject,as Aristotlecallsit.ThisistheexplicitteachingofthetreatiseDeAnima.Forexample,h detouaisth touenergeiakait s aisth se sh autemenestikaimia,tod'einaioutautonautais.{78} Aristotledistinguishedfiveexternalsenses,toeachofwhichcorrespondsitsproperobject(aisth tonidion).Besidesobjects propertoeachsense,thereareobjectscommon(koina)toseveralsenses,suchasmovement,andthereisthe sensibileper accidens,orinferentialobject(katasumbeb kos),suchassubstance.{79} Amongtheinternalsensesthemostimportantisthecommonorcentral,sense(aisth t rionkoinon).Byitwedistinguish theseparatecommunicationsoftheexternalsenses,andbyitalsoweperceivethatweperceive.Ithasitsseatnotinthebrain,but in the heart. Having no idea of the function of the nerves, Aristotle naturally regarded the veins as the great channels of communication,andtheheartasthecenteroffunctionalactivityinthebody.{80}Moreover,heobservedthatthebrainsubstanceis itselfincapableofrespondingtosensationstimulus.{81} Inadditiontothecentralsense, memory and imagination arementionedbyAristotleasinternalsenses.Imagination,asa process (phantasia), is the movement resulting from the act of sensation; as a faculty, it is the locus of the pictures (phantasmata),whicharethematerialsoutefwhichreasongeneratestheidea. {82} Withoutthephantasmitisimpossibleto reason(noeinoukestinanenphantasmatos).{83} Intellect.(nous)isthefacultybywhichmanacquiresintellectualknowledge.ItdiffersfromallthesensefacultiesinThis,that whilethelatterareconcernedwiththeconcreteandindividual,ithasforitsobjecttheabstractanduniversal. {84}"Itiswellcalledthe locusofideas,"saysAristotle,{85}"ifweunderstandthatitisthepotentialsourceofideas,forinthebeginningitiswithoutideas,itis likeasmoothtabletonwhichnothingiswritten."Wemustalwaysbearinmindthistwofoldrelationofintellecttosense,namely, distinctionanddependence. Theprocessbywhichtheintellectrisesfromtheindividualtotheuniversalhasalreadybeendescribedinpart.Itisaprocessof development.Thematerialonwhichtheintellectworksistheindividualimage(phantasm),ortheindividualobject;theresultof theprocessistheintelligibleform,oridea,andtheprocessitselfisoneof unfoldingtheindividualsoastorevealtheuniversal containedinit.Theintellectdoesnotcreatetheidea;itmerely causestheobjectwhichwaspotentiallyintelligibleto becomeactuallyintelligible,"inthesamewayaslightcausesthepotentiallycoloredtobecomeactuallycolored." {86} The expressions"developing,""unfolding,""illuminating,"are,ofcourse,metaphorical:whatreallytakesplaceisaprocessofabstraction, aseparationoftheindividuatingqualitiesfromtheuniversal,oraninduction,thatistosay,abringingtogetherofindividualsundera universalimage,"justasintheroutedarmyonemanmuststandsoastobecomethecenterroundwhichothersmaygroup themselves."{87} Itisevident,therefore,thatwhiletheintellectdoesnotcreatetheconcept,itisactiveincausingtheobjecttobecomeactually intelligible.Thereis,however,asubsequentstageintheprocess.Oncetheobjectisrenderedintelligible,itimpressesitselfonthe intellectinpreciselythesamewayasthesensibleobjectimpressesitsspeciesonthesenses.Theintellectinthissecondstageof theprocessiscalledthepassiveintellect(nouspath tikos),whileinthefirststageoftheprocessitiscalled topoioun.It isworthyofremarkthatalthoughitisusualtospeakofthe activeandpassiveintellect,Aristotleneverspeaksofanous poi tikos,alwaysdesignatingtheactiveintellectbymeansofthepresentparticiple. FromthisitisclearthatinAristotle'spsychologythereisnoroomforthedoctrineofinnateideas,Allknowledgecomesthrough thesenses,nothingbeinginnateinthemindexceptthenativepoweroftheactiveintellectbywhichitdiscoversintheconcreteand individualtheabstractanduniversalelementsofthoughtcontainedtherein.Butwhatisthisactiveintellect?Whatisitsrelationtothe psuch ,thevita]principleinman?ThesearequestionswhichhavevexedthecommentatorsandinterpretersofAristotlefromthe daysofTheophrastusdowntoourowntime.ThereisevengreaterdifficultyindeterminingwhatAristotlemeantbythepassive intellect.Wherethereissocomplexadiversityofopinionitisperhapshazardoustoclassifyinterpretations;still,itseemsthatthe commentators and interpreters may be included under the heads Transcendentalists and Anthropologists. Eudemus, AlexanderofAphrodisias,theArabiansoftheMiddleAges,andmostmoderncommentatorssincethetimeofHegelunderstandthe activeintellecttomeansomethingapartfrom,ortranscendinginsomeway,theindividualsoul,whileastothenatureofthepassive

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intellecttheyareinastateofhopelessconfusion.Theophrastus,Philoponus,Themistius,Simplicius,Boethius,andthegreater numberoftheschoolmen,understandtheactiveintellecttomeanafacultyoftheindividualsoul;whilemanyoftheschoolmen identifythepassiveintellectwiththeactive,makingthedifferencebetweenthetwopowerstoconsistmerelyinadifferencebetween twophasesofthesamefaculty.ItwillbesufficientheretogivethewordsinwhichAristotledescribestheactiveintellect,without enteringintothequestionofinterpretation.Hespeaks,inDeAnima,III,4,429a,oftheintellectasseparateandunmixed;in thefollowingchapter{88}hedescribesheactiveintellectasbeing"aloneseparate,eternal,andimmortal"(430a),andinDe GenerationeAnimalium II,3,736b,28,hedescribesitascomingfromwithout( thurathen),andasdivine (theion).It must,however,beborneinmindthatthechaptersinwhichAristotleenunciateshistheoryofknowledgeareofafragmentarynature, and,moreover,thatthisportionofAristotle'spsychologicaltreatisedealswithaquestionwhichnomodernschoolwiththeexception ofthetranscendentalistschoolhasattemptedtosolve.Itis,therefore,notamatterforsurprisethatinexpoundingAristotlesomany modernwritershavefallenintotheerrorofinterpretinghimintheterminologyoftranscendentalism,thusillustratingtheadage, "AristotelemnonnisiexipsoAristoteleintelliges."{89} By reason of itsintellectual function, which it performswithout intrinsic dependence on the bodilyorganism, and by which it transcendstheconditionsofmatter,thesoulisimmaterial{90} and immortal.{91} Aristotle'sdoctrineofimmortalityis,however, conditionedbyhisdoctrineoftheactiveintellect.Iftheactiveintellectissomethingseparatefromtheindividualsoul,animpersonal intellect,commontoallmen,andthisistheinterpretationfollowedbyAlexander,bytheArabians,andbymanymodernscholars, itdoesnotappearhowAristotlecouldholdthatthesoulisinanytruesenseofthewordendowedwithpersonalimmortality. Withregardtowill,inplaceofPlato'svague,unsatisfactorynotionof thumos,wefindthedefiniteconceptofboul siswhich maybedescribedasaconsilienceofreasonanddesire.Willisrationalappetite;itisthedesireofgoodasapprehendedby reason,{92} and because it is preceded by a rational apprehension of good, it is free. This view of freedom of choice (proairesis)issupportedbytherecognizedvoluntarinessofvirtue,andbytheequallywellrecognizedfactthatmanisheld accountableforhisactions.{93} Reasoninitsfunctionofsuggestingthebestmeansbywhichanendistobeattainediscalled practical. Beforeproceeding,however,totreatofethics,whichisthescienceofhumanconductaccordingtotheprinciplesofpracticalreason, itisnecessarytomentionthelastdivisionoftheoreticalphilosophy,namely,mathematics. c.Mathematicsdealswithimmovablebeing,thusdifferingfromphysics,whichhasforobjectbeingsubjecttomotion. {94}Itdiffers frommetaphysicsinthis,thatitdealswithcorporealbeingunderthedeterminationofquantity,whilemetaphysicshasforitsobject beingingeneral,underitshighestdeterminations,suchasactandpotency,causeandeffect.{95} CPracticalPhilosophyincludesthescienceofpoliticalgovernmentandorganizationaswellasthegeneralquestionsofmoral science. 1.Thesupremegoodofmanishappiness.OfthisnoGreekhadtheleastdoubt.Thewordeudaimoniahas,however,more ofanobjectivemeaningthanourwordhappiness:Itismoreakintowellbeing orwelfare.Buthowisthiswellbeingtobe attained?Whatisitthatconstituteshappiness?happinessisdeterminedbytheendforwhichmanwasmade,mdtheendofhuman existenceisthatformofgoodwhichispeculiartoman,thegoodwhichispropertoarationalbeing.Now,reasonistheprerogative ofman.Itshould,therefore,betheaimofman'sexistencetoliveconformablytoreason,tolivealifeof virtue.{96}Nevertheless, Aristotle would not include wealth and pleasure from the idea of human happiness; for wealth is necessary for the external manifestationofvirtue,andpleasureisthenaturalrewardofavirtuouslife.Happinessalsoincludesfriendship,health,inaword, allthegiftsoffortune.{97} 2.Virtue,whileitisnottheonlyconstituentofhappiness,istheindispensablemeansofattaininghappiness.Itisnotamerefeeling, butratherafixedqualityorhabitofmind(hexis).Now,mindmustfirstofallholdthelowerfunctions,andespeciallythepassions, insubjection,andthenitmustdevelopitsownpowers.Thus,wehavemoralvirtueandintellectualvirtue. (a) Moralvirtueisacertainhabitofthefacultyofchoice,consistinginamean (mesot s) suitabletoour natureandfixedbyreasoninthemannerinwhichaprudentmanwouldfixit .{98} Itisahabit,thatis,afixed quality.Itconsistsinameanbetweenexcessanddefect.Courage,forexample,preservesthemeanbetweencowardiceand recklessdaring.Virtue,itistrue,isimpossiblewithoutmoralinsight.Still,wemustnotidentifythesetwoasSocratesdidwhenhe reducedallvirtuetoknowledge.Therearemanykindsofvirtue,forvirtueisaqualityofthewill,andthedefectsandexcessesto whichthewillmayleadusaremany,aswillbeseenbythefollowingschema:

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Defect Cowardice Insensibility Illiberality Pettiness Humblemindedness WantofAmbition Spiritlessness Surliness IronicalDepreciation Boorishness Shamelessness Callousness

Mean Courage Temperance Liberality Munificence Highmindedness RightAmbition GoodTemper FriendlyCivility Sincerity Wittiness Modesty JustResentment

Excess Rashness Intemperance Prodigality Vulgarity Vaingloriousness Overambition Irascibility Obsequiousness Boastfulness Buffoonery Bashfulness Spitefulness.{99}

Justice (dikaiosun )initsgenericmeaningsignifiestheobservanceoftherightorderofallthefacultiesofman,andinthis senseitissynonymouswithvirtue.Inamorerestrictedsense,justiceisthevirtuewhichregulatesman'sdealingswithhisfellow man.Itisdividedintodistributive,corrective,andcommutativejustice.{100} (b)Theintellectualvirtuesareperfectionsoftheintellectitself,withoutrelationtotheotherfaculties.Wehave(i)theperfections ofthescientificreason,namely,understanding(nous)science(epist m ),andwisdom(sophia),whicharerespectively concernedwithfirstprinciples,demonstration,andthesearchforhighestcauses;and(2)theperfectionsofthepracticalreason, namely,art,whichisreferredtoexternalactions(poiein),andpracticalwisdom,whichisreferredtoactionstheexcellenceof whichdependsonnoexternalresult(prattein).{101} ThemostcharacteristicofAristotle'sethicalteachingsisthesuperioritywhichheassignstointellectualoverethicalvirtue,andthe mostseriousdefectinhisethicalsystemishisfailuretoreferhumanactiontofuturerewardandpunishment. 3.Inhis politicaldoctrines Aristotlestartswiththeprinciplethatmanisbynatureasocialbeing(politikonz on),andis forcedtodependonthesocialorganizationfortheattainmentofhappiness.Man'ssociallifebeginsinthefamily;forthefamilyis priortothestate.Thestateisconsequentlyboundtokeepthefamilyintact,and,ingeneral,itsmissionistheadvancementand developmentofitssubjects,theliftingupofthepeoplebythejustadministrationoflawtoahigherplaneofmoralconduct.{102} AristotlecombatsthestateabsolutismofPlato. Therearethreeultimateformsofgovernment,monarchy,aristocracy,andtherepublic.Thebestformofgovernmentisthat whichisbestsuitedtothecharacterofthepeople(Politica,III,17).Thus,althoughmonarchyistheideal,thebestattainableform seemstobeanaristocracy,notofwealthnorofbirthbutofintellect,atruearistocracy,agovernmentofthebest.{103} D.PoieticalPhilosophy.UnderthisheadAristotletreatsthetheoryofart.Art,heteaches,istraceabletothespiritofimitation, andconsistsintherealizationinexternalformofthetrueidea,arealizationwhichisnotlimitedtomerecopying,butextendsalso totheperfectingofthedeficienciesofnaturebygroupingtheindividualphenomenaundertheuniversaltype. {104} Historymerely copies;poetryidealizesandcompletestheworkofhistory:Poetryismorephilosophicalandmoreelevatedthanhistory.{105} Aristotle'sanalysisofthebeautifulis,likePlato's,confinedtoastudyoftheobjectiveconstituentsofbeauty.Thesehereducesto orderandgrandeur,whicharefoundespeciallyinmoralbeauty.SovagueandindefiniteisthisanalysisthatAristotlewasobliged,as wehaveseen,tobasehistheoryofartontherealizationoftheessence,withoutreferringartatalltothenotionofthebeautiful.The aimofartisthecalming,purifying,andennoblingoftheaffections.{106} HistoricalPosition.ItisdifficulttoformatrueestimateofAristotle'sphilosophy,andthedifficultyarises,strangeasthismay seem,fromourtoogreatfamiliaritywithmanyofthenotionswhichAristotleintroducedintohumanscience.Thebasicideasofhis philosophicalsystemhavebecomethecommonplacesofelementaryeducation;theyhavefoundtheirwayintothevocabularyofour everydaylife,andhaveimpressedthemselvesindeliblyontheliteratureofWesterncivilization.Theterminology,theinventionof whichisoneofAristotle'schieftitlestopreeminence,hasbecomeindissolublyassociatedwiththeexpositionofChristiantheology, andforms,sotospeak,thealphabetofourcatecheticalinstructions.Allthishasmadeitdifficultforthemodernreadertoappreciate

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theimportanceofAristotle'scontributionstophilosophy. Consuetavilescunt! Itisnecessary,therefore,toforgethowfamiliar manyofAristotle'sdiscoverieshavebecome,togobackinimaginationtothetimewhentheywerefirstenunciated,andinthisway torealize,ifwecan,thebreadthanddepthofamindthatcouldsucceedinaccomplishingsuchavastamountoriginalworkasto entitlehimtobeconsideredthefounderoflogic,theauthorofthefirsttreatiseonscientificpsychology,thefirstnaturalhistorian,and thefatherofthebiologicalsciences.Placingourselvesatthispointofview,weshallbelessinclinedtosingleouttheundeniable defectsofAristotle'sphilosophy,findingitamorenaturalaswellasamorecongenialtocompareAristotlewithhispredecessorsin thehistoryofGreekspeculation. Aristotle'sphilosophyisthesynthesisandculminationofthespeculationsofpreSocraticandSocraticschools.Hisdoctrineof causesisanepitomeofallthatGreekphilosophyhaduptotimeaccomplished.ButitisespeciallywithPlato,hismasr,thatAristotle istobecompared,anditisbyhisadditionsPlatonicteachingthatheistobejudged.PlatobuiltoutoftheruinsofpreSocratic speculationacompletemetaphysicalstructureaccordingtoadefiniteplan,astructurebeautifulinoutlines,perfectinitssymmetry, butinsecureandunstable,likeoneofthosegoldenpalacesoffairyland,whichwefeartoapproachandexaminelestitvanishinto airynothingness.Aristotle,onthecontrary,drewhisplanwithafirmerhand;helaidthefoundationofhisphilosophydeeponthe rockbottomexperience,andalthoughallthejointsinthefabricarenotequallysecure,thecareandconsistencywithwhichthe designisexecutedareapparenttoeveryobserver.ItwasleftforScholasticphilosophytoaddthepinnacletothestructurewhich Aristotlehadcarriedasfartowardscompletionashumanthoughtcouldbuildunaided.IfPlatohasbeencalledtheSublime,Aristotle mustbecalledtheProfound,atitlewhich,whenappliedtoaphilosopher,shouldbetheexpressionofhigherpraise;forWisdomis ofttimesnearerwhenwestoopThanwhenwesoar.

{1}Forsources,cf.Zeller,AristotleandtheEarlierPeripatetics,Vol.I,p.2,n.;Wallace,OutlinesofthePhilosophyof Aristotle,p.17. {2}AsinMet.I,9,992a. {3}Noct.Att.,XX. {4}Onthederivationofthisword,cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.27,n. {5}Cf.Wallace,op.cit.,pp.18ff. {6}RecenteditionsofAristotle'sWorks:theBerlinedition(5vols.,18311870),whichismadethebasisofcitations;theDidotedition (5vols.,Paris,18481870).Forlistoftranslationsandsecondarysources, cf.Weber,op.cit.,p.104,n.,andUeberweg,op.cit.,I, pp.140and152. {7}Noct.Alt.,XX,5. {8}ItisthesethatCicerohadinmindwhenhealludedto"thegoldenstreamofAristotle'seloquence"(Top.,1,3). {9}XIII,1,54. {10}Sulla,26. {11}Met.,VI,1,1028. {12}Met.,VI,1,1025b,25. {13}Cf.Met.,VI,2,1026a,36;V,8,1017a,24;Phys.,V,I,223b,5. {14}Cf.Stckl,op.cit.,I,115;Englishtrans.,p.105. {15}Cf.Anal.Post.,II,19,99b. {16}Met.,XIII,10,1086b,33. {17}Eth.Nic.,VI,ii,1143b,5. {18}InAnal.Post.,I,11init.,Aristotlesubstitutesthephrasehenkatapoll nforthePlatonichenparatapolla. {19}Cf.Met.,I,9,991a,12,991b,1;XIII,9,1085a,23,etc.;Prantl,Gesch.des.Logik,I,210ff. {20}Cf.DeAn.,II,4,415b. {21}Cf.Met..VIII,6,1045a,12;X,1,1052a,22.

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{22}Cf.infra,p.138. {23}Phys.,1,5,189a,7. {24}Cf.Anal.Post.,I,13,81. {25}Met.,IV,1,1003a,21. {26}Met.,I,9,991b. {27}Cf.Met.,I,9,991b. {28}Cf.Wallace,op.cit.,p.64. {29}Cf.Met.,XIII,5,1079a,13. {30}Op.cit.,I,9,999a,12;VII,1031a,20ff. {31}Met.,V,1,1013a,18. {32}Cf.Phys.,II,3,194b,16. {33}DeGen.etCorr.,I,4,320a,2. {34}Fortheoriginandmeaningofthisexpression, cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.314,notef;alsoUeberweg,op.cit.,Vol.I,p. 161. {35}Cf.Met.,VII,7,1032b;VIII,6,1045a,33;X,I,1052a,22. {36}Phys.,I,7,191a,10. {37}Cf.op.cit.,II,7,198a,24. {38}Op.cit.,III,1,201a,10. {39}DePartibusAnimalium,I,1,639b,11. {40}Cf.Phys.,VIII,I,252a. {41}Cf.op.cit.,VIII,5,2562.. {42}Cf.Met.,XII,6,1071b,20. {43}Phys.,VIII,6,258b,12. {44}Met.,XII,7,1072. {45}Cf.InXIIumMet.lect.7. {46}Cf.DeVorgesinRevueN oscholastique,1894,pp.304ff. {47}Cf.Eth.Nic.,X,8,1178b,20. {48}Op.cit.,X(8),9,1179. {49}Cf.Phys.,VIII,I,251. {50}DiePsychologiedesAristoteles(1862)andUeberdenKreatismusdesAristoteles(1882). {51}St.Augustine,DeCiv.Dei,II,4;St.Thomas,SummaTheologica,Ia,XLVI,1. {52}Cf.Met.,IX,8,1049b,10;Phys.,VIII,91265a,11. {53}Met.,XI,3,1061b,6. {54}Phys.,II,1,192b,14. {55}DeCoelo,1,4,271a,33. {56}Cf.DePart.An.,IV,2,677a,15. {57}Phys.,II,8,199;DeGenerationeAnimalium,IV,4,770b,9. {58}Phys.,IV,4,212a,20.

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{59}Cf.Met.,XI,10,1067. {60}Phys.,IV,11,219b,1. {61}Op.cit.,IV,14,223a,25. {63}Phys.,III,1,201a,10. {63}Cf.op.cit.,IV,7,8,214,215. {64}DeMeteoris,I,3,339;Phys.,VIII,6,259. {65}Cf.HistoriaAnimalium,I,8,491,wherehesaysthatthehinderpartoftheskullisempty. {66}DeAn.,II,1,412.3 {67}DePart.An.,IV,5,681a,12. {68}Hist.An.,II,502,8.ItisunnecessarytoremarkthatAristotlehasreferencemerelytotheexternalappearanceandthemeansof locomotion. {69}Hist.An.,I,6,491. {70}DePart.An.,IV,3,677b,14. {71}DeAn.,II,1,412a,28. {72}Op.cit.,1,4,408a,1. {73}Op.cit.,III,4,429a,18. {74}Op.cit.,II,1,422b,8. {75}DeAn.,II,2,413b,12;11,3,414a,31. {76}Op.cit.,II,22,424a,18. {77}DeSomno,2,454a,7. {78}III,2,425b,26;fordifferentreadings,cf.Rodier,Trait del' me,I,152. {79}DeAn.,11,6,418a,8. {80}DeJuventuteetSenectute,3,469a,10. {81}Cf.DePart.An.,II,10. {82}DeAn.,III,7,432a,14. {83}DeMemoriaetReminiscentia,449b,31. {84}DeAn.,II,5,417b,22. {85}Op.cit.,111,4,429a,27,and429b,31. {86}DeAn.,III,5,430a,20. {87}Anal.Post.,II,15,100. {88}Wallace(Aristotle'sPsychology,p.cvi)saysthat"thestumb]ingblockwhichhaspreventedstudentsfromunderstanding Aristotle'spositionliesperhapschieflyinseparatingthefourthandfifthchaptersofthethirdbook( DeAnima)fromeachother,asif Aristotlewerespeakingofonereasoninonechapterandofanotherintheother." cf.alsoibid.,pp.cviiff.;Brentano,Psych.des Arist.,p.180;Rodier,Trait del' me,2vols.,Paris,1900;PhilosophicalReview(May,1902),Vol.XI,pp.238ff. {89}Forsummaryoftheliteratureonthisquestion, cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.543,notef.SeealsoWallace,Aristotle's Psychology(Introd.,pp.xcviicxvi).ForscholasticcommentaryonAristotle'sdoctrine,efSylvesterMaurus, AristotelisOpera (Rome,1668),Vol.IV,pp.303ff. {90} Cf. DeAn.,III,4.Thechapterisdevotedtothestudyof"thatpartofthesoulwherebyitknowsandunderstands."Theword ch ristos,whichthereoccursisevidentlyusedinthesenseof"freefrommatter." {91}DeAn.,I,4,408b,18.

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{92}Op.cit.,III,10,433a,23. {93}Eth.Nic.,III,7,1113b,21. {94}Phys.,II,193b,22. {95}Cf.Met.,VI,1,1025b. {96}Eth.Nic.,I,6,1097. {97}Eth.Nic.,I,9,1099a,31;V,2,1129b. {98}Op.cit.,II,6,iio6b,36. {99}Cf.Wallace,Outlines,p.100. {100}Eth.Nic.,V,1,1129a,26;V,2,1130b,39. {101}Fordistinctionbetweenpoi sisandpraxis,cf.Zeller,Aristotle,etc.,VolI,p.182. {102}Politica,III,9,1280b,30. {103} Pol.,IV,7,1293b,3.Aristotle(Pol.,III,15,1286b,20)admitsthatapolityinwhichthecollectivevoiceofthepeopleshall holdsovereignpowermay,owingtothespreadofpopulation,becomethegeneralformofgovernment. {104}Eth.Nic.,VI,4,1140a,10. {105}DePoetica,9,1451a,44. {106}Cf.op.cit.,6,1449b,24.

CHAPTERXIITHEPERIPATETICSCHOOL
Sources.Besidesourprimarysources,consistingoftreatisesandcommentariesofthephilosophersofAristotle'sschool,we have,assecondarysources,theworksofDiogenesLaertiusandthereferencesmadebyCicero,who,itshouldbesaid,ismore trustworthywhenhementionsthePeripateticsthanwhenhespeaksofthepreSocraticphilosophers. TheophrastusofLesbos wasbornaboutthesameyearasAristotle.HeseemstohavebecomeAristotle'sdiscipleeven beforethedeathofPlato.AfterAristotle'sdeathheruledthePeripateticschoolasscholarchforaboutthirtyfiveyears.Hewrote manyworks,ofwhichthebestknownaretwotreatisesonbotanyandhis EthicalCharacters,thelatterconsistingoflifelike delineationsoftypesofhumancharacter.HeextendedandcompletedAristotle'sphilosophyofnature,devotingspecialattentionto the scienceofbotany.Inhisethicaldoctrinesheinsistedonthe choregia securedtovirtuebythepossessionofexternal goods.{1} OfthelifeofEudemusofRhodeslittleisknownexceptthatheandTheophrastusweredisciplesofAristotleatthesametime. ItisprobablethathecontinuedtobelongtotheschoolwhenTheophrastusbecamescholarch.HeistheauthoroftheEudemian Ethics, which, however, is merely a redaction of Aristotle's notes, or at most a treatise intended to supplement Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics.{2} In his writings and doctrines Eudemus shows far less originality and independence than does Theophrastus. AritoxenusofTarentum,knownasthe Musician,introducedintothePeripateticphilosophymanyoftheideasofthe Pythagoreans,attachingespecialimportancetothenotionofharmony. StratoofLampsacus,thePhysicist,succeededTheophrastusasscholarchip288B.C.,andcontinuedtopresideoverthe school for eighteenyears.Like hispredecessor,he devoted hisattention to the studyof nature,manifesting,however,a tendencytodiscardfromnaturalphilosophytheteleologicalconceptandtheideaoftheincorporeal. DemetriusofPhalerusandothersoftheearlierPeripateticsconfinedtheirliterarylaborstogeneralhistoryandthehistory ofopinions. AmongthelaterPeripateticsmentionmustbemadeof AndronicusofRhodes,whoeditedtheworksofAristotle(about70 B.C.).TothesecondcenturyofourerabelongAlexanderofAphrodisiae,theExegete,andAristoclesofMessene.

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TothethirdcenturybelongsPorphyry,andtothesixthcenturyPhiloponusandSimpliclus.Allthese,thoughtheybelonged toNeoPlatonicorEclecticschools,enrichedtheliteratureofthePeripateticschoolbytheircommentariesonAristotle.Thephysician Galen,bornabout131A.D.,isalsoreckonedamongtheinterpretersofAristotle. Retrospect.ThesecondperiodofGreekphilosophyhasbeencharacterizedas subjectivoobjective.Comparedwiththe precedingperiod,itissubjective,thatis,itdivertsthemindoftheinquirerfromtheproblemsofnaturetothoseofthought. Comparedwiththeperiodimmediatelyfollowing,itisobjective,thatis,itisnotconcernedsolelywithethicalproblemsandthe problemsofthevalueofknowledge;itisnotwhollysubjective.Historicallytheperiodisshort,notextendingovermorethanthree generations.Yetinthatbriefspaceoftimemuchwasaccomplished.Itis,perhaps,becausetheperiodwassoshort,andbecauseit wasdominatedbythreemen,eachofwhomstoodtohispredecessorintherelationofpersonaldisciple,thatthereexistssoperfect anorganicunityamongthephilosophiesofSocrates,Plato,andAristotle.ThephilosophyofSocrateswasthephilosophyofthe concept,itwasconcernedwiththeinquiryintotheconditionsofscientificknowledgeandthebasisofethics.Thephilosophyof PlatowasthephilosophyoftheIdea,itclaimedtobeascientificstudyofreality,asystemofmetaphysics.Thephilosophyof Aristotlewascenteredaroundthenotionofessence,andessenceimpliesthefundamentaldualismofmatterandform.Itisin Aristotle'sphilosophy,therefore,thattheobjectiveandsubjectiveareunitedinthehighestandmostperfectsynthesis;fororganic unityiscompatiblewithgrowthinorganiccomplexity.Theconceptisthesimplestexpressionoftheunionofsubjectandobject;next incomplexityistheIdea,whichisaformofbeingandknowingexistingapartfromwhatisandwhatisknown,whilehighestin complexityistheessence,whichisinpartthematterandinparttheformexistingintherealityandalsointheobjectofknowledge. FromSocratestoAristotlethereis,therefore,atruedevelopment,thehistoricalformulaofwhichisideallycompact, concept, Idea,andessence.

{1}Cf.Cic.,TusculanaeDisputationes,V,8. {2}Cf.Zeller'sArist.,etc.,Vol.I,p.97,n.

THIRDPERIOD.POSTARISTOTELIANPHILOSOPHY
ThedeathofAristotlemarkstheendoftheGoldenAgeofGreekphilosophy.FromThalestoSocrateswastheperiodofbeginnings; fromSocratestoAristotle,theperiodofhighestperfection;withtheopeningofthepostAristotelianperiodbeginstheageofdecay anddissolution.TothisthirdperiodbelongthepantheismoftheStoics,thematerialismoftheEpicureans,andthefinal relaxationofallearnestphilosophicalthought,culminatingintheabsolute scepticismofthePyrrhonists.Theperiodofhighest perfectioninphilosophywasalsotheperiodofthepoliticalgreatnessofGreece,andthecauseswhichbroughtaboutthepolitical downfallofGreeceareinpartaccountableforthedecayofGreekphilosophy. SixteenyearsbeforethedeathofAristotle,thebattleofChaeronea(338B.C.)wasfought,thebattleinwhichthedoomofGreece wassealed.TherefollowedaseriesofunsuccessfulattemptstoshakeofftheMacedonianyoke.InvaindidDemosthenesstriveto arouseinthebreastsoftheAtheniansthespiritofthedaysofMarathonandThermopylae;theironhandofmilitarydespotism crushedthelastmanifestationsofpatriotism.ThentheRomancame,tosucceedtheMacedonian,andGreece,thefairhomeof philosophyintheWest,wasmadeaprovinceofavastmilitaryandcommercialempire. ThelossofpoliticalfreedomwasfollowedbyaperiodoftorporofthecreativeenergiesoftheGreekmind.{1}Speculation,inthe highestsenseofconstructiveeffort,wasnolongerpossibleandphilosophybecame whollypractical initsaims.Theoretical knowledgewasvaluednotatall,oronlyinsofarasitcontributedtothatbracingandstrengtheningofthemoralfiberwhichmen begantoseekinphilosophy,andforwhichalonephilosophybegantobestudied.Philosophythuscametooccupyitselfwithethical problems,andtoberegardedasarefugefromthemiseriesoflife.WhenmenceasedtocountitanhonortobeacitizenofHellas, they turned to philosophy in order to become citizens of the world; and so philosophy assumed a more cosmopolitan character.ImportedintotheRomanEmpire,itfailedatfirsttotakerootonRomansoilbecauseintheLatincontemptofthe Graeculus wasincludedacontemptforallthingsGreek.Gradually,however,philosophygainedascendencyovertheRoman mind,whileinturntheRomanloveofthepracticalasserteditsinfluenceonGreekphilosophy. All these influences resulted in (1) a disintegration of the distinctively Greek spirit of philosophy and the substitution of a cosmopolitanspiritofeclecticism;(2)acenteringofphilosophicalthoughtaroundtheproblemsofhumanlifeandhumandestiny;and (3)thefinalabsorptionofGreekphilosophyinthereconstructiveeffortsoftheGrecoOrientalphilosophersofAlexandria.

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But, while metaphysics and physics were neglected in this anthropocentric movement of thought, the mathematical sciences, emancipatingthemselvesfromphilosophy,begantoflourishwithnewvigor.TheastronomersofSicilyandlaterthoseofAlexandria standoutofthegeneralgloomoftheperiodasworthyrepresentativesoftheGreekspiritofscientificinquiry. Theprincipalschoolsofthisperiodare:(1)theStoics,(2)theEpicureans,(3)theSceptics,(4)theEclectics,(5)themathematicians andastronomers.AseparatechapterwillbedevotedtoThePhilosophyoftheRomans.

CHAPTERXIII THESTOICS
Sources.AllthewritingsoftheearlierStoics,withtheexceptionofafewfragments,havebeenlost.Wepossess,indeed,the complete works of the later Stoics, Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Heraclitus, and Cornutus; but these philosopherslivedundertheRomanEmpire,atatimewhenforeigninfluenceshadsubstitutednewelementsforthedoctrineswhich hadbeencharacteristicoftheschoolatthebeginningofitsexistence.Weareobliged,therefore,torelyforourknowledgeofearly StoicismonwriterslikeCicero,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,SextusEmpiricus,andtheAristoteliancommentators,who, however, do not always distinguish between the earlier and the laterforms of Stoicism. Consequently, it will be found more satisfactoryfirsttogiveahistoryoftheStoicschool,andthentodescribetheStoicdoctrineasawhole,withoutattemptingto determinethecontributionsmadebyindividualmembersoftheschool. HistoryoftheStoicSchool.(a)GreekStoics.ZenoofCittium(350258B.C.),thefounderoftheStoicschool,was bornatCittiuminCyprusintheyear350B.C.Hewasatfirstamerchant,butowing,itissaid,toashipwreckinwhichhelosta considerablepartofhiswealth,herepairedtoAthenswiththeintentionofpursuingthestudyofphilosophy.Onreadingthe MemorabiliaofXenophonandtheApologyofPlato,hewasimpressedwiththeremarkablecharacterofSocrates,andwasled toattachhimselftotheschoolofCrates,theCynic,whoappearedtoreproduceinhisownlifeandmannersthecharacterofthe sage.Lateron,repelled,nodoubt,bythecoarsenessandvulgarityoftheCynics,hebecamesuccessivelydiscipleofStilpo,the Megarian,andofXenocrates,theruleroftheAcademy.Abouttheyear310B.C.hefoundedaschoolofhisown,whichreasonofhis habitofteachinginthePaintedPorch(Stoa)cametobeknownastheStoicschool.Hereachedanadvancedageand,according toaccountgivenbyDiogenesandothers,endedhislifebysuicide.Hiswritingshaveallbeenlost. CleanthessucceededZenoasmasteroftheStoa.Heissaidtohavebeenoriginallyapugilist.Zenocharacterizedthemental temperamentofCleathesbycomparinghimtoahardslabonwhichitisdifficulttowrite,butwhichretainsindefinitelywhateveris writtenonit.Truetothisdescription,Cleanthespreservedtheteachingsofhismaster,butshowedhimselfincapableofexpanding themintoamorecompletesystem.HeisthereputedauthorofaHymntotheMostHigh,preservedbyStobaeus.{2} Chrysippus,whosucceededCleanthes,wasbornatSoli,inCilicia,intheyear280B.C.HewasmoreoriginalthanCleanthes, andunderhisdirectiontheStoicschoolreacheditsfulldevelopment.Amonghisdiscipleswere ZenoofTarsus,Diogenesof Seleucia,andAntipaterofTarsus,whosepupil,Panaetius(180111B.C.),introducedStoicismintotheRomanworld. (b) RomanStoics.AmongtheRomanStoicsthebestknownare L.AnnaeusCornutus (A.D.2066), M.Annaeus Lucanus(A.D.3965),Senecatheyounger(A.D.365),Persius,thesatirist(A.D.3462),Epictetus,thephilosopherslave (flourishedA.D.90),andtheEmperorMarcusAurelius(A.D.121180). ItisafactworthyofnotethatCleanthes,Seneca,andLucancommittedsuicideinaccordancewithwhatasweshallseewasoneof theethicaldoctrinesoftheschool,imitatinginthistheexampleofthefounder. STOICPHILOSOPHY GeneralIdeaofStoicPhilosophy.TheStoicsevidentlyconsideredthemselvesthetruedisciplesofSocrates,anditwas, withoutdoubt,fromSocraticprinciplesthattheydeducedtheirideaoftheaimandscopeofphilosophy.Wehaveseenthat Zenowasfirstledtophilosophybythehopeoffindinginitconsolationforthelossofhistemporalgoods,andwhenhecameto establishhisschoolhetookforhisstartingpointtheSocraticdoctrinethatknowledgeisvirtue,makingthepursuitofknowledge (philosophy)andthecultivationofvirtuesynonymous.When,however,theStoicssetaboutdiscoveringasystematicbasisfor theirethicalteachings,theywentbacktopreSocraticsystems,anddrewlargelyfromthephysicaldoctrinesofHeraclitus.Now, thereweretwotenetsintheHeracliteanphilosophywhichrecommendedthemselvesinaspecialmannertotheStoics:(1)thatall individualthingsarebuttheeverchangingmanifestations,orapparitions,oftheeverenduringfire,and(2)thatthereisbutonelaw, whichgovernstheactionsofmen,aswellastheprocessesofnature.Consequently,theStoicsmadetheseprinciplesthefoundation

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ofthescienceofhumanconduct.AtthesametimetheydidnothesitatetosupplementthephysicsofHeraclitusbyborrowingfrom Aristotle'sphysicaldoctrines.Theywereinfluenced,too,byAntisthenes'nominalismandbyhisoppositiontothePlatonictheoryof Ideas,andintheirtheologicaldoctrinestheymadeuseoftheSocraticandPlatonicteleology.Alltheseelementstheyamalgamated into a consistent system. Logic and physics they made subservient to ethics, on the principle that the theoretical should be subordinatedtothepractical. Wehave,therefore,threedivisionsofStoicPhilosophy.(1)Logic,includingthetheoryofknowledge;(2)Physics,including theology;and(3)Ethics,thehegemonicscience. StoicLogic.ItwasprobablyZenowhofirstgavetologicthenamebywhichitisnowknown,thoughthisisbynomeanscertain. ThelogicoftheStoicswassimplythe Analytic ofAristotlesupplementedbyamoreadequatetreatmentofthe hypothetical syllogismandbytheadditionoftheproblemofthe criterionoftruth.Tothelatterquestiontheydevotedspecialattention,and, intheirsolutionofit,developedtheStoictheoryofknowledge. Theory of knowledge. 1. The Stoics start with the Aristotelian principle that all intellectual knowledge arises from sense perception. Senseperception (aisth sis) becomes representation, or imagination (phantasia), as soon as it rises into consciousness.{3}Duringtheprocessofsenseperceptionthesoulremainspassive,theobjectproducingitsimageonthemind,just asthesealproducesitsimpressiononwax.Theprocesswas,therefore,called tup sis,althoughChrysippusissaidtohave substitutedthewordheteroi sis,alterationofthesoul.{4} Whentheobjectofknowledgeisremovedfromthepresenceofthe senses,weretainamemoryofit,andalargenumberofmemoriesconstitutesexperience(empeiria). 2.Thenextstepisthe formationofconcepts.Conceptsareformedeither(a) spontaneously,thatis,when,withoutour conscious cooperation, several like representations fuse into universal notions (prol pseis, or koinai ennoiai); or (b) consciously,thatis,bythereflexactivityofthemind,whichdetectsresemblancesandanalogiesbetweenourrepresentations, andcombinestheseintoreflexconcepts,orknowledge(epist m ).Neitherspontaneousnorreflexconceptsare,however,innate; spontaneitydoesnotimplyinnateness. 3.As,therefore,allourknowledgearisesfromsenseperception,thevaluetobeattachedtoknowledgedependsonthevaluetobe attachedtosenseperception.Consequently,theStoicsdecidedthat apprehension (katal psis) isthecriterionoftruth. Thatistruewhichisapprehendedtobetrue,anditisapprehendedtobetruewhenitisrepresentedinthemindwithsuchforce, clearness,andenergyofconvictionthatthetruthoftherepresentationcannotbedenied. {5} ThesayingattributedtoZenoby Cicero{6}thatPerceptionislikethefingersextended,that Assentislikethehalfclosedhand,that Apprehensionislikethe handfullyclosed,andthat Knowledge (Scientia)isliketheclosedhandfirmlygraspedbytheotherhand,wouldseemto attributetoknowledgeasuperiorityoversenseperception.Oncloserexamination,however,itisseenthatthedifferenceisonlya differenceofdegree.{7} 4.Thequestion,Whatisthevalueofconcepts?wasansweredbytheStoicsinaccordancewithnominalisticprinciplesborrowed fromAntisthenes,who,inoppositiontoPlato,taughtthatnouniversalityexistsoutsidethemind,theindividualalonebeingreal.{8} 5.IntheirclassificationofconceptstheStoicsreducedthetenAristoteliancategoriestofour:(1)substance(hupokeimenon), (2)essentialquality(topoion),(3)accidentalquality(p sechon),and(4)relation(prostip sechon).{9}This enumeration,aswillbereadilyperceived,doesnotretaintheAristoteliandistinctionbetweenpredicablesandcategories.Allthe Stoiccategories,exceptthefirst,aremodesofpredicationratherthanmodesofbeing. StoicPhysicsandTheology.ThephysicsoftheStoaisasystemofmaterialisticmonism,whilethetheologyoftheStoa maybedescribedasacompromisebetweentheismandpantheism. TheStoicsmaintainedthatthematerialaloneisreal.Theywouldnotadmit,forexample,thatthesoul,orvirtue,isrealexcept insofarasitismaterial.GodHimselftheybelievedtobematerial.Aboveallthecategories,therefore,theywouldplacenot on, Being,butti,something,atranscendentalnotionincludingnotBeingaswellasBeing,theincorporealaswellasthecorporeal. Thusdidtheyidentifytheincorporealwiththeunreal,andincludeallrealbeingunderthegenericconceptofmatter.{10} ConsistentlywiththeseprinciplestheStoicsteachthatallattributesareaircurrents:emotions,concepts,judgments,virtues,and vicesareaircurrentswhicheitherpassintothesoulorcomeoutfromit. {11} Inextenuationofthiscrudematerialism,itmustbe remarkedthattheStoicsdistinguishbetweenafinerandacoarsermatter,attributingtotheformeranactiveandtothelattera passivecharacter.Theaircurrentsareinsubstancematerial;infunction,however,theyareactive,andmaybesaidtoplayarle similartothatwhichtheformplaysinAristotelianphilosophy.{12} Everything,therefore,ismaterial:thecommondistinctionbetweencorporealandincorporealismerelyadistinctionbetweencoarser

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andfinermatter.Wemay,indeed,distinguishtwoprinciples,orsources,ofreality,matterandforce,butweshallfindthatin ultimateanalysisforce,too,ismaterial. Godis,atonce,theAuthoroftheuniverseanditsSoul,theimmanentprincipleofitslife;foreverykindofactionultimately proceedsfromonesource,which,whetheritresidesintheheavensorinthesunorinthecenteroftheworld(onthispointtheStoics werenotagreed),diffusesitselfthroughouteverypartoftheuniverse,asthecauseofheatandgrowthandlifeandmotion. Godisatonetimedescribedas Fire,Ether,Air,AtmosphericCurrent (pneuma);atanothertimeas Soul,Mind, Reasoncontainingthegermsofallthings (logos spermatikos); while sometimes both styles of phraseology are combined,andHeiscalledtheFieryReasonoftheWorld,MindinMatter,ReasonablePneuma.Thelanguageof compromise is never wholly consistent, and the Stoic theology is an attempt to compromise between theism and pantheism.Itis,however,certainthattheStoicsconceivedGodtobesomethingmaterial;forintheirexplanationofthepresence ofGodintheuniversetheyassumethattheuniversalintermingling(krasisdihol n)impliestheimpenetrabilityofmatter,sothat evenwhentheycallHimMind,Law,Providence,Destiny,theyunderstandbythesetermssomethingcorporeal.{13} Godandtheworldarethesamereality,althoughthereexistsarelativedifferencebetweenGod,orrealityregardedasawhole,and theworld,orrealityconsideredinsomeoneorotherofitsaspects.This pantheismisthecentraldoctrineoftheStoicphysics; indeed,itmaybesaidtobetheinspiringthoughtwhichjustifiedtotheStoicmindthestudyofnaturalphenomena.FortheStoics,as hasbeensaid,lookeduponphilosophyasprimarilyamatterofpracticalimport,andstudiedphysicsonlyinordertofindabasisfor theirethicalspeculations.Suchabasistheyfoundinthedoctrineofpantheism.Thisdoctrinemay,therefore,besaidtohavebeen theirreligionaswellastheirphilosophy.Accordingly,theycriticisedthepopularbeliefsoftheirtime,beingcareful,however,toadmit whateverelementsoftruththeyfoundinpolytheisticreligion,andmakingfreeuseofallegoryasameansofbridgingoverthechasm betweenpolytheismandpantheism.{14} Wemay,therefore,speakoftheworldasthebody,andoftheDeityasthesouloftheuniverse,ifwearecarefultobearinmind thatthedistinctionismerelyarelativeone.The worldaroseinthefollowingmanner.Theprimalfirewascondensedintoairand water;waterinturnwascondensedintoearthThederivedelementsareconstantlytendingtoreturnbyrarefactiontotheprimal fire;{15}butnosoonerwillthisdestructionbyconflagrationhavetakenplacethantheprimalfirewillissueforthinanotherseriesof condensations,thusbeginninganothercosmicperiod,whichwillendlikeitspredecessorinconflagration.Heretheinfluenceof Heraclitusisapparent. TheDeity,regardedastheoriginoftheseprocessesofcondensationandreturningrarefaction,theprimalfire,is logos spermatikos regardedastherulingorguidingprincipleoftheseprocesses,Heis Providence (pronoia)and Destiny (eimarmen ).Forallthingscomeforthfromtheprimalfireaccordingtolaw,andallthesubsequentchangesintheworld,allthe eventsofhumanhistory,takeplaceaccordingtothenecessarysequenceofcauseandeffect.Whenwethinkoftheorderand intelligent arrangement of the divine government, we name the Divine Ruler Providence; when we think of the necessary dependenceofeffectoncause,wenameHim Destiny or Fate.{16} AccordingtotheStoicconception,Providenceis directed immediatelytotheprocessesoftheuniverseingeneralandonlymediatelytotheindividualandhisactions. InsupportoftheirdoctrineofProvidence,theStoicsappealtothe universalconsentofmankind,{17}being,apparently,thefirst tousethisargument. Thehumansoulismaterial.ThisnotonlyfollowsfromthegeneralprinciplesofStoicphilosophybutisalsoexpresslytaughtby theStoicsandprovedwiththeaidofmanyarguments. {18}Thesoulisconceivedasfierybreath(pneuma)diffusedthroughoutthe body;infact,therelationofthesoultothebodyisthesameasthatoftheDeitytotheworld.Itis,inaspecialsense,partofthe Deity,partakingmoreandmoreofthenatureoftheDeityaccordingasweallowgreaterplaytothedivine,orreasonable,inus. {19} Now,itispreciselyonaccountofthisspecialproximityofthesoultothedivinethatitcannotescapethe necessitywhichdivine lawimposesonallthings.Thesoulisinnosensefree,unlessitbesaidtobefreebecausethenecessitybywhichitisruled comesfromitsownnatureratherthanfromanythingexternaltoit.Meritandrewardfollowtheactionwhich,althoughitmustbe performed,isperformedvoluntarily,thatis,withperfectacquiescenceintheruleofdivinedestiny."Volentemfataducunt;nolentem trahunt."{20} TheStoicideaofthesoulisasincompatiblewith immortality asitiswiththefreedomofthewill.Thesoul,beingmaterial,is destinedtodestruction.Thetime,however,atwhichthesoulistobedissolvedintotheprimalfireisnotthemomentofdeath,but theendofthecosmicperiod,whenallmatteristobedestroyedbyconflagration.TheStoicsweredividedastowhetherthesoulsof allmen,oronlythoseofthewise,willlastuntilthattime.{21} Seneca'sreference{22} todeathasthebirthofafuturelife,andhis descriptionofthepeacethatawaitsthesoulbeyondthegrave,suggestiveastheyareofPlatonicand,possibly,Christianinfluences, containnothingthatisatvariancewithwhattheStoicstaughtaboutthedestinyofthehumansoul.

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StoicEthics.TheStoicsregardedethicsasthe"divinepart"ofphilosophy,fromwhich,asfromacenter,alltheirlogicaland physicalinquiriesradiate.Questionsoflogicandphysicswereofinterestmerelyinsofarastheirsolutionthrewlightonthe paramountproblemofphilosophy,theproblemofhumandestinyandhumanhappiness.Thus,attheveryoutsetoftheethical inquiryconcerninghappiness,theStoicsappliedthemostcharacteristicoftheirphysicaldoctrines,thateverythingintheworldof realityobeysandmustobeyinevitablelaw.Man,itistrue,isendowedwithreason,andistherebyenabledtoknowthelawwhichhe obeys;heisnonethelessobligedtoobeyit.Nay,more,sinceheisinaspecialsensedivine,heisundergreaternecessitytoobey than other manifestations of the Divine. The supreme canon of conduct is, therefore, to live conformably to nature (homologoumen s t phusei z n), or, as Zeno is said to have formulated the maxim, to live a consistent life, homologoumenosz n.Thisis man'shappiness(eudaimonia), hischiefgood(agathon), theendofhisexistence (telos).{23} Thehighestpurposeofhumanlifeisnot,therefore,contemplation,butactioninaccordancewiththelawsofuniversalnature,with thewilloftheDeity.Ahintofthispurposeiscontainedintheinstinctofselfpreservationwhichistheprimaryimpulseineverybeing. Actioninaccordancewithnature'slawsisvirtue,whichCicerotranslates rectaratio.Virtueisnotmerelyagood;itistheonly good.Consequently,richesandpleasureandhealthandhonorsarenotgoodsinanytruesenseoftheword;andtheStoics persistentlycombatedtheteachingofPlatoandAristotle,whoconsideredthattheexternalgoodsoflifeareworthyofbeingdesired, althoughtheyaresubservienttothechiefgood,whichisvirtue.StoicismwasstillmoredecidedinitsoppositiontotheHedonist doctrinewhichmadevirtueitselftobeagoodsubordinatetopleasure.{24} Tf,then,virtueistheonlygood,itmustbesoughtforitsownsake;itcontainsalltheconditionsofhappiness;virtueisvirtue's ownreward.{25}Everythingelseisindifferent(adiaphoron). TheStoicsadheredtotheSocraticdoctrinethatvirtueisone,andyet,sincevirtue,whileone,mayhaveapluralityofobjects,they considered that therearedifferent manifestations ofvirtue,suchasprudence,courage, temperance,andjustice (whichPlato regardedasfourkindsofvirtue),andpatience,magnanimity,etc.,whichmayberegardedasderivationsfromoneorotherofthe cardinalvirtues.{26}Accordingly,amanwhoisprudentmustofnecessitybecourageous;forhewhopossessesonevirtue mustpossessall.{27} Now,hewhohasarightappreciationofgoodandevil,andwhoconsequentlyintendstodogood,is virtuous.Fromwhichitfollowsthatnoactisinitselfpraiseworthyorreprehensible;themoralityoftheactisdeterminedbythe disposition:"Nonquidfiat,autquiddeturrefert,sedquamente."{28} Vice,theoppositeofvirtue,consistsinlivingoutofharmonywiththelawsofnature.Likevirtue,itisessentiallyone.Hewhois guiltyofoneviceisguiltyofall;thereisnodistinctionofdegreeinvice.("Omniapeccataparia.") TheStoics,however,althoughtheyseemedtoidentifymoralexcellencewithintellectualorrationalinsight,andspokeofthevirtuous manasthewiseman,recognizedthatmanisnotwhollyrational.Fromhisirrationalnaturespringthe emotions (path ).The emotions perturbationes,asCicerocallsthemaremovementsofthemindcontrarytoreason. {29} Now,thereis adesire (horm )whichisaccordingtolawandreason,andthisisthenaturalimpulsetowardswhatisgood.Thedesire,onthecontrary, whichisaccordingtoemotionisintrinsicallyunreasonableandthereforebad;forallemotionsarecontrarytoreason.Itfollowsthat thewisemanshouldaimateradicatingallhisemotions;heshouldstrivetobecomeabsolutelyemotionless. {30} Thisdoctrineof apathyisoneofthemostcharacteristicofthedoctrinesoftheStoa.{31} IntheirapplicationoftheseethicalprinciplestheStoicsdevelopedavastnumberof paradoxesreferringtothewiseman, thatis,totheidealStoicphilosopher.Healoneisfree,beautiful,rich,andhappy.Healoneknowshowtogovernaswellastoobey. Heistheorator,thepoet,theprophet.Therestoftheworldismad;themajorityofmenpasstheirlivesinwickedness,slavesto custom,topleasure,andtoamultitudeofdesires.Thewisemanaloneisindifferenttopain;forhimdeathhasnoterrors,andwhen heiscalledupontodecidebetweendeathanddishonorheistruetohisStoicteachingifhepreferstheformer.Suicide,therefore,is sometimesaduty;itisalwaysjustifiedifimpendingmisfortuneissuchasseriouslytothreatenpeaceofmindandtranquillityofsoul. Thewisemanisindependentofalltiesofbloodandkinship.Heisathomeeverywhere.Heisacitizenoftheworld,or,asEpictetus says,{32}heisachildofGodandallmenarehisbrethren. Historical Position. Stoic philosophy, by reason of its systematic development, approaches more closely to the comprehensivenessofthePlatonicandAristoteliansystemsthandoesanyotherphilosophyofthisthirdperiod.Takingupthebest principlesoftheCynicmorality,itadvancedfarbeyondtheCynicphilosophy,owingtothelargerpartwhichitassignedtomental cultureinitsschemeoflife,andalsotothebroaderandmoresystematicbasisoflogicandphysicsonwhichitbuiltitsethical teaching. Nevertheless, Stoicism is not free from the dominant vice of the age to which it belonged. It is a onesided developmentofphilosophy.Itsubordinatesthetheoreticaltothepractical.Initstheoryofknowledgeitissensistic;inits physicsitismaterialisticandpantheistic;inthedevelopmentofitsmoralprinciplesitsubordinatestheindividualtouniversallaw,

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stampingoutindividualdesire,andadvocatingthemergingofdomesticandpoliticalinstinctsinafaroffdreamofthefellowshipof cosmopolitanphilosophers.Itlacksthatcomprehensivesweepofcontemplationwhich,inthegoldenageofGreekphilosophy,set thetheoreticalbythesideofthepractical,placedthestudyofnatureonafootingwhichgaveitavalueofitsown,distinguished, withoutseparating,matterandmind,andinethicsgavedueimportancetotheindividualemotionsandtothesocialinstinctsaswell astotheimmutablemorallaw.Thisdisintegrationoftheuniversalphilosophicalview,andtheconsequentisolationofseparate aspectsofspeculativeandpracticalproblems,whichisfirstseeninStoicism,goesonincreasinginthesystemswhichcomeafter thephilosophyoftheStoa. OfallthedefectsofStoicism,thatwhichcontributedmosttothedownfallanddissolutionoftheschoolwasthedoctrinethat the wisemanisemancipatedfromallmorallaw.ThisdoctrineisnottheonlytenetoftheStoicswhichrecallsthephilosophyof theOrientratherthanthatofGreece.TheidentityofGodandtheworld,theemanationofthesoul,thefinalreabsorptionofallthings inGod,theseandsimilardoctrinesarepeculiartotheOrientalformofspeculation.WemustrememberthatZenoofCypruswas notmorethanhalfGreek,andalthoughhismentaltrainingandthelogicalderivationofhisphilosophywereentirelyGreek,therewas inhimenoughoftheOrientaltemperamenttoinfuseintohisphilosophyaspiritmoreinaccordancewiththequietismoftheEast thanwiththeGreciansenseofartisticcompleteness.Thisquietism,togetherwiththeexorbitantclaimssetuponbehalfofthewise man,finallybroughtStoicismdowntosolowalevelofmoralaimsthatitwasscarcelytobedistinguishedfromEpicureanism.

{1}ThisopinionofZellerandothersiscontrovertedbyBenn,TheGreekPhilosophers,Vol.1,p.xi. {2}Cf.Zeller'sStoics,etc.,p.41,n.;RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.394,notee. {3}Placita,IV,12;Diels,op.cit.,p.401. {4}Sext.,Mathem.,VII,228. {5}Sext.,Mathem.,VII,244. {6}Acad.,II,47. {7}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.399ff. {8}Placita,IV,xi;Diels,op.cit.,p.400. {9}Forauthorities,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.407. {10}Cf.Seneca,Ep.58. {11}Forreferences,cf.Zeller,Stoics,etc.,p.127,n.;cf.alsoRitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.408,notee. {12} Cf. Ritter, HistoryofAncientPhilosophy,trans.byMorrison(Oxford,1838),VolIII,p.513;alsoBenn, TheGreek Philosophers,Vol.II,p.13.Thelattersays:"Virtuesandviceswere,accordingtotheStoics,somanygaseouscurrentsbywhich the soul is penetrated and shaped a materialistic rendering of Plato's theory that qualities are distinct and independent substances." {13}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,II,7ff.;ibid.,I,14. {14}Cicero,DeNat.Deodrum,III,24ff. {15}Stob.,Ed.,I,444;Diels,op.cit.,p.465. {16}Diog.Laer.,VII,149. {17}Stob.,Ecl.,I,100. {18}Diog.Laer.,VII,157. {19}Seneca,Ep.31. {20}Cf.Cicero,DeFato,XVIII. {21}Diog.Laer.,VII,256. {22}Ep.102. {23}Cf.Cicero,DeFinibus,III,5;Diog.Laer.,VII,88. {24}Diog.Laer.,VII,30;MarcusAurelius,IX,16.

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{25}Diog.Laer.,VII,102;Seneca,Ep.85. {26}Stob.,Ed.,II,204. {27}Cicero,Paradoxa,3,1. {28}Seneca,DeBeneficiis,VI,6. {29}Diog.Laer.,VII,120, {30}Diog.Laer.,VII,117. {31}ForcomparisonoftheChristianandtheStoicsystemsofmorality, cf.Talamo,LeoriginidelCristianesimoeilpensiero stoico(terzaed.,Roma,1902). {32}Dissertations,I,23,3.

CHAPTERXIVTHEEPICUREANS
Sources.OfthevoluminouswritingsofEpicurusonlyafewfragmentshavecomedowntous,andtheseareforthemostpart unimportant.ForthehistoryoftheschoolthemostimportantprimarysourceisLucretius'poemDeRerumNatura.Assecondary sourceswehavetheworksofCicero,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,andtheAristoteliancommentators. HistoryoftheEpicureanSchool.{1} Epicurus wasbornatSamosintheyear341or342B.C.Hisfather,Neocles,was, Strabotellsus,aschoolteacher.AccordingtothetraditionoftheEpicureanschool,Epicuruswasaselftaughtphilosopher,andthis isconfirmedbyhisverysuperficialacquaintancewiththephilosophicalsystemsofhispredecessors.Still,hemusthavehadsome instructioninphilosophy,forPamphilusandNausiphanesarementionedashavingbeenhisteachers;Epicurus,however,wouldnot acknowledgehisdebttothem,boastingthathehadbegunhisselfinstructionattheageoffourteen,havingbeendriventorelyon hisownpowersofthoughtbytheinabilityofhisteachertoexplainwhatwasmeantbytheChaosofHesiod.Hefirsttaughtat Mitylene,afterwardsatLampsacus,andfinallyatAthens,whereheestablishedhisschoolinagarden,therebygivingoccasionfor thenamebywhichhisfollowerswereknown,hoiapot nk p n.Herehetaughtuntilhisdeath,whichtookplacein270B.C. ThemostcelebratedofthedisciplesofEpicuruswere Metrodorus(born330B.C.),Hermarchus(whosucceededEpicurusas presidentoftheschoolandwassucceededby Polystratus), Dionysius,and Basilides.Towardstheendofthesecond centuryB.C.theschoolwasrepresentedatAthensbyApollodorus,ZenoofSidon,andPhaedrus. Amalfinius(about150B.C.)seemstohavebeenthefirsttomakeknownthedoctrinesofEpicurustotheRomans.Lateronwe hearofaSyro,orSciro,whotaughtEpicureanphilosophyatRome;butitis Lucretius(TitusLucretiusCarus,9551B.C.)who, inhispoemDeRerumNatura,givesusthefirstLatincontributiontoEpicureanliterature. AlthoughtheschoolofEpicurusissaidtohavebeendistinguishedbyitscheerfultone,itiscertainthatitindulgedinmuchabusive criticism,fortheEpicureanswereknownthroughoutantiquityasleadersintheartofcalumny.Everything,therefore,whichthe EpicureanssayaboutthesystemsandthephilosophersofpreSocraticandSocratictimesmusthavecorroborationfromother sourcesbeforeitcanbeaccepted.Epicurushimselfsettheexampleinmisrepresentation,whenhegaveexpressiontohiscontempt forhisteachersandpredecessors,whilefromhisownfollowersheexactedeveryoutwardmarkofrespect,eveninsistingontheir committingtomemorycertainbriefformulas(,~pw.t&$iu)whichcontainedthepithofhisteaching. {2}HenceitisthattheEpicurean philosophyadheredsocloselytotheformwhichitfirstreceivedfromtheteachingofEpicurus. EPICUREANPHILOSOPHY EpicureanNotionofPhilosophy.Havingdefinedphilosophyastheartofmakinglifehappy,{3}andhavinglaiddown theprinciplethatthereshouldbenodeviationfromthekuriaidoxai,Epicurussubordinatedspeculationtothepracticalaspectsof philosophyandeffectivelydiscouragedallindependenceofthoughtonthepartofhisdisciples.Itiswellknownthathedespised learningandculture.Theonlylogicalproblemtowhichhegaveevencursoryattentionwastheproblemofknowledge.Heattached greatervaluetothestudyofnature,butonlybecauseheconsideredthataknowledgeofnaturalcausesmayfreethemindfroma fearofthegodsandinthiswaycontributetohumanhappiness.{4}InthephilosophyofEpicurus,therefore,ethics,ortheinquiryinto thenatureandconditionsofhappiness,istheparamountproblem,towhich logic andthe studyofnature aremerelythe preliminaries.

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EpicureanLogic.ThisportionofEpicureanphilosophywasstyledcanonic,becauseitconsistsmerelyofasystemofrules, EpicureanPhysics.ThephysicaldoctrinesoftheEpicureansreceivetheirtoneandcharacterfromthepurposewhichthe Epicureansalwayshadinmindthroughouttheirinvestigationsofnature, tofreemenfromthefearofthegods .Tothisaim theEpicureanssubordinatedtheirphysicalinquiries,andastheycaredlittlewhethertheirexplanationwasaccurateorinaccurate, completeorincomplete,theyleftmattersofdetailtobesettledbyindividualsaccordingtoindividualchoice,insisting,however,in theirgeneralexplanationofnaturalphenomena,ontheexclusionofanycausethatwasnotanaturalcause. DeliberatelyrejectingtheSocraticphilosophyofnatureandturningtothepreSocraticsystemsofphilosophy,Epicurusrecognized thatthephilosophywhichwasmostnaturalisticinitsexplanationsandwagedmostpersistentwarfareonfinalcauses,wasthatof Democritus.Ashistheoryofnature,therefore,headoptedthephysicsofDemocritus,modifyingit,asweshallsee,inoneimportant respect.Thusheacceptedwithoutmodificationthe atomism ofDemocritusaswellastheDemocriteanideaofa vacuum. Nothingexistsexceptatomsandvoid:mindasmovingcauseisasuperfluouspostulate:

Ergo,praeterinaneetcorpora,tertiaperseNullapotestreruminnumeronaturarelinqui.{9}
TheonlypointonwhichDemocritusandEpicurusdifferisinreferencetothe primalmotionofatoms.Democritusmaintained thattheatoms,fallingthroughemptyspace,movedwithdifferentvelocitiesonaccountoftheirdifferenceinweight.This,Aristotle pointedout,isimpossible.Epicurus,acknowledgingthejusticeofAristotle'scriticism,soughttoaccountforthecollisionofthefalling atomsbypostulatingonthepartoftheatomsaselfdeterminingpowerbymeansofwhichsomeofthemswervedslightlyfrom theverticallineandthus{10}causedacircularorrotatorymotion. InhisaccountoftheoriginoflifeEpicurusacceptedthetheoryofEmpedocles,whoheldthatallsortsofdeformedandmonstrous creaturesfirstsprangfromtheearth,thosealonesurvivingwhichwerefittosupportandprotectthemselvesandtopropagatetheir kind. TheEpicureanaccountofhumansocietyiswellknown.Lucretius {11} taughtthatthemenofoldentimeswereasstrongandas savageasbeasts;thattheprimitiveconditionoftheracewasoneofwarfare;andthatcivilsocietywasformedasaprotection againstanarchyandtheabsolutepowerofkings. Similarly,religion,accordingtotheEpicureans,wasofnaturalgrowth.Fearisthebasisofreligion.{12}Ignorance,too,isafactor inthegenesisofthereligiousinstinct.Itwasowingtoignoranceandfearthatmenattributednaturalportentstotheinterventionof supernaturalpowersandsoughttoexplaintheregularityofthemotionoftheheavenlybodiesbyreferringittotheagencyof Providence.Nevertheless,Epicurusdidnotwhollyabandonbeliefinthegods.Thegods,hesaid,existbecausetheyhaveappeared tomenandleftonthemindsofmenrepresentativeimages( prol pseis).{13}Theyareimmortal;theyenjoyperfecthappiness; formedofthefinestatoms,theydwellintheuppermostpartsoftheuniverse,inthespacesbetweenthestars.Thepopularnotion, however,thatthegodstakeaninterestinhumanaffairsiserroneous,becauseaninterestintheaffairsofmenwouldbeinconsistent withtheperfecthappinesswhichthegodsenjoy.{14} Thehumansoulis,likethegods,composedofthefinerkindofatoms.Itisamoresubtlekindofbody,resemblingairand fire.{15}Moreaccurately,itiscomposedofair,fire,vapor,andafourthelement,whichisnameless.Thislastconstitutestherational part(logicon)ofthesoul,whichisseatedinthebreast,whileair,fire,andvaporconstitutetheirrationalpart,whichisscattered throughouttheremainderofthebody.Lucretiuscallstherationalpartanimus,ormens,andtheirrationalpartanima.{16} AccordingtotheStoics,itisthesoulwhichholdsthebodytogether;accordingtotheEpicureans,itisthebodywhichsheltersthe atomsofthesoul,sothat,whentheprotectionaffordedbythebodyceases,asitdoesatthemomentofdeath,thesoulatomsare instantlyscattered,owingtotheirextremelightness.{17} InthiswayEpicurus,keepinginmindthechiefaimofallhisphysical inquiries,soughttorobdeathofitsterrorsbyteachingthat thereisnofuturelife."Totaresfictaestpueriliter,"asCicero exclaims. Epicurusassertedthefreedomofthewill.Hedeniedtheexistenceoffate,butinhisownanalysisofhumanactionhewasobligedto substitutechanceforfate.Despitehisdoctrineoffreedom,hewasforcedtomaintainthatthereisnotruthindisjunctivepropositions referringtothefuture.{18} EpicureanEthics.TheEpicureancanonicandthegeneralviewswhichtheEpicureansmaintainedinmattersofphysical scienceledinevitablytotheconclusionthat theonlyunconditionalgoodispleasure,aconclusionwhichisthebasisof Epicureanethics.TheethicalsystemofEpicurusissimplyamodifiedformoftheHedonismofAristippusandtheotherCyrenaics. When,however,Epicuruscomestodefinepleasure,hedoesnot,likeAristippus,defineitasagentlemotion:consideringratherits negativeaspect,hedescribesitastheabsenceofpain.Hedoesnotindeedomitthepositiveaspect;hemerelyinsiststhatthe

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negativeaspect,reposeofmind(ataraxia),isessential,whilethegentlemotionwhichconstitutespositivepleasureissecoridary andaccidental.{19}Unsatisfieddesireispain,andpainisdestructiveofmentalrepose;forthisreason,andforthisreasonalone, shouldthedesiresbesatisfied,anditisonlyinthiswaythatpositivepleasurebecomespartofthehighestgood.{20} ThedifferencebetweentheEpicureansandtheCyrenaicsisfurthermoreapparentintheEpicureandoctrineofthehierarchyof pleasures.Highestofallpleasuresarethoseofthemind,namely,knowledgeandintelligence,whichfreethesoulfromprejudiceand fear,andcontributetoitsrepose.Forthisreasonthewisemanshouldnotplacehishopeofhappinessinthepleasuresofsense,but shouldrisetotheplaneofintellectualenjoyment.Here,however,Epicuruswasinconsistent;hecouldnotlogicallymaintaina distinctionbetweensenseandintellect.Indeed,Diogenes{21}preservesasayingofEpicurustotheeffectthatthereisnogoodapart fromthepleasuresofthesenses,andPlutarchandothersrepresentMetrodorusasmaintainingthateverythinggoodhasreference tothestomach.{22} IntheirapplicationofthedoctrineofpleasuretheEpicureansrecognizethateachmanis,inacertainsense,hisownlegislator.Itis forhimtodeterminewhatisusefulorpleasantandwhatisharmfulorpainful.Hencetheprincipleofmoderation: Restrainyour needsanddesireswithinthemeasureinwhichyouwillbeabletosatisfythem.And,whilenokindofpleasureis evilinitself,thewisemanwillavoidthosepleasureswhichdisturbhispeaceofmindandwhich,therefore,entailpain.{23} VirtuehasfortheEpicureansamerelyrelativevalue.Itisnotgoodorpraiseworthyinitself,butonlysofarasitisusefulinsecuring thatpainlessnesswhichisthehappinessoflife.Thevirtuousmansecuresthemaximumofpleasureandtheminimumofpain; temperanceteacheshimtoavoidexcess,andcourageenableshimtoforegoapleasureorendureapainforthesakeofgreater pleasureorlesspaininthefuture.Lesssuccessfuleventhantheseattemptsatfindingarationalbasisforcourageandtemperance istheEpicureanattemptatanalyzingthevirtueof justice;forjusticeintheEpicureanphilosophyisbasedonthesocialcompact into which primitive man entered as a means of selfdefense and selfpreservation. Cicero complains that the ethics of the Epicureansleavesnoplaceforthesentimentofhonor;amoreseriousfaultisitsfailuretosupplyarationalbasisforthevirtueof justice. TheclaimswhichtheEpicureansadvancedonbehalfofthewisemanaresimilartothoseadvancedbytheStoics.Thewiseman aloneismasterofhisdesires;heisunerringinhisconvictions;heishappyineverycircumstanceandconditionoflife;andalthough heisnot,aswastheStoicsage,whollyunemotional,stillheholdshisemotionsinperfectcontrol.Later,however,thisidealgradually degenerated,anddespitetheexampleofmoderationsetbyEpicurusandhisearlyfollowers,thewisemanofEpicureantradition becamethemodelofthecarelessmanoftheworld,withwhomitisimpossibletoassociateearnestnessofmoralstriving. HistoricalPosition.TheStoicandtheEpicureanschools,thetwomostimportantschoolsoftheperiod,bothsprangupand developedundertheinfluenceofthesameexternalconditions.Theinternalprincipleoftheirdevelopmentwas,however,different. TheStoicswerefatalists; theEpicureanswere casualists. Thisdifferencein theirconceptionof nature ledtothe differenceintheirviewofpracticallifewhichissoapparentintheirethicalsystems.Yettherewerepoints,theoreticalaswellas ethical, inwhich the twoschools approached veryclose to eachother. Bothwerematerialistic intheirphysicalsystemsand sensualisticintheirtheoriesofknowledge;bothwereillogicalintheirdevelopmentoftheideaofduty,although,asZellerpointsout, thechargeofinconsistencyisurgedwithlessjusticeagainsttheEpicureansthanagainsttheStoics.TheEpicureansdefined philosophyastheartofmakinglifehappy,andforthemhappinesswasprimarilyamatteroffeelingratherthanofknowledge,while theStoicsdefinedhappinessasconsistinginalifeledinharmonywithnature.FortheStoic,therefore,thestudyofnatureandthe adoptionofaconsistenttheoryofnaturewereofgreaterimportancethantheywerefortheEpicurean. ThephysicsoftheEpicureansdiffers,ashasbeensaid,fromthephysicsofDemocritusinregardtothedoctrineoftheswerving motionoftheatoms,anadmissionwhichdestroystheconsistencyofDemocritus'theory.Thistheorywasatleastnotself contradictory:theEpicureantheoryisamixtureofdynamismandmechanismwhichcannotstandamoment'sseriousinvestigation. TheethicsoftheEpicureanschoolissimplytheHedonismofAristippusrefinedunderabroaderideaofcultureandamore enlightenedconceptofSocraticEudemonism.InspiteofSocraticinfluence,theEpicureanethicsisnot,inthestrictsenseofthe word,asystemofmoralityatall.Itcontainsnoprinciplesofmorality;itreducesrightandwrongtoamatterofindividualfeeling, substitutingforgoodandevilthecategoriespleasantandpainful.

{1}Forbiographicaldata,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.373ff. {2}Cicero,DeFin.,II,7. {3}Sext.,Mathem.,XI,169. {4}Cicero,DeFin.,I,7.

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{5}Diog.Laer.,X,33. {6}Lucr.,IV,26.ReferencesaretothepoemDeRerumNatura. {7}Op.cit.,IV,730. {8}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.432. {9}Lucr.,I,445. {10}Lucr.,II,216. {11}V,925ff. {12}Lucr.,III,14;I,62. {13}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,I,16. {14}Diog.Laer.,X,123. {15}Op.cit.,X,63. {16}Cf.III,94ff. {17}Lucr.,III,417ff. {18}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,I,25. {19}Diog.Laer.,X,136. {20}Seneca,Ep.66. {21}X,6. {22}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,387. {23}Diog.Laer.,X,130;cf.Cicero,Tusc.,V,31.

CHAPTERXVTHESCEPTICS
Sources.Pyrrho,thechiefScepticofthisperiod,leftnowritings.Ofthewritingsofhisearlierfollowersveryfewfragmentshave comedowntous.Weareobliged,therefore,torelyonsecondarysources,suchasDiogenesLaertius,Aristocles(quoted byEusebius),andtheLaterSceptics.{1} TheStoicsandEpicureanslaiddowncertaintheoreticalprinciplesfromwhichtheydeducedcanonsofconduct,alwayskeepingin view the practical aim of philosophy, to make men happy. The Sceptics agreed with the Stoics and Epicureans in referring philosophyprimarilytoconductandthepursuitofhappiness,but,insteadoflayingdowntheoreticalprinciplesastheStoicsand Epicureanshaddone,theytaughtthatthefirststeptohappinessistoforegoalltheoreticalinquiryandtodisclaimallcertaintyof knowledge. The principal Sceptics are: (1) Pyrrho, (2) the Platonists of the Middle Academy, (3) Later Sceptics, including AEnesidemus. PYRRHO Life.PyrrhoofEliswasacontemporaryofAristotle.Verylittleisknownabouthislife.Itisprobablethathediedabouttheyear270 B.C.Amonghisdisciples TimonofPhlius,surnamedthe sillographer,isbestknown.Timoncomposedsatiricalpoems (silloi)inwhichheattackedthedogmatists,followinginthistheexampleofhisteacher,whodeclaredthatDemocritusalone deservedthenameofphilosopher,andthatalltherest,PlatoandAristotleincluded,weremereSophists. DOCTRINES InaccountingforPyrrho'sScepticismitissafetoaddtotheinfluencewhichDemocritusmayhaveexercisedonhismind the influenceoftheMegarianspiritofcriticismwhichmusthaveprevailedinPyrrho'snativecity.

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AllweknowabouttheteachingofPyrrhomaybereducedtothefollowingpropositions:(1)Inthemselves,realthingsareneither beautifulnorugly,neitherlargenorsmall.Wehaveaslittlerighttosaythattheyaretheoneaswehavetosaythattheyarethe other.Hencethefamousoudenmallon.{2}(2)Realthingsare,therefore,inaccessibletohumanknowledge,andheiswisewho, recognizingthefutilityofinquiry,abstainsfromjudging.Thisattitudeofmindwascalled epoch aphasia.{3} (3)Fromthis withholdingofjudgmentarisesthestateofimperturbability(ataraxia)inwhichhumanhappinessconsists.{4} InthisaccountofPyrrhonismnoattempthasbeenmadetoseparatethedoctrinesofPyrrhofromthoseofTimon.Pyrrhotaught orally,andthefactofhishavingleftnowritingsaccountsforthefreedomwithwhichwritersattributetohimtheprinciplesandtenets ofhisfollowers. THEMIDDLEACADEMY ArcesilausandCarneades,departingfromthetraditionofthePlatonicschool,ofwhichtheyweretheofficialrepresentatives, lenttheiraidtotheScepticalmovementbyseekingtoestablishonrationalandempiricalgroundsthethesisthatitisimpossibleto arriveatcertitude.{5}TheScepticismoftheMiddleAcademyveryquicklygavewaybeforeEclecticism. THELATERSCEPTICS Underthis titleare included AEnesidemus andotherswhowere forthemost part physicians, and who from sensualistic premisesdeducedasystemofScepticismwhichwasmoreradicalthantheidealisticScepticismortheprobabilismoftheAcademy. AEnesidemus ofCnossusinCretetaughtatAlexandriaaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera.AccordingtoRitterand Preller,{6}heflourishedbetweentheyears80and50B.C.Diogenes{7}alludestoaworkofAEnesidemusinwhichbymeansoften tropes (tropoi) he strove to show that contradictory predicates may be affirmed of one and the same subject, and that, consequently,certainknowledgeisimpossible.ThesetropesareafairlycompleteenumerationoftheargumentsoftheScepticsand furnished,directlyorindirectly,materialtomorethanoneadvocateoftherelativityofknowledgeinsubsequenttimes. AccordingtoSextusEmpiricus,{8}AEnesidemussubjectedthenotionofcausetospecialanalysis,andpronouncedittobeself contradictory.Acause,heargued,eitherprecedestheeffect,orissynchronouswithit,orissubsequenttoit.Now,itcannotprecede theeffect;ifitdid,itwouldbeacausebeforeitwasacause.Itcannotbesynchronouswiththeeffect,forinthatcasecauseand effectwouldbeinterchangeable;therewouldbenoreasonwhyoneratherthantheothershouldbecalledtheproduct.Finally,the hypothesisthatthecauseissubsequenttotheeffectismanifestlyabsurd.InthiswaydidAEnesidemusconclude,sophistically,that thenotionofcauseisutterlydevoidofmeaning. AEnesidemus,however,didnotregardScepticismasasystem,butonlyasanintroduction(agg)toasystemofphilosophy. Agrippa,wholivedaboutacenturyafterAEnesidemus,reducedthetropestofive,andarguedthatknowledgeisimpossible because,themajorpremiseofthesyllogismbeingitselfaconclusion,syllogisticreasoningisaregressusininfinitum. SextusEmpiricus,whoisthemostimportantofthelaterSceptics,livedatAlexandriaabouttheyearA.D.300.Inhiswork AgainsttheMathematicians,andinhistreatiseknownas PyrrhonicHypotyposes,hesubjectstocriticalexaminationthe dogmatismnotonlyofthegreatconstructivesystemsoftheoreticalandpracticalphilosophybutalsoofarithmeticandgeometry.He maintainsthatnoscienceiscertain,orratherthatthetrueScepticshouldrefrainfromanyabsolutejudgmentwhatever. HistoricalPosition.ThehistoryofGreekScepticismexhibitsaninterestingphaseofthepracticalideawhichdominatedthe philosophyofGreeceduringthethirdperiod.LiketheStoicsandEpicureans,theScepticswereanimatedwiththedesiretofindin philosophyarefugefromthedishearteningconditionsofthetimesinwhichtheylived;but,unliketheirdogmatizingcontemporaries, theybelievedthatthefirststeptowardssecuringhappinessistheabdicationofallclaimtotheattainmentofscientificknowledge.

{1}Forbiographicaldata,cf.Suidas,Lexikon(ed.Bernhardy,2vols.,Halle,1853);cf.Migne,PatrologiaGraeca,Vol.CXVII, col.1194. {2}Cf.Diog.Laer.,IX,61. {3}Op.cit.,IX,103. {4}Aristocles,quotedbyEusebius,PraeparatioEvangelica,XIV,18,apudMigne,Patr.Graeca,Vol.XXI,coll.1216ff. {5}Cf.p.123. {6}Op.cit.,p.570.

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{7}IX,106. {8}Mathem.,IX,220.

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