Lectures for ES912, Term 1, 2003.

R.M. Kerr, University of Warwick

December 7, 2003
Outline
1. Introduction, Marking
(a) What is turbulence?
(b) Types of Turbulent Flow
(c) Properties (Navier-Stokes equations.)
(d) Reynolds averaging
2. Classical phenomenological equations
Mixing length models
k models
3. Statistical theory of turbulence
4. Engineering applications (Reynolds averaging)
5. Large-eddy simulations versus Direct numerical simulations
6. Coherent structures
(a) Laminar-turbulence transition (Kelvin-Helmholtz)
(b) Mixing layer
(c) Boundary layer
7. Vortex dynamics
1
1 Introduction
u
t
+ (u

)u =
1

P +
2
u

u = 0 (1)
R = UL/ (2)
1.1 What is turbulence?
1.2 Marking
1.3 Assignment titles
1.4 Types of turbulent ows: Pictures
Coherent Structures
1.5 Properties
1.6 Reynolds averaging
u
i
= U
i
+ u
i
(3)
(

U

)U
i
=
1

i
P +
2
U
i

ij
(4)
2 Classical phenomenological equations
2.1 Mixing length models

12
=
dx
2
dt
x
2
U
1
y
=
1
2

dx
2
2
dt
U
1
y
(5)

12
= u

U
1
y
= c
1
c
2
LU
s
U
1
y
(6)
2
2.2 Derivation of a simple eddy viscosity

12
= (c
1
c
2
LU
s
)
U
1
y
=
T
U
1
y
and
ij
=
T
U
i
x
j
(7)
2.3 Derivation of log-law of a boundary layer using mixing length theory
U
1
u

=
1

ln x
2
+ constant (8)
3
3 Similarity solutions
Assumptions:

U = (U
1
, U
2
, 0)
Wakes : U
1
(x
2
) U
0
U
s
(9)
Jets and mixing layers : U
1
U
s
(10)
3.1 Momentum equations for

U = (U
1
, U
2
, 0)
U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+

x
2
(uv) +

x
1
(u
2
1
) =
1

P
x
1
+
_
_
_

2
U
1
x
2
1
+

2
U
1
x
2
2
_
_
_ (11)
U
1
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+

x
1
(uv) +

x
2
(u
2
2
) =
1

P
x
2
+
_
_
_

2
U
2
x
2
1
+

2
U
2
x
2
2
_
_
_ (12)
U
1A
U
2
x
1

U
1A
L
U
s

L
=
_

_
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
2
_

_
u
2

(13)
P + v
2
= P

(14)
Which is just the Bernoulli principle.
U
1A
U
1
x
1
U
1A
U
s
L
=
_
_
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
_
_
u
2

(15)
U
1A
u
U
s
u
_
_

L
_
_
O(1) and maybe
_
_
U
s
u
_
_
2
_
_

L
_
_
O(1) (16)
Therefore, the equation we will solve is
U
1A
U
1
x
1
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (17)
Separate simplications for U
1A
will now be made for wakes and for jets and mixing layers.
4
The question now is how to set U
1A
, U
s
and u. We will assume in all cases that U
s
u.
Wakes: From (9) U
1A
U
0
U
s
.
U
0
U
1
x
1
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (18)
Jets and mixing layers: Assume U
1A
U
s
.
U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+

x
2
(uv) = 0 (19)
The objective now is to assume self-preservation forms for U
1
and
12
U
1
(y) = U
s
(x
1
)f(y/) and
12
= uv = U
2
s
g(y/) (or u
2
g(y/) ), (20)
3.2 Wakes: self-preservation
U
0
_

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
_

_f + U
0
_
_
1
U
s
d
dx
_
_
f

= g

=
1
R
T
f

(21)
3.2.1 Momentum integral

U
1
(U
1
U
0
)dy = M (22)
U
0
U
s

f()d = constant = M (23)

which requires for a plane wake that
U
s
= Ax
1/2
= Bx
1/2
(24)
5
3.2.2 Momentum thickness
Let us dene the momentum thickness such that
U
2
0
= M (25)
3.2.3 Mean-velocity prole
Make the following eddy viscosity assumption:
g =
uv
U
2
s
=
1
U
2
s

T
U
y
=
T
1
U
s

=
1
R
T
f

(26)
U
0
_

U
2
s
dU
s
dx
_

_f + U
0
_
_
1
U
s
d
dx
_
_
f

=
1
R
T
f

to get (f

+ f) + f

= 0 (27)
3.3 Jets and mixing layers: self-preservation
6
3.4 Energy budget
U
0

x
1
1
2
(U

1
)
2
+

x
2
(uvU

1
) = uv
U

1
x
2
(28)
3.5 Turbulent energy budget
The energy budget equation from the rst week of lectures is,

t
(
1
2
u
2
) +

(u
1
2
u
2
) =
1

(uP) +
j
(u
i

j
u
i
) +
ij

i
u
j
(
j
u
i
)
2
(29)
Its budget for a wake is
0 = U
0

x
1
1
2
q
2
uv
U
1
x
2

x
2
v
_
_
1
2
q
2
+
P

_
_
(30)
4 Statistical theory of turbulence
4.1 Moments
4.2 Correlations and structure functions
The two-point velocity correlation R
ij
and the second-order structure function are dened as follows:
R
ij
(r)
u
i
(x)u
j
(x + r)
(u
2
i
u
2
j
)
1/2
S
ij
(r) =
(u
i
(x + r) u
i
(x))(u
j
(x + r) u
j
(x))
(u
2
i
u
2
j
)
1/2
(31)
Isotropy implies
R
ij
= (f(r) g(r))
r
i
r
j
r
2
+ g(r)
ij
7
the continuity equation gives
u
i
x
i
= 0 =
R
ij
r
j
= 0 or f +
1
2
r
df
dr
= g (32)
For isotropic turbulence, the dissipation rate
= 15(
u
1
r
)
2
= 15
u
2
1

2
or
2
=
u
2
1
/15
(33)
Kolmogorov microscale :
=
_
_
_

_
_
_
1/4
(34)
4.3 Measurement:
4.4 Fourier transforms
4.5 Fourier transformed Navier-Stokes equations
u(

k)
t
+
_
d
3
pi p u(

k p)u( p) =
1

(i

kP) k
2
u(

k) (35)
where P =
k
j
k
2
_
d
3
p p u(

k p)u
j
( p).
4.6 Solving P in Fourier space
(
i
u
j
)(
j
u
i
) =
1

2
P (36)
u
i
(

k)
t
+
_
_

ij

k
i
k
j
k
2
_
_
_
d
3
p i p u(

k p)u
j
( p) = k
2
u
i
(

k) (37)
8
4.7 Fourier energy equation
E(k) =
_
|k|=k
dE(

k) to get
E(k)
t
+ T(k) + F(k) = (k) (38)
E(k) =
2/3
k
5/3
(39)
4.8 Energy spectrum
9
5 Engineering applications and k models
More modelling, less computing
Zero-equation models:
ij
is set by mixing length
Most important advance: Van Driest (1956) damping function
as y 0 mixing length
m
= y[1 exp(y
+
/A
+
0
)] : A
+
0
= 26
One-equation model: energy equation with a mixing length
Two-equation models: Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) with equations for:
k-. k: energy. : energy dissipation. Combined they give a mixing length = k
3/2
/.
Most widely used industrial model. Variation: k where = /k
DES: Detached Eddy Simulation:
Use log-law, or Van Driest, or your favourite model for boundary layer
Use LES in the interior
LES: Large-eddy simulation.
The eddy viscosity depends on ow variables and changes with time.
DNS: Direct-numerical simulation
More computing, no modelling
10
5.0.1 Numerics
u
t

u(t
0
+ t) u(t
0
)
t
= RHS
where the right-hand side depends upon all the nonlinear, pressure and viscous terms determined at
t = t
0
, that is
RHS = (u(t
0
)

)u(t
0
)
1

P(t
0
) +
2
u(t
0
)
This is a gross oversimplication. This time advancement scheme is know as forwards Euler. Any
attempt to calculate time-development with forwards Euler is known to yield unstable behaviour. A
course in numerics is needed to explain how these problems are resolved.
The reason for introducing this equation is to make you aware of what is actually done with the models
presented. They are used to calculate the RHS for the velocity, energy and dissipation equations so
that the state at a new time t
0
+ t can be determined. Besides the equations, we need additional
conditions. In, particular boundary conditions. The objective of these last lectures is to acquaint
you with the models and approximations that let you do this.

u
i
x
j
=
Non-linear terms
Pressure
Complicated boundaries
Uses
+ Finite-dierence vs.
+
u
i+1
u
i1
2x
+ Easy (u

)u
+ Dicult
+ Possible (u
1
u
0
)/x
+ All practical problems
* Fourier methods
Use FFTS and
= ik
j
u
i
(

k)
* Use FFTs on (u

)u
* Easy
* Impossible
* Idealised: LES, DNS
11
5.0.2 Large-eddy simulations (LES) versus Direct numerical simulations (DNS)
Complicated boundaries
- Re
Simple boundary conditions
- Re
Viscous terms
DNS
Finite dierence, mapping
- very low Reynolds numbers
Fourier or related methods
- high Reynolds number
Newtonian
2
u
LES
Models for wall stresses,
- moderate Re (DES)
same as DNS
- high Re
Smagorinsky


T
(x)

u
5.1 LES: Large-eddy simulation.
The eddy viscosity depends on ow variables and changes with time.
Most common parametrization: Smagorinsky:
T
= C
s
|e
ij
|
2
Usually C
s
= 0.2, and xed due to the property that:
If averaged over a given length scale, on average a turbulent ow dissipates energy
Backscatter is a property of turbulent ows where in some locations, energy ows from the unseen,
modelled subgrid scales to the resolved scales. (Explain averaging procedures)
For xed C
s
, boundary layer instabilities are suppressed and backscatter is underpredicted
All atmospheric mesoscale prediction models (called non-hydrostatic models) are LES models
with C
s
0.1 near the boundaries to compensate for backscatter in an ad hoc manner
Attempts to dynamically predict backscatter: Dynamic models.
At Warwick we are experimenting with adding extra terms. Non-linear models.
12
5.2 k- models
k equation :
k
t
+

U

k

x
i
_
_

k
k
x
i
_
_
=
equation :

t
+

U



x
i
_
_

x
i
_
_
= C
1

k
C
2

2
k
where transport (advective and diusive) is indicated by the terms in red. is the production term.
For the proles we have already considered, then more generally:
special = uv
U
y
=
T
_
_
U
y
_
_
2
generally =
1
2

T
_
_
_
U
i
x
j
+
U
j
x
i
_
_
_
2
where
T
= C

k
2

The underlying problem that these equations address is preventing k < 0. This will happen in
quasi-normal theories if is too large with respect to k.
The way this is addressed is if k is small, /t will be large and negative. That is will automatically
become small.
You still need the RANS equation:

U
t
+ (

U

)

U =

j
_
_
_
T
_
_
_
U
i
x
j
+
U
j
x
i
_
_
_
_
_
_ ,

U = 0, =
P

+
2
3
k
k- depends upon 5 experimentally determined coecients, whose typical values are:
C

= 0.09, C
1
= 1.44, C
2
= 1.92,
k
= 1.0,

= 1.3.
Boundary conditions can be dicult
Most complicated: stress equation models. Too many coecients for industrial applications.
13
5.3 Boundary layer regions
Flat-plate assumed.
Viscous sub-layer: U
x
y
+
Buer layer
Inner turbulent region: Law of the Wall
Outer wake-like region
Unsteady irrotational ow (not turbulent)
Only DNS can handle all of these regions.
Turbulence modelling ignores the inner two regions and starts with the Law of the Wall (with
modied coecients).
U
x
= u

(
1

log y
+
+ a) where y
+
=
u

is the dimensionless distance from the wall and a represents the physics from the boundary condition
whose eects are transmitted through the viscous sub-layer and the buer layers.
14
5.4 Boundary conditions
The k- model as introduced above does not address boundary layers.
Boundary layers must be addressed separately, then used as boundary conditions on a simulation
based upon the k- model.
No-slip boundary condition.
The velocity boundary condition at a surface is u = 0,
For special geometries such as a at plate, DNS can exactly represent this as accurately as
desired.
Almost everything we know about the details in the near-wall region comes from DNS.
In k- models, k = 0 and can be large.
Within the k- model, where y is the direction perpendicular to the wall, we could set
(wall) =

2
k
y
2
= 2
_
_
_
k
1/2
y
_
_
_
2
Modelled boundary conditions
We use models and scaling laws to create less exact boundary conditions, applied at the wall.
Law of the wall
U
x
= u

(
1

log
u

+ a) U
y
0 (40)
k
u
2

C
1/2

u
3

y

2
= (C
2
C
1
)

C
1/2

= 0.43
2
consistent with the experimental value of = 0.39 because these k- coecients are taken from the
same experiments.
15
5.5 Modelling with k- plus log-layer boundary conditions
Advantages of k- modelling over LES due to a smoother larger ow (U):
k- requires enhanced resolution near walls only in the direction normal to the wall.
Time-steps can be relatively long.
You need to choose y and u

for the boundary conditions. This must be done empirically. For example,
the skin-friction coecient is dened as
c
f


w
1
2
U
2

where
w
= uv = u
2

(41)
For a at plate, we know empirically that c
f
= (2 log
10
Re
x
0.65)
2.3
k- solutions are dependent upon
the physical Reynolds number and viscosity only through the boundary conditions given by (40,41).
The choice of y is a balancing act.
Choosing y large puts more of the dissipation into the prescribed boundary layer, the least reliable
part of the model.
Choosing y small makes at the wall large and makes the numerical modelling more dicult due
to three considerations:
1. More grid points are needed in the direction perpendicular to the wall.
2. Stronger velocity gradients in the boundary layer imply that the numerical time-step, determined
by following condition over the ow: t = 1/ max(U/y), is a small value determined in the
boundary layer. This, despite the relatively long time-steps that the interior ow would allow.
3. This is known as the stiness problem and exists in many physical systems where the timescale of
interest is very large, but the physics occurs on very short timescales.
16
5.6 Pitfalls of k-
Separation: k- assumes a at-plat boundary layer which thickens and increases drag as Re increases.
For a curved surface there can be separation (a vortex is shed) and drag decreases dramatically.
Wakes: k- predicts a sharp interface between the turbulent and irrotational uid. In reality, the
interface uctuates and on the average proles are smooth.
Singular behaviour of U and at the boundary implied by (40).
k- is something of an art.
6 Summary of assumptions, their limitations, and review
Reynolds averaging
Statistical theory of turbulence
k- modelling
Modelling: pros and cons:
1st week on compressible NS: know example problems
17
7 Coherent structures
7.1 Laminar-turbulence transition (Kelvin-Helmholtz)
7.2 Mixing layer
7.3 Boundary layer
8 Vortex dynamics
18