PAGE # 18

MOLE CONCEPT
ATOMS
All the matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the
smallest particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction. Atoms of most of the elements
are very reactive and do not exist in the free state (as
single atom).They exist in combination with the atoms
of the same element or another element.
Atoms are very, very small in size. The size of an atom
is indicated by its radius which is called "atomic
radius" (radi us of an atom). Atomi c radi us is
measured in "nanometres"(nm).
1 metre = 10
9
nanometre or 1nm = 10
-9
m.
Atoms are so small that we cannot see them under
the most powerful optical microscope.
Note :
Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom of all , having an
atomic radius 0.037nm.
(a) Symbols of Elements :
A symbol is a short hand notation of an element which
can be represented by a sketch or letter etc.
Dalton was the first to use symbols to represent
elements in a short way but Dalton's symbols for
element were difficult to draw and inconvenient to
use, so Dalton's symbols are only of historical
importance. They are not used at all.
It was J.J. Berzelius who proposed the modern
system of representing en element.
The symbol of an element is the "first letter" or the
"first letter and another letter" of the English name or
the Latin name of the element.
e.g. The symbol of Hydrogen is H.
The symbol of Oxygen is O.
There are some elements whose names begin with
the same letter. For example, the names of elements
Carbon, Calcium, Chlorine and Copper all begin with
the letter C. In such cases, one of the elements is
given a "one letter "symbol but all other elements are
given a "first letter and another letter" symbol of the
English or Latin name of the element. This is to be
noted that "another letter" may or may not be the
"second letter" of the name. Thus,
The symbol of Carbon is C.
The symbol of Calcium is Ca.
The symbol of Chlorine is Cl.
The symbol of Copper is Cu (from its Latin name
Cuprum)
It should be noted that in a "two letter" symbol, the
first letter is the "capital letter" but the second letter is
the 'small letter'.

English Name of
the Element
Symbol
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorous P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Calcium Ca
Symbol Derived from English Names
Symbols Derived from Latin Names
English Name of
the Element
Symbol
Latin Name of
the Element
Sodium Na Natrium
Potassium K Kalium
(b) Significance of The Symbol of an
Element :
(i) Symbol represents name of the element.
(ii) Symbol represents one atom of the element.
(iii) Symbol also represents one mole of the element.
That is, symbol also represent 6.023 10
23
atoms of
the element.
(iv) Symbol represent a definite mass of the element
i.e. atomic mass of the element.
Example :
(i) Symbol H represents hydrogen element.
(ii) Symbol H also represents one atom of hydrogen
element.
(iii) Symbol H also represents one mole of hydrogen
atom.
(iv) Symbol H also represents one gram hydrogen
atom.
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PAGE # 19
IONS
An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or
group of atoms.
Every atom contains equal number of electrons
(negatively charged) and protons (positively charged).
Both charges balance each other, hence atom is
electrically neutral.
(a) Cation :
If an atom has less electrons than a neutral atom,
then it gets positively charged and a positively
charged ion is known as cation.
e.g. Sodium ion (Na
+
), Magnesium ion (Mg
2+
) etc.
A cation bears that much units of positive charge as
there are the number of electrons lost by the neutral
atom to form that cation.
e.g. An aluminium atom loses 3 electrons to form
aluminium ion, so aluminium ion bears 3 units of
positive charge and it is represented as Al
3+
.
(b) Anion :
If an atom has more number of electrons than that of
neutral atom, then it gets negatively charged and a
negatively charged ion is known as anion.
e.g. Chloride ion (Cl), oxide ion (O
2-
) etc.
An anion bears that much units of negative charge as
there are the number of electrons gained by the
neutral atom to form that anion.
e.g. A nitrogen atom gains 3 electrons to form nitride
ion, so nitride ion bears 3 units of negative charge
and it is represented as N
3-
.
Note :
Size of a cation is always smaller and anion is always
greater than that of the corresponding neutral atom.
(c) Monoatomic ions and polyatomic ions :
(i) Monoatomic ions : Those ions which are formed
from single atoms are called monoatomic ions or
simple ions.
e.g. Na
+
, Mg
2+
etc.
(ii) Polyatomic ions : Those ions which are formed
from group of atoms joined together are called
polyatomic ions or compound ions.
e.g. Ammonium ion (NH
4
+
) , hydroxide ion (OH

) etc.
which are formed by the joining of two types of atoms,
nitrogen and hydrogen in the first case and oxygen and
hydrogen in the second.
(d) Valency of ions :
The valency of an ion is same as the charge present
on the ion.
If an ion has 1 unit of positive charge, its valency is 1
and it is known as a monovalent cation. If an ion has
2 units of negative charge, its valency is 2 and it is
known as a divalent anion.
LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT POSITIVE RADICALS

LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT NEGATIVE RADICALS
Monovalent Electronegative
Bivalent
Electronegative
Trivalent
Electronegative
Tetravalent
Electronegative
1. Fluoride F

1. Sulphate SO4
2-
1. Nitride N
3-
1. Carbide C
4-
2. Chloride Cl

2. Sulphite SO
3
2-
2. Phosphide P
3-
3. Bromide Br

3. Sulphide S
2-
3. Phosphite PO
3
3-
4. Iodide
I
4. Thiosulphate S
2
O
3
2-
4. Phosphate PO
4
3-
5. Hydride H

5. Zincate ZnO
2
2-
6. Hydroxide OH

6. Oxide O
2-
7. Nitrite NO
2

7. Peroxide O2
2-
8.Nitrate NO
3

8. Dichromate Cr2O7
2-
9. Bicarbonate or Hydrogen carbonate HCO
3

9. Carbonate CO
3
2-
10. Bisulphite or Hydrogen sulphite HSO
3

10. Silicate SiO

3
2-
11. Bisulphide or Hydrogen sulphide HS

12. Bisulphate or Hydrogen sulphate HSO

4

13. Acetate CH COO

3

Note :
Cation contains less no. of electrons and anion contains more no. of electrons than the no. of protons present in
them.
PAGE # 20
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
The l aws of chemi cal combi nati on are the
experi mental l aws whi ch l ed to the i dea of
atoms being the smallest unit of matter. The laws of
chemical combination played a significant role in the
development of Daltons atomic theory of matter.
There are two important laws of chemical combination.
These are:
(i) Law of conservation of mass
(ii) Law of constant proportions
(a) Law of Conservation of Mass or Matter :
This law was given by Lavoisier in 1774 . According to
the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither
be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Or
The law of conservation of mass means that in a
chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal
to the total mass of the reactants. There is no change
in mass during a chemical reaction.
Suppose we carry out a chemical reaction between A
and B and if the products formed are C and D then,
A + B C + D
Suppose 'a' g of A and 'b' g of B react to produce 'c' g of
C and 'd' g of D. Then, according to the law of
conservation of mass, we have,
a + b = c + d
Example :
When Calcium Carbonate (CaCO
3
) is heated, a
chemical reaction takes place to form Calcium Oxide
(CaO) and Carbon dioxide (CO
2
). It has been found
by experiments that if 100 grams of calcium carbonate
is decomposed completely, then 56 grams of Calcium
Oxide and 44 grams of Carbon dioxide are formed.

Since the total mass of products (100g ) is equal to
the total mass of the reactants (100g), there is no
change in the mass during this chemical reaction.
The mass remains same or conserved.
(b) Law of Constant Proportions / Law of
Definite Proportions :
Proust, in 1779, analysed the chemical composition
(types of elements present and percentage of
elements present ) of a large number of compounds
and came to the conclusion that the proportion of
each element in a compound is constant (or fixed).
According to the law of constant proportions: A
chemical compound always consists of the same
elements combined together in the same proportion
by mass.
Note :
The chemical composition of a pure substance is
not dependent on the source from which it is obtained.
Example :
Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It can
be obtained from various sources (like river, sea, well
etc.) or even synthesized in the laboratory. From
whatever source we may get it, 9 parts by weight of
water is always found to contain 1 part by weight of
hydrogen and 8 parts by weight of oxygen. Thus, in
water, this proportion of hydrogen and oxygen always
remains constant.
Note :
The converse of Law of definite proportions that when
same elements combine in the same proportion, the
same compound will be formed, is not always true.
(c) Law of Multiple Proportions :
According to it, when one element combines with the
other element to form two or more different compounds,
the mass of one element, which combines with a
constant mass of the other, bears a simple ratio to
one another.
Simple ratio means the ratio between small natural
numbers, such as 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 3
e.g.
Carbon and oxygen when combine, can form two
oxides that are CO (carbon monoxide), CO
2
(carbon
dioxide).
In CO,12 g carbon combined with 16 g of oxygen.
In CO
2
,12 g carbon combined with 32 g of oxygen.
Thus, we can see the mass of oxygen which combine
with a constant mass of carbon (12 g) bear simple
ratio of 16 : 32 or 1 : 2
Note :
The law of multiple proportion was given by Dalton in
1808.
Sample Problem :
1. Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain
42.8% and 27.27% of carbon respectively. Show that
these figures illustrate the law of multiple proportions.
Sol. % of carbon in first oxide = 42.8
% of oxygen in first oxide = 100 - 42.8 = 57.2
% of carbon in second oxide = 27.27
% of oxygen in second oxide = 100 - 27.27 = 72.73
For the first oxide -
Mass of oxygen in grams that combines with 42.8 g
of carbon = 57.2
Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon =
1.34
42.8
57.2
=
g
For the second oxide -
Mass of oxygen in grams that combines with 27.27 g
of carbon = 72.73
Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of carbon =
2.68
27.27
72.73
= g
Ratio between the masses of oxygen that combine
with a fixed mass (1 g) of carbon in the two oxides
= 1.34 : 2.68 or 1 : 2 which is a simple ratio. Hence,
this illustrates the law of multiple proportion.
PAGE # 21
(d) Law of Reciprocal Proportions :
According to this law the ratio of the weights of two
element A and B which combine separately with a
fixed weight of the third element C is either the same
or some simple multiple of the ratio of the weights in
which A and B combine directly with each other.
e.g.
The elements C and O combine separately with the
third element H to form CH
4
and H
2
O and they combine
directly with each other to form CO
2
.
H 2 4
CH
4
H O
2
C O
16
12
12
CO
2
32
In CH
4
, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine with 4
parts by weight of hydrogen. In H
2
O, 2 parts by weight
of hydrogen combine with 16 parts by weight of
oxygen. Thus the weight of C and O which combine
with fixed weight of hydrogen (say 4 parts by weight)
are 12 and 32 i.e. they are in the ratio 12 : 32 or 3 : 8.
Now in CO
2
, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine
directly with 32 parts by weight of oxygen i.e. they
combine directly in the ratio 12 : 32 or 3 : 8 which is
the same as the first ratio.
Note :
The law of reciprocal proportion was put forward by
Ritcher in 1794.
Sample Problem :
2. Ammonia contains 82.35% of nitrogen and 17.65%
of hydrogen. Water contains 88.90% of oxygen and
11.10% of hydrogen. Nitrogen trioxide contains
63.15% of oxygen and 36.85% of nitrogen. Show that
these data illustrate the law of reciprocal proportions.
Sol
In NH
3
, 17.65 g of H combine with N = 82.35 g
1g of H combine with N =
17.65
82.35
g = 4.67 g
In H
2
O, 11.10 g of H combine with O = 88.90 g
1 g H combine with O =
11.10
88.90
g = 8.01 g
Ratio of the weights of N and O which combine
with fixed weight (=1g) of H
= 4.67 : 8.01 = 1 : 1.72
In N
2
O
3
, ratio of weights of N and O which combine
with each other = 36.85 : 63.15 = 1 : 1.71
Thus the two ratio are the same. Hence it illustrates
the law of reciprocal proportions.
(e) Gay Lussacs Law of Gaseous Volumes :
Gay Lussac found that there exi sts a defi ni te
relationship among the volumes of the gaseous
reactants and their products. In 1808, he put forward
a generalization known as the Gay Lussacs Law of
combining volumes. This may be stated as follows :
When gases react together, they always do so in
volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another
and to the volumes of the product, if these are also
gases, provided all measurements of volumes are
done under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure.
e.g.
Combination between hydrogen and chlorine to form
hydrogen chloride gas. One volume of hydrogen and
one volume of chlorine always combine to form two
volumes of hydrochloric acid gas.
H
2
(g) + Cl
2
(g) 2HCl (g)
1vol. 1 vol. 2 vol.
The ratio between the volume of the reactants and
the product in this reaction is simple, i.e., 1 : 1 : 2.
Hence it illustrates the Law of combining volumes.
(f) Avogadros Hypothesis :
This states that equal volumes of all gases under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules.
This hypothesis has been found to explain elegantly
al l the gaseous reacti ons and is now widel y
recognized as a law or a principle known as Avogadros
Law or Avogadros principle.
The reaction between hydrogen and chlorine can be
explained on the basis of Avogadros Law as follows :
Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride gas
1 vol. (By experiment)
1 vol. 2 vol.
n molecules. n molecules.
2n molecules.(By Avogadro's Law)
2
1
molecules. molecules.
1 molecules. (By dividing throughout by 2n)
1 Atom 1 Atom
1 Molecule (Applying Avogadro's hypothesis)
2
1
It implies that one molecule of hydrogen chloride gas
is made up of 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 atom of
chlorine.
(i) Applications of Avogadros hypothesis :
(A) In the calculation of atomicity of elementary
gases.
e.g.
2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of
oxygen to form two volumes of water vapours.
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water vapours
2 vol. 1 vol. 2 vol.
PAGE # 22
Applying Avogadros hypothesis
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water vapours
2 n molecules n molecules 2 n molecules
or 1 molecule
2
1
molecule 1 molecule
Thus1 molecule of water contains
2
1
molecule of
oxygen. But 1 molecule of water contains 1 atom of
oxygen. Hence.
2
1
molecule of oxygen = 1 atom of
oxygen or 1 molecules of oxygen = 2 atoms of oxygen
i.e. atomicity of oxygen = 2.
(B) To find the relationship between molecular mass
and vapour density of a gas.
Vapour density (V.D.) =
hydrogen of Density
gas of Density
=
e pressur and temp. same the
at hydrogen of volume same the of Mass
gas the of volume certain a of Mass
If n molecules are present in the given volume of a gas
and hydrogen under similar conditions of temperature
and pressure.
V.D. =
hydrogen of molecules n of Mass
gas the of molecules n of Mass
=
hydrogen of molecule 1 of Mass
gas the of molecule 1 of Mass
=
hydrogen of mass Molecular
gas the of mass Molecular
=
2
mass Molecular
(since molecular mass of hydrogen is 2)
Hence, Molecular mass = 2 Vapour density
ATOMIC MASS UNIT
The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one-twelfth
(1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.The mass
of an atom of carbon-12 isotope was given the atomic
mass of 12 units, i.e. 12 amu or 12 u.
The atomic masses of all other elements are now
expressed in atomic mass units.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
The atomic mass of an element is a relative quantity
and it is the mass of one atom of the element relative
to one -twelfth (1/12) of the mass of one carbon-12
atom. Thus, Relative atomic mass
=
atom 12 C one of mass
12
1
element the of atom one of Mass

[1/12 the mass of one C-12 atom = 1 amu, 1 amu =
1.66 10
24
g = 1.66 10
27
kg.]
Note :
One amu is also called one dalton (Da).
GRAM-ATOMIC MASS
The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams
is called the Gram Atomic Mass of the element.
The number of gram -atoms
=
element the of mass Atomic Gram
grams in element the of Mass
e.g.
Calculate the gram atoms present in (i) 16g of oxygen
and (ii) 64g of sulphur.
(i) The atomic mass of oxygen = 16.
Gram-Atomic Mass of oxygen (O) = 16 g.
No. of Gram-Atoms =
16
16
= 1
(ii) The gram-atoms present in 64 grams of sulphur.
=
sulphur of Mass Atomic Gram
64
=
32
64
= 2

Atomic
Number Element Symbol
Atomic
mass
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He 4
3 Lithium Li 7
4 Beryllium Be 9
5 Boron B 11
6 Carbon C 12
7 Nitrogen N 14
8 Oxygen O 16
9 Fluorine F 19
10 Neon Ne 20
11 Sodium Na 23
12 Magnesium Mg 24
13 Aluminium Al 27
14 Silicon Si 28
15 Phosphorus P 31
16 Sulphur S 32
17 Chlorine Cl 35.5
18 Argon Ar 40
19 Potassium K 39
20 Calcium Ca 40
RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
The relative molecular mass of a substance is the
mass of a molecule of the substance as compared
to one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon -12 atom
i.e.,
Relative molecular mass
=
atom 12 C one of mass
12
1
substance the of molecule one of Mass

The molecular mass of a molecule, thus, represents
the number of times it is heavier than 1/12 of the
mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.
PAGE # 23
GRAM MOLECULAR MASS
The molecular mass of a substance expressed in
grams is called the Gram Molecular Mass of the
substance . The number of gram molecules
=
ance t subs the of mass molecular Gram
grams in tance subs the of Mass
e.g.
(i) Molecular mass of hydrogen (H
2
) = 2u.
Gram Molecular Mass of hydrogen (H
2
) = 2 g .
(ii) Molecular mass of methane (CH
4
) = 16u
Gram Molecular Mass of methane (CH
4
) = 16 g.
e.g. the number of gram molecules present in 64 g of
methane (CH
4
).
=
4
CH of mass molecular Gram
64
=
16
64
= 4.
(a) Calculation of Molecular Mass :
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of
the atomic masses of its constituent atoms present
in a molecule.
Ex.1 Calculate the molecular mass of water.
(Atomic masses : H = 1u, O = 16u).
Sol. The molecular formula of water is H
2
O.
Molecular mass of water = ( 2 atomic mass of H)
+ (1 atomic mass of O)
= 2 1 + 1 16 = 18
i.e., molecular mass of water = 18 amu.
Ex.2 Find out the molecular mass of sulphuric acid.
(Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u, S = 32u).
Sol. The molecular formula of sulphuric acid is H
2
SO
4
.
Molecular mass of H
2
SO
4
= (2 atomic mass of H) + ( 1 atomic mass of S)
+ ( 4 atomic mass of O)
= (2 1) + (1 32) + (416) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98
i.e., Molecular mass of H
2
SO
4
= 98 amu.
FORMULA MASS
The term formula mass is used for ionic compounds
and others where discrete molecules do not exist,
e.g., sodium chloride, which is best represented as
(Na
+
Cl

)
n
, but for reasons of simplicity as NaCl or
Na
+
Cl

. Here, formula mass means the sum of the

masses of all the species in the formula.
Thus, the formula mass of sodium chloride = (atomic
mass of sodium) + (atomic mass of chlorine)
= 23 + 35.5
= 58.5 amu
EQUIVALENT MASS
(a) Definition :
Equivalent mass of an element is the mass of the
element which combine with or displaces 1.008 parts
by mass of hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or
35.5 parts by mass of chlorine.
(b) Formulae of Equivalent Masses of different
substances :
(i) Equivalent mass of an element =
element the of Valency
element the of wt. Atomic
(ii) Eq. mass an acid =
acid the of Basicity
acid the of wt. Mol.
Basicity is the number of replaceable H
+
ions from
one molecule of the acid.
(iii) Eq. Mass of a base =
base the of Acidity
base the of wt. Mol.
Acidity is the number of replaceable OH

ions from
one molecule of the base
(iv) Eq. mass of a salt
=
metal of valency atoms metal of Number
salt the of wt. Mol.

(v) Eq. mass of an ion =

ion the on Charge
ion the of wt. Formula
(vi) Eq. mass of an oxidizing/reducing agent
=
substance the of molecule
one by gained or lost electrons of No.
wt At. or wt. Mol
Equivalent weight of some compounds are given in
the table :

S.No. Compound
Equivalent
weight
1 HCl 36.5
2 H
2
SO
4
49
3 HNO
3
63
4 45
5
.2H
2
O
63
6 NaOH 40
7 KOH 56
8 CaCO
3
50
9 NaCl 58.5
10 Na
2
CO
3
53
COOH
COOH
PAGE # 24
In Latin, mole means heap or collection or pile. A
mole of atoms is a collection of atoms whose total
mass is the number of grams equal to the atomic
mass in magnitude. Since an equal number of moles
of different elements contain an equal number of
atoms, i t becomes conveni ent to express the
amounts of the elements in terms of moles. A mole
represents a definite number of particles, viz, atoms,
molecules, ions or electrons. This definite number is
called the Avogadro Number (now called the Avogadro
constant) which is equal to 6.023 10
23
.
A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that
contains as many atoms, molecules, ions, electrons
or other elementary particles as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon -12 (
12
C).
(a) Moles of Atoms :
(i) 1 mole atoms of any element occupy a mass which
is equal to the Gram Atomic Mass of that element.
e.g. 1 Mole of oxygen atoms weigh equal to Gram
Atomic Mass of oxygen, i.e. 16 grams.
(ii) The symbol of an element represents 6.023 x 10
23
atoms (1 mole of atoms) of that element.
e.g : Symbol N represents 1 mole of nitrogen atoms
and 2N represents 2 moles of nitrogen atoms.
(b) Moles of Molecules :
(i) 1 mole molecules of any substance occupy a mass
which is equal to the Gram Molecular Mass of that
substance.
e.g. : 1 mole of water (H
2
O) molecules weigh equal to
Gram Molecular Mass of water (H
2
O), i.e. 18 grams.
(ii) The symbol of a compound represents 6.023 x
10
23
mol ecul es (1 mol e of molecul es) of that
compound.
e.g. : Symbol H
2
O represents 1 mole of water
molecules and 2 H
2
O represents 2 moles of water
molecules.
Note :
The symbol H
2
O does not represent 1 mole of H
2
mol ecules and 1 mol e of O atoms. Instead, it
represents 2 moles of hydrogen atoms and 1 mole
of oxygen atoms.
Note :
The SI unit of the amount of a substance is Mole.
(c) Mole in Terms of Volume :
Volume occupied by 1 Gram Molecular Mass or 1
mol e of a gas under standard condi ti ons of
temperature and pressure (273 K and 1atm.
pressure) is called Gram Molecular Volume. Its value
is 22.4 litres for each gas.
Volume of 1 mole = 22.4 litre (at STP)
Note :
The term mole was introduced by Ostwald in 1896.
SOME IMPORTANT RELATIONS AND FORMULAE
(i) 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic mass = mass of
6.023 10
23
atoms
(ii) 1 mole of molecules = Gram Molecular Mass
= 6.023 x 10
23
molecules
(iii) Number of moles of atoms
=
element of Mass Atomic Gram
grams in element of Mass
(iv) Number of moles of molecules
=
substance of Mass Molecular Gram
grams in substance of Mass
(v) Number of moles of molecules
=
A
N
N
number Avogadro
element of molecules of No.
=
Ex.3 To calculate the number of moles in 16 grams of
Sulphur (Atomic mass of Sulphur = 32 u).
Sol. 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic Mass.
So, 1 mole of Sulphur atoms = Gram Atomic Mass of
Sulphur = 32 grams.
Now, 32 grams of Sulphur = 1 mole of Sulphur
So, 16 grams of Sulphur
= (1/32) x 16 = 0.5 moles
Thus, 16 grams of Sulphur constitute 0.5 mole of
Sulphur.
6.023 10
(N ) Atoms
23
A
6.023 10
(N ) molecules
23
A
1 Mole
1 gram atom
of element
1 gram molecule
of substance
1 gram formula
mass of substance
In terms of
particles
In terms of
mass
22.4 litre
In term of
volume
PROBLEMS BASED ON THE MOLE CONCEPT
Ex.4 Cal culate the number of moles in 5.75 g of
sodium. (Atomic mass of sodium = 23 u)
Sol. Number of moles
=
element of Mass Atomic Gram
grams in element the of Mass
=
23
5.75
= 0.25 mole
or,
1 mole of sodium atoms = Gram Atomic mass of
sodium = 23g.
23 g of sodium = 1 mole of sodium.
5.75 g of sodium =
23
5.75
mole of sodium = 0.25 mole
PAGE # 25
Ex.5 What is the mass in grams of a single atom of
chlorine ? (Atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5u)
Sol. Mass of 6.022 10
23
atoms of Cl = Gram Atomic
Mass of Cl = 35.5 g.
Mass of 1 atom of Cl =
23
10 6.022
g 35.5

= 5.9 10
23
g.
Ex.6 The density of mercury is 13.6 g cm
3
. How many
moles of mercury are there in 1 litre of the metal ?
(Atomic mass of Hg = 200 u).
Sol. Mass of mercury (Hg) i n grams = Densi ty
(g cm
3
) Volume (cm
3
)
= 13.6 g cm
3
1000 cm
3
= 13600 g.
Number of moles of mercury
=
mercury of Mass Atomic Gram
grams in mercury of Mass
=
200
13600
= 68
Ex.7 The mass of a single atom of an element M is
3.15 10
23
g . What is its atomic mass ? What
could the element be ?
Sol. Gram Atomic Mass = mass of 6.022 10
23
atoms
= mass of 1 atom 6.022 10
23
= (3.15 10
23
g) 6.022 10
23
= 3.15 6.022 g = 18.97 g.
Atomic Mass of the element = 18.97u
Thus, the element is most likely to be fluorine.
Ex.8 An atom of neon has a mass of 3.35 10
23
g.
How many atoms of neon are there in 20 g of the
gas ?
Sol. Number of atoms
=
atom 1 of Mass
mass Total
=
23
10 3.35
0 2

= 5.97 10
23
Ex.9 How many grams of sodium will have the same
number of atoms as atoms present i n 6 g of
magnesium ?
(Atomic masses : Na = 23u ; Mg =24u)
Sol. Number of gram -atom of Mg
=
Mass Atomic Gram
grams in Mg of Mass
=
24
6
=
4
1
Gram Atoms of sodium should be =
4
1
1 Gram Atom of sodium = 23 g
4
1
gram atoms of sodium = 23
4
1
= 5.75 g
Ex.10 How many moles of Cr are there in 85g of Cr
2
S
3
?
(Atomic masses : Cr = 52 u , S =32 u)
Sol. Molecular mass of Cr
2
S
3
= 2 52 + 3 32 = 104
+ 96 = 200 u.
200g of Cr
2
S
3
contains = 104 g of Cr.
85 g of Cr
2
S
3
contains =
200
85 104
g of Cr = 44.2g
Thus, number of moles of Cr =
52
44.2
= 0.85 .
Ex.11 What mass in grams is represented by
(a) 0.40 mol of CO
2
,
(b) 3.00 mol of NH
3
,
(c) 5.14 mol of H
5
IO
6
(Atomi c masses : C=12 u, O=16 u, N=14 u,
H=1 u and I = 127 u)
Sol. Weight in grams = number of moles molecular
mass.
Hence,
(a) mass of CO
2
= 0.40 44 = 17.6 g
(b) mass of NH
3
= 3.00 17 = 51.0 g
(c) mass of H
5
IO
6
= 5.14 228 = 1171.92g
Ex.12 Calculate the volume in litres of 20 g of hydrogen
gas at STP.
Sol. Number of moles of hydrogen
=
hydrogen of Mass Molecular Gram
grams in hydrogen of Mass
=
2
20
= 10
Volume of hydrogen = number of moles Gram
Molecular Volume.
= 10 22.4 = 224 litres.
Ex.13 The mol ecul ar mass of H
2
SO
4
i s 98 amu.
Calculate the number of moles of each element
in 294 g of H
2
SO
4
.
Sol. Number of moles of H
2
SO
4
=
98
294
= 3 .
The formula H
2
SO
4
indicates that 1 molecule of
H
2
SO
4
contains 2 atoms of H, 1 atom of S and 4
atoms of O. Thus, 1 mole of H
2
SO
4
will contain 2
moles of H,1 mole of S and 4 moles of O atoms
Therefore, in 3 moles of H
2
SO
4
:
Number of moles of H = 2 3 = 6
Number of moles of S = 1 3 = 3
Number of moles of O = 4 3 = 12
Ex.14 Find the mass of oxygen contained in 1 kg of
potassium nitrate (KNO
3
).
Sol. Since 1 molecule of KNO
3
contains 3 atoms of
oxygen, 1 mol of KNO
3
contai ns 3 mol es of
oxygen atoms.
Moles of oxygen atoms = 3 moles of KNO
3
= 3
101
1000
= 29.7
(Gram Molecular Mass of KNO
3
= 101 g)
Mass of oxygen = Number of moles Atomic
mass
= 29.7 16 = 475.2 g
Ex.15 You are asked by your teacher to buy 10 moles of
distilled water from a shop where small bottles
each containing 20 g of such water are available.
How many bottles will you buy ?
Sol. Gram Molecular Mass of water (H
2
O) = 18 g
10 mol of distilled water = 18 10 = 180 g.
Because 20 g distilled water is contained in 1
bottle,
180 g of distilled water is contained in =
20
180
bottles = 9 bottles.
Number of bottles to be bought = 9
PAGE # 26
Ex.16 6.022 10
23
molecules of oxygen (O
2
) is equal to
how many moles ?
Sol. No. of moles =
A
N
N
molecules of no. s Avogadro'
oxygen of molecules of No.
= =
23
23
10 6.023
10 6.023

=1
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
The percentage composi ti on of el ements i n a
compound is calculated from the molecular formula
of the compound.
The molecular mass of the compound is calculated
from the atomic masses of the various elements
present in the compound. The percentage by mass
of each element is then computed with the help of the
following relations.
Percentage mass of the element in the compound
=
mass Molecular
element the of mass Total
100
Ex.17 What is the percentage of calcium in calcium
carbonate (CaCO
3
) ?
Sol. Molecular mass of CaCO
3
= 40 + 12 + 3 16
= 100 amu.
Mass of calcium in 1 mol of CaCO
3
= 40g.
Percentage of calcium =
100
100 40
= 40 %
Ex.18 What is the percentage of sulphur in sulphuric
acid (H
2
SO
4
) ?
Sol. Molecular mass of H
2
SO
4
= 1 2 + 32 + 16 4 = 98
amu.
Percentage of sulphur =
98
100 32
= 32.65 %
Ex.19 What are the percentage composi ti ons of
hydrogen and oxygen in water (H
2
O) ?
(Atomic masses : H = 1 u, O = 16 u)
Sol. Molecular mass of water, H
2
O = 2 + 16 = 18 amu.
H
2
O has two atoms of hydrogen.
So, total mass of hydrogen in H
2
O = 2 amu.
Percentage of H =
18
100 2
= 11.11 %
Similarly,
percentage of oxygen =
18
100 16
= 88.88 %
The following steps are involved in determining the
empirical formula of a compound :
(i) The percentage composition of each element is
divided by its atomic mass. It gives atomic ratio of the
elements present in the compound.
(ii) The atomic ratio of each element is divided by the
minimum value of atomic ratio as to get the simplest
ratio of the atoms of el ements present i n the
compound.
(iii) If the simplest ratio is fractional, then values of
simplest ratio of each element is multiplied by
smallest integer to get the simplest whole number
for each of the element.
(iv) To get the empirical formula, symbols of various
elements present are written side by side with their
respective whole number ratio as a subscript to the
lower right hand corner of the symbol.
(v) The molecular formula of a substance may be
determined from the empirical formula if the molecular
mass of the substance is known. The molecular
formula is always a simple multiple of empirical
formula and the value of simple multiple (n) is
obtained by dividing molecular mass with empirical
formula mass.
n =
Mass Formula Empirical
Mass Molecular
Ex-20 A compound of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen
contains these elements in the ratio of 9:1:3.5 respectively.
Calculate the empirical formula. If its molecular mass is
108, what is the molecular formula ?
Sol.

Element
Mass
Ratio
Atomic
Mass
Relative Number
of Atoms
Simplest
Ratio
Carbon 9 12 0.754 = 3
Hydrogen 1 1 1 4 = 4
Nitrogen 3.5 14 0.25 4 = 1
0.75
12
9
=
1
1
1
=
0.25
14
3.5
=
Empirical ratio = C
3
H
4
N
Empirical formula mass = (3 12) + (4 1) + 14 = 54
n =
Mass Formula Empirical
Mass Molecular
=
2
54
108
=
Thus, molecular formula of the compound
= (Empirical formula)
2
= (C
3
H
4
N)
2
= C
6
H
8
N
2
Ex.21 A compound on analysis, was found to have the
following composition :
(i) Sodium = 14.31%, (ii) Sulphur = 9.97%, (iii) Oxygen
= 69.50%, (iv) Hydrogen = 6.22%. Calculate the
molecular formula of the compound assuming that
whole hydrogen in the compound is present as water
of crystallisation. Molecular mass of the compound
is 322.
Sol. Element Percentage
Atomic
mass
Relative Number
of atoms
Simplest ratio
Sodium 14.31 23 0.622
Sulphur 9.97 32 0.311
Hydrogen 6.22 1 6.22
Oxygen 69.50 16 4.34
2
0.311
0.622
=
1
0.311
0.311
=
20
0.311
6.22
=
14
0.311
4.34
=
=
23
31 . 14
=
1
22 . 6
=
16
50 . 69
=
32
97 . 9
PAGE # 27
The empirical formula = Na
2
SH
20
O
14
Empirical formula mass
= (2 23) + 32 + (20 1) + (14 16)
= 322
Molecular mass = 322
Molecular formula = Na
2
SH
20
O
14
Whole of the hydrogen is present in the form of water
of crystallisation. Thus, 10 water molecules are
present in the molecule.
So, molecular formula = Na
2
SO
4
. 10H
2
O
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
(a) Strength in g/L :
The strength of a solution is defined as the amount of
the solute in grams present in one litre (or dm
3
) of the
solution, and hence is expressed in g/litre or g/dm
3
.
Strength in g/L =
litre in solution of Volume
gram in solute of Weight
(b) Molarity :
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of
moles of the solute dissolved per litre (or dm
3
) of
solution. It is denoted by M. Mathematically,
M =
litre in solution the of Volume
solute of moles of Number
litre in solution of Volume
solute of Mass Molecular gram/Gram in solute of Mass
M can be calculated from the strength as given below :
M =
solute of mass Molecular
litre per grams in Strength
If w gram of the solute is present in V cm
3
of a given
solution , then
M =
mass Molecular
w

V
1000
e.g. a solution of sulphuric acid having 4.9 grams of it
dissolved in 500 cm
3
of solution will have its molarity,
M =
mass Molecular
w

V
1000
M =
98
4.9

500
1000
= 0.1
(c) Formality :
In case of ionic compounds like NaCl, Na
2
CO
3
etc.,
formality is used in place of molarity. The formality of
a solution is defined as the number of gram formula
masses of the solute dissolved per litre of the
solution. It is represented by the symbol F. The term
formula mass is used in place of molecular mass
because ionic compounds exist as ions and not as
molecules. Formula mass is the sum of the atomic
masses of the atoms in the formula of the compound.
litre in solution of Volume
solute of Mass la gram/Formu in solute of Mass
(d) Normality :
Normality of a solution is defined as the number of
gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per litre (dm
3
)
of given solution. It is denoted by N.
Mathematically,
N =
litre in solution the of Volume
solute of s equivalent gram of Number
N =
litre in solution the of Volume
solute of weight equivalent / gram in solute of Weight
N can be calculated from the strength as given below :
N =
solute of mass Equivalent
litre per grams in Strength
=
E
S
If w gram of the solute is present in V cm
3
of a given
solution.
N =
solute the of mass Equivalent
w

V
1000
e.g. A solution of sulphuric acid having 0.49 gram of
it dissolved in 250 cm
3
of solution will have its
normality,
N =
solute the of mass Equivalent
w

V
1000
N =
49
0.49

250
1000
= 0.04
(Eq. mass of sulphuric acid = 49).

Solution Semi
normal
Deci
normal
Centi
normal
Normality
10
1
100
1
2
1
Some Important Formulae :
(i) Milli equivalent of substance = N V
where , N normality of solution
V Volume of solution in mL
(ii) If weight of substance is given,
milli equivalent (NV) =
E
1000 w
Where, W Weight of substance in gram
E Equivalent weight of substance
(iii) S = N E
S Strength in g/L
N Normality of solution
E Equivalent weight
(iv) Calculation of normality of mixture :
Ex.22 100 ml of
10
N
HCl is mixed with 50 ml of
5
N
H
2
SO
4
.
Find out the normality of the mixture.
Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl + milli equivalent H
2
SO
4
= milli equivalent of mixture
N
1
V
1
+ N
2
V
2
= N
3
V
3
{ where, V
3
=V
1
+ V
2
)
= |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
50
5
1
100
10
1
N
3
150
N
3
=
150
20
=
15
2
= 0.133
PAGE # 28
Ex.23 100 ml of
10
N
HCl is mixed with 25 ml of
5
N
NaOH.
Find out the normality of the mixture.
Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl milli equivalent of NaOH
= milli equivalent of mixture
N
1
V
1
N
2
V
2
= N
3
V
3
{ where, V
3
=V
1
+ V
2
)
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
25
5
1
100
10
1
= N
3
125
N
3
=
25
1
Note :
1 milli equivalent of an acid neutralizes 1 milli
equivalent of a base.
(e) Molality :
Molality of a solution is defined as the number of
moles of the solute dissolved in 1000 grams of the
solvent. It is denoted by m.
Mathematically,
m =
gram in solvent the of Weight
solute the of moles of Number
1000 m can
be calculated from the strength as given below :
m =
solute of mass Molecular
solvent of gram 1000 per Strength
If w gram of the solute is dissolved in W gram of the
solvent then
m =
solute the of mass Mol.
w

W
1000
e.g. A solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate
(molecular mass = 106) having 1.325 grams of it,
dissolved in 250 gram of water will have its molality -
m =
250
1000
106
1.325
= 0.05
Note :
Relationship Between Normality and Molarity of a
Solution :
Normality of an acid = Molarity Basicity
Normality of base = Molarity Acidity
Ex.24 Calculate the molarity and normality of a solution
containing 0.5 g of NaOH dissolved in 500 cm
3
of solvent.
Sol. Weight of NaOH dissolved = 0.5 g
Volume of the solution = 500 cm
3
(i) Calculation of molarity :
Molecular weight of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Molarity =
litre in solution of Volume
solute of weight molecular solute/ of Weight
=
500/1000
0.5/40
= 0.025
(ii) Calculation of normality :
Normality
=
litre in solution of Volume
solute of weight equivalent solute/ of Weight
=
500/1000
0.5/40
= 0.025
Ex.25 Find the molarity and molality of a 15% solution
of H
2
SO
4
(density of H
2
SO
4
solution = 1.02 g/cm
3
)
(Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u , S = 32 u)
Sol. 15% solution of H
2
SO
4
means 15g of H
2
SO
4
are
present in 100g of the solution i.e.
Wt. of H
2
SO
4
dissolved = 15 g
Weight of the solution = 100 g
Density of the solution = 1.02 g/cm
3
(Given)
Calculation of molality :
Weight of solution = 100 g
Weight of H
2
SO
4
= 15 g
Wt. of water (solvent) = 100 15 = 85 g
Molecular weight of H
2
SO
4
= 98
15 g H
2
SO
4
=
98
15
= 0.153 moles
Thus ,85 g of the solvent contain 0.153 moles .
1000 g of the solvent contain=
85
0.153
1000 = 1.8 mole
Hence ,the molality of H
2
SO
4
solution = 1.8 m
Calculation of molarity :
15 g of H
2
SO
4
= 0.153 moles
Vol. of solution =
solution of Density
solution of Wt.
=
1.02
100
= 98.04 cm
3
This 98.04 cm
3
of solution contain H
2
SO
4
= 0.153
mol es
1000 cm
3
of solution contain H
2
SO
4
=
98.04
0.153
1000 = 1.56 moles
Hence the molarity of H
2
SO
4
solution = 1.56 M
(f) Mole Fraction :
The ratio between the moles of solute or solvent to
the total moles of solution is called mole fraction.
mole fraction of solute =
N n
n
solution of Moles
solute of Moles
+
=
=
W/M w/m
w/m
+
Mole fraction of solvent =
N n
N
solution of Moles
solvent of Moles
+
=
=
W/M w/m
W/M
+
where,
n number of moles of solute
N number of moles of solvent
m molecular weight of solute
M molecular weight of solvent
w weight of solute
W weight of solvent
PAGE # 29
Ex.26 Find out the mole fraction of solute in 10% (by weight)
urea solution.
weight of solute (urea) = 10 g
weight of solution = 100 g
weight of solvent (water) = 100 10 = 90g
mole fraction of solute =
solution of Moles
solute of Moles
=
W/M w/m
w/m
+
=
18 / 90 60 / 10
60 / 10
+
= 0.032
Note :
Sum of mole fraction of solute and solvent is always
equal to one.
STOICHIOMETRY
(a) Quantitative Relations in Chemical
Reactions :
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of
reactants and products involved in a chemical
reaction.
It is based on the chemical equation and on the
relationship between mass and moles.
N
2
(g) + 3H
2
(g) 2NH
3
(g)
A chemical equation can be interpreted as follows -
1 molecule N
2
+ 3 molecules H
2
2 molecules
NH
3
(Molecular interpretation)
1 mol N
2
+ 3 mol H
2
2 mol NH
3
(Molar interpretation)
28 g N
2
+ 6 g H
2
34 g NH
3
(Mass interpretation)
1 volume N
2
+ 3 volume H
2
2 volume NH
3
(Volume interpretation)
Thus, calculations based on chemical equations are
divided into four types -
(i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship.
(ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship.
(iii) Calculations based on mass-volume relationship.
(iv) Cal cul ati ons based on vol ume -vol ume
relationship.
(i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship :
In such calculations, number of moles of reactants
are given and those of products are required.
Conversely, if number of moles of products are given,
then number of moles of reactants are required.
Ex.27 Oxygen is prepared by catalytic decomposition
of potassi um chlorate (KCl O
3
). Decompositi on
of potassium chlorate gives potassium chloride
(KCl) and oxygen (O
2
). How many moles and how
many grams of KClO
3
are required to produce
2.4 mole O
2
.
Sol. Decomposition of KClO
3
takes place as,
2KClO
3
(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O
2
(g)
2 mole KClO
3
3 mole O
2
3 mole O
2
formed by 2 mole KClO
3
2.4 mol e O
2
wi l l be formed by
|
.
|

\
|
4 . 2
3
2
mole KClO
3
= 1.6 mole KClO
3
Mass of KClO
3
= Number of moles molar mass
= 1.6 122.5 = 196 g
(ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship:
In making necessary calculation, following steps are
followed -
(a) Write down the balanced chemical equation.
(b) Write down theoretical amount of reactants and
products involved in the reaction.
(c) The unknown amount of substance is calculated
using unitary method.
Ex.28 Calculate the mass of CaO that can be prepared
by heating 200 kg of limestone CaCO
3
which is
95% pure.
Sol. Amount of pure CaCO
3
=
200
100
95

= 190 kg
= 190000 g
CaCO
3
(s) CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
1 mole CaCO
3
1 mole CaO
100 g CaCO
3
56 g CaO
100 g CaCO
3
give 56 g CaO
190000 g CaCO
3
will give=
100
56
190000 g CaO
= 106400 g = 106.4 kg
Ex.29 Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by treating
manganese di oxi de (MnO
2
) wi th aqueous
hydrochloric acid according to the reaction -
MnO
2
+ 4HCl MnCl
2
+ Cl
2
+ 2H
2
O
How many grams of HCl will react with 5 g MnO
2
?
Sol. 1 mole MnO
2
reacts with 4 mole HCl
or 87 g MnO
2
react with 146 g HCl
5 g MnO
2
will react with =
87
146
5 g HCl = 8.39 g HCl
Ex.30 How many grams of oxygen are required to burn
completely 570 g of octane ?
Sol. Balanced equation
2C H + 25O
8 18 2
16CO + 18H O
2 2
2 mole
2 114
25 mole
25 32
First method : For burning 2 114 g of the octane,
oxygen required = 25 32 g
For burning 1 g of octane, oxygen required =
114 2
32 25

g
Thus, for burning 570 g of octane, oxygen required
=
114 2
32 25

570 g = 2000 g
PAGE # 30
Mole Method : Number of moles of octane in 570
grams
114
570
= 5.0
For burning 2.0 moles of octane, oxygen required
= 25 mol = 25 32 g
For burning 5 moles of octane, oxygen required
=
0 . 2
32 25
5.0 g = 2000 g
Proportion Method : Let x g of oxygen be required for
burning 570 g of octane. It is known that 2 114 g of
the octane requires 25 32 g of oxygen; then, the
proportion.
e tan oc g 114 2
oxygen g 32 25

=
e tan oc g 570
x
x =
114 2
570 32 25

= 2000 g
Ex.31 How many kilograms of pure H
2
SO
4
could be
obtained from 1 kg of iron pyrites (FeS
2
) according to
the following reactions ?
4FeS
2
+ 11O
2
2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8SO
2
2SO
2
+ O
2
2SO
3
SO
3
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4
Sol. Final balanced equation,
4FeS + 15O + 8H O
2 2 2
2Fe O + 8H SO
2 3 2 4
8 mole
8 98 g
4 mole
4 120 g
4 120 g of FeS
2
yield H
2
SO
4
= 8 98 g
1000 g of FeS
2
will yield H
2
SO
4
=
120 4
98 8

1000
= 1633.3 g
(iii) Calculations involving mass-volume relationship :
In such calculations masses of reactants are given
and volume of the product is required and vice-versa.
1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 litre volume at STP.
Mass of a gas can be related to volume according to
the following gas equation -
PV = nRT
PV =
m
w
RT
Ex-32. What volume of NH
3
can be obtained from 26.75 g
of NH
4
Cl at 27C and 1 atmosphere pressure.
Sol. The balanced equation is -
NH Cl(s)
4 NH (g) + HCl(g)
3
1 mol
1 mol
53.5 g
53.5 g NH
4
Cl give 1 mole NH
3
26.75 g NH
4
Cl will give
5 . 53
1
26.75 mole NH
3
= 0.5 mole
PV = nRT
1 V = 0.5 0.0821 300
V = 12.315 litre
Ex-33 What quantity of copper (II) oxide will react with
2.80 litre of hydrogen at STP ?
Sol.
CuO + H
2
Cu + H O
2
1 mol
79.5 g
1 mol
22.4 litre at NTP
22.4 litre of hydrogen at STP reduce CuO = 79.5 g
2.80 litre of hydrogen at STP will reduce CuO
=
4 . 22
5 . 79
2.80 g = 9.93 g
Ex-34 Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at STP
evolved by strong heating of 20 g calcium carbonate.
Sol. The balanced equation is -
CaCO
3
CaO + CO
2
1 mol
= 22.4 litre at STP
1 mol
100 g
100 g of CaCO
3
evolve carbon dioxide = 22.4 litre
20 g CaCO
3
will evolve carbon dioxide
=
100
4 . 22
20 = 4.48 litre
Ex.35 Calculate the volume of hydrogen liberated at 27C
and 760 mm pressure by heating 1.2 g of magnesium
with excess of hydrochloric acid.
Sol. The balanced equation is
Mg + 2HCl MgCl + H
2 2
1 mol

24 g
24 g of Mg liberate hydrogen = 1 mole
1.2 g Mg will liberate hydrogen = 0.05 mole
PV = nRT
1 V = 0.05 0.0821 300
V = 1.2315 litre
(iv) Calculations based on volume volume
relationship :
These calculations are based on two laws :
(i) Avogadros law (ii) Gay-Lussacs Law
e.g.
N (g) + 3H (g)
2 2 2NH (g) (Avogadro's law)
3
2 mol
2 22.4 L
1 mol
1 22.4 L
3 mol
3 22.4 L
(under si mi l ar condi ti ons of temperature and
pressure, equal moles of gases occupy equal
volumes)
N (g) + 3H (g)
2 2 2NH (g)
3
1 vol 3 vol
2 vol
(Gay- Lussac's Law)
(under si mi l ar condi ti ons of temperature and
pressure, ratio of coefficients by mole is equal to ratio
of coefficient by volume).
Ex-36 One litre mixture of CO and CO
2
is taken. This is
passed through a tube containing red hot charcoal.
The volume now becomes 1.6 litre. The volume are
measured under the same conditions. Find the
composition of mixture by volume.
Sol. Let there be x mL CO in the mixture , hence, there will
be (1000 x) mL CO
2
. The reaction of CO
2
with red
hot charcoal may be given as -
CO (g) + C(s)
2 2CO(g)
2 vol.
2(1000 x)
1 vol.
(1000 x)
Total volume of the gas becomes = x + 2(1000 x)
x + 2000 2x = 1600
x = 400 mL
volume of CO = 400 mL and volume of CO
2
= 600 mL
PAGE # 31
Ex-37 What volume of air containing 21% oxygen by volume
is required to completely burn 1kg of carbon containing
100% combustible substance ?
Sol. Combustion of carbon may be given as,
C(s) + O (g)
2
CO (g)
2
1 mol
12 g
1 mol
32 g
12 g carbon requires 1 mole O
2
for complete
combustion
1000 g carbon will require 1000
12
1
mole O
2
for
combustion, i.e. , 83.33 mole O
2
Volume of O
2
at STP = 83.33 22.4 litre
= 1866.66 litre
21 litre O
2
is present in 100 litre air
1866.66 litre O
2
will be present in
21
100
1866.66 litre air
= 8888.88 litre or 8.89 10
3
litre
Ex-38 An impure sample of calcium carbonate contains
80% pure calcium carbonate 25 g of the impure
sample reacted with excess of hydrochloric acid.
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at STP
obtained from this sample.
Sol. 100 g of impure calcium carbonate contains = 80 g
pure calcium carbonate
25 g of impure calcium carbonate sample will contain
=
100
80
25 = 20 g pure calcium carbonate
The desired equation is -
CaCO + 2HCl
3
CaCl + CO + H O
2 2 2
1 mol
100 g
22.4 litre
at STP
100 g pure CaCO
3
liberate = 22.4 litre CO
2
.
20 g pure CaCO
3
liberate =
20
100
4 . 22

= 4.48 litre CO
2
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS
The quantitative analysis in chemistry is primarily
carried out by two methods, viz, volumetric analysis
and gravimetric analysis.In the first method the mass
of a chemical species is measured by measurement
of volume, whereas in the second method it is deter-
mined by taking the weight.
The strength of a solution in volumetric analysis is
generally expressed in terms of normality, i.e., num-
ber of equivalents per litre but since the volume in the
volumetric analysis is generally taken in millilitres
(mL), the normality is expressed by milliequivalents
per millilitre.
USEFUL FORMULAE FOR
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS
(i) milliequivalents = normality volume in millilitres.
(ii) At the end point of titration, the two titrants, say 1
and 2, have the same number of milliequivalents,
i.e., N
1
V
1
= N
2
V
2
, volume being in mL.
(iii) No. of equivalents =
1000
. e . m
.
(iv) No. of equivalents for a gas =
) STP at . eq 1 of . vol ( volume equivalent
STP at Volume
(v) Strength in grams per litre = normality equivalent
weight.
(vi) (a) Normality = molarity factor relating mol. wt.
and eq. wt.
(b) No. of equivalents = no. of moles factor relat
ing mol. wt. and eq. wt.
Ex.39 Calculate the number of milli equivalent of H
2
SO
4
present in 10 mL of N/2 H
2
SO
4
solution.
Sol. Number of m.e. = normality volume in mL =
2
1
10 = 5.
Ex.40 Calculate the number of m.e. and equivalents of
NaOH present in 1 litre of N/10 NaOH solution.
Sol. Number of m.e. = normality volume in mL
=
10
1
1000 = 100
Number of equivalents =
1000
. e . m of . no
=
1000
100
= 0.10
Ex.41 Calculate number of m.e. of the acids present in
(i) 100 mL of 0.5 M oxalic acid solution.
(ii) 50 mL of 0.1 M sulphuric acid solution.
Sol. Normality = molarity basicity of acid
(i) Normality of oxalic acid = 0.5 2 = 1 N
m.e. of oxalic acid = normality vol. in mL = 1 100
= 100.
(ii) Normality of sulphuric acid = 0.1 2 = 0.2 N
m.e. of sulphuric acid = 0.2 50 = 10
Ex.42 A 100 mL sol uti on of KOH contai ns 10
milliequivalents of KOH. Calculate its strength in nor-
mality and grams/litre.
Sol. Normality =
mL in volume
. e . m of . no
=
1 . 0
100
10
=
strength of the solution = N/10
Again, strength in grams/litre = normality eq. wt.
= 56
10
1
= 5.6 gram/litre.
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = = 56
1
56
acidity
. wt molecular
KOH of . wt . eq
PAGE # 32
Ex.43 What is strength in gram/litre of a solution of H
2
SO
4
,
12 cc of which neutral ises 15 cc of
10
N
NaOH
solution ?
Sol. m.e. of NaOH solution =
10
1
15 = 1.5
m.e. of 12 cc of H
2
SO
4
= 1.5
normality of H
2
SO
4
=
12
5 . 1
Strength in grams/litre = normality eq. wt.
=
12
5 . 1
49 grams/litre
= 6.125 grams/litre.
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = = 49
2
98
basicity
wt. molecular
SO H of wt. eq.
4 2
Ex.44 What weight of KMnO
4
will be required to prepare
250 mL of its
10
N
solution if eq. wt. of KMnO
4
is 31.6 ?
Sol. Equivalent weight of KMnO
4
= 31.6
Normality of solution (N) =
10
1
Volume of solution (V) = 250 ml
1000
NEV
W =
; W =
1000
250 6 . 31
10
1

79 . 0
40
6 . 31
=
g
Ex.45 100 mL of 0.6 N H
2
SO
4
and 200 mL of 0.3 N HCl
were mixed together. What will be the normality of the
resulting solution ?
Sol. m.e. of H
2
SO
4
solution = 0.6 100 = 60
m.e. of HCl solution = 0.3 200 = 60
m.e. of 300 mL (100 + 200) of acidic mixture
= 60 + 60 = 120.
Normality of the resulting solution =
. vol total
. e . m
=
300
120
=
5
2
N.
Ex.46 A sample of Na
2
CO
3
. H
2
O weighing 0.62 g is added
to 100 mL of 0.1 N H
2
SO
4
. Will the resulting solution
be acidic, basic or neutral ?
Sol. Equivalents of Na
2
CO
3
. H
2
O =
62
62 . 0
= 0.01
|
.
|

\
|
= = 62
2
124
O H . CO Na of . wt . eq
2 3 2
m.e. of Na
2
CO
3
. H
2
O = 0.01 1000 = 10
m.e. of H
2
SO
4
= 0.1 100 = 10
Since the m.e. of Na
2
CO
3
. H
2
O is equal to that of H
2
SO
4
,
the resulting solution will be neutral.
(a) Introduction :
Volumetric analysis is a method of quantitative
analysis. It involves the measurement of the volume
of a known solution required to bring about the
completion of the reaction with a measured volume
of the unknown solution whose concentration or
strength is to be determined. By knowing the volume
of the known solution, the concentration of the solution
under investigation can be calculated. Volumetric
analysis is also termed as titrimetric analysis.
(b) Important terms used in volumetric
analysis :
(i) Titration : The process of addition of the known
solution from the burette to the measured volume of
solution of the substance to be estimated until the
reaction between the two is just complete, is termed
as titration. Thus, a titration involves two solutions:
(a) Unknown solution and (b) Known solution or stan-
dard solution.
(ii) Titrant : The reagent or substance whose solu-
tion is employed to estimate the concentration of un-
known solution is termed titrant. There are two types
of reagents or titrants:
(A) Primary titrants : These reagents can be
accurately weighed and their solutions are not to be
standardised before use. Oxalic acid, potassium
dichromate, silver nitrate, copper sulphate, ferrous
ammonium sulphate, sodium thiosulphates etc., are
the examples of primary titrants.
(B) Secondary titrants : These reagents cannot
accurately weighed and their solutions are to be
standardi sed before use. Sodi um hydroxi de,
potassium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, iodine, potassium permanganate etc. are the
examples of secondary titrants.
(iii) Standard solution : The solution of exactly known
concentration of the titrant is called the standard
solution.
(iv) Titrate : The solution consisting the substance to
be estimated is termed unknown solution. The
substance is termed titrate.
(v) Equivalence point : The point at which the reagent
(titrant) and the substance (titrate) under investigation
are chemically equivalent is termed equivalence point
or end point.
(vi) Indicator : It is the auxiliary substance used for
physical (visual) detection of the completion of titration
or detection of end point is termed as indicator.
Indicators show change in colour or turbidity at the
stage of completion of titration.
(c) Concentraion representation of solution
(A) Strength of solution : Grams of solute dissolved
per litre of solution is called strength of solution'
(B) Parts Per Million (ppm) : Grams of solute
di ssol ved per 10
6
grams of sol vent i s cal l ed
concentration of solution in the unit of Parts Per Million
(ppm). This unit is used to represent hardness of
water and concentration of very dilute solutions.
(C) Percentage by mass : Grams of solute dissolved
per 100 grams of solution is called percentage by
mass.
(D) Percentage by volume : Millilitres of solute per
100 mL of solution is called percentage by volume.
For example, if 25 mL ethyl alcohol is diluted with
water to make 100 mL solution then the solution thus
obtained is 25% ethyl alcohol by volume.
(E) Mass by volume percentage :Grams of solute
present per 100 mL of solution is called percentage
mass by volume.
For example, let 25 g glucose is dissolved in water to
make 100 mL solution then the solution is 25% mass
by volume glucose.
PAGE # 33
(d) Classification of reactions involved in
volumetric analysis
(A) Neutralisation reactions
The reaction in which acids and bases react to form
salt called neutralisation.
e.g., HCI + NaOH NaCI + H
2
O
H
+
(acid)
+ OH

(base)
H
2
O (feebly ionised)
The titration based on neutralisation is call ed
acidimetry or alkalimetry.
(B) Oxidation-reduction reactions
The reactions involving simultaneous loss and gain
of electrons among the reacting species are called
oxidation reduction or redox reactions, e.g., let us
consider oxidation of ferrous sulphate (Fe
2+
ion) by
potassium permanganate (MnO
4

ion) in acidic
medium.
MnO
4

+ 8H
+
+ 5e

Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
(Gain of electrons or reduction)
5 [Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e

]
(Loss of electrons or oxidation)
MnO
4

+ 5Fe
2+
+ 8H
+
Mn
2+
+ 5Fe
3+
+ 4H
2
O
________________________________________________________________
In the above reaction, MnO
4

acts as oxidising agent

and Fe
2+
acts as reducing agent.
The titrations involving redox reactions are called redox
titrations. These titrations are also called according
to the reagent used in the titration, e.g., iodometric,
cerimetric, permanganometric and dichromometric
titrations
(C) Precipitation reactions :
A chemical reaction in which cations and anions
combine to form a compound of very low solubility (in
the form of resi due or preci pi tate), i s cal l ed
precipitation.
BaCl
2
+ Na
2
SO
4
BaSO
4
+ 2NaCl
(white precipitate)
The titrations involving precipitation reactions are
called precipitation titrations.
(D) Complex formation reactions :
These are ion combination reactions in which a
sol ubl e sl i ghtl y di ssoci ated compl ex i on or
compound is formed.
Complex compounds retain their identity in the
solution and have the properties of the constituent
ions and molecules.
e.g. CuSO
4
+ 4NH
3
[Cu(NH
3
)
4
]SO
4
(complex compound)
AgNO
3
+ 2KCN K[Ag(CN)
2
] + KNO
3
(complex compound)
2CuSO
4
+ K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
] Cu
2
[Fe(CN)
6
] + 2K
2
SO
4
(complex compound)
The titrations involving complex formation reactions
are called complexometric titrations.
The determination of concentration of bases by
titration with a standard acid is called acidimetry and
the determination of concentration of acid by titration
with a standard base is called alkalimetry.
The substances which give different colours with
acids and base are called acid base indicators. These
indicators are used in the visual detection of the
equivalence point in acid-base titrations.
The aci d-base i ndi cators are al so cal l ed pH
indicators because their colour change according to
the pH of the solution.
In the selection of indicator for a titration, following
two informations are taken into consideration :
(i) pH range of indicator
(ii) pH change near the equivalence point in the
titration.
The indicator whose pH range is included in the pH
change of the solution near the equivalence point, is
taken as suitable indicator for the titration.
(i) Strong acid-strong base titration : In the titration
of HCl with NaOH, the equivalence point lies in the
pH change of 410. Thus, methyl orange, methyl red
and phenolphthalein will be suitable indicators.
(ii) Weak acid-strong base titration : In the titration
of CH
3
COOH with NaOH the equivalence point lies
between 7.5 and 10. Hence, phenolphthalein (8.3
10) will be the suitable indicator.
(iii) Weak base-strong acid titration : In the titration
of NH
4
OH (weak base) against HCl (strong acid) the
pH at equivalence point is about 6.5 and 4. Thus,
methyl orange (3.14.4) or methyl red (4.26.3) will
be suitable indicators.
(iv) Weak acid-weak base titration : In the titration of
a weak acid (CH
3
COOH) with weak base (NH
4
OH)
the pH at the equivalence point is about 7, i.e., lies
between 6.5 and 7.5 but no sharp change in pH is
observed in these titrations. Thus, no simple indica-
tor can be employed for the detection of the equiva-
lence point.
(v) Titration of a salt of a weak acid and a strong
base with strong acid:
H
2
CO
3
+ 2NaOH Na
2
CO
3
+ 2H
2
O
Weak acid Strong base
Na
2
CO
3
when titrated with HCl, the following two
stages are involved :
Na
2
CO
3
+ HCl NaHCO
3
+ NaCl (First stage)
pH = 8.3, near equivalence point
NaHCO
3
+ HCl NaCl + H
2
CO
3
(Second stage)
pH = 4, near equivalence point
For first stage, phenolphthalein and for second stage,
methyl orange will be the suitable indicator.
PAGE # 34
TITRATION OF MIXTURE OF NaOH, Na
2
CO
3
AND
NaHCO
3
BY STRONG ACID LIKE HCl
In this titration the following indicators are mainly used :
(i) Phenolphthalein (weak organic acid) : It shows
colour change in the pH range (8 10)
(ii) Methyl orange (weak organic base) : It shows
colour change in the pH range (3.1 4.4). Due to
lower pH range, it indicates complete neutralisation
of whole of the base.

Let for complete neutralisation of Na
2
CO
3
, NaHCO
3
and NaOH, x,y and z mL of standard HCl are required. The
titration of the mixture may be carried by two methods as summarised below :
Mixture Phenlphthalein Methyl orange Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
from from from after first end
beginning beginning point
1. NaOH z + (x/2) (x + z) z + x/2 x/2 (for remaining 50%
+ Na CO
2 3
beginning
Na CO )
2. NaOH z + 0 (z + y) z + 0 y (for remaining 100%
+ NaHCO NaHCO
3. Na CO (x/2) + 0 (x + y) (x/2) + 0 x/2 + y (for remaining 50%
+ NaHCO of Na CO and 100%
NaHCO are indicated)
2 3
3 3
2 3
3 2 3
3
Volume of HCl
used with
Volume of HCl used
An indicator is a substance which is used to deter-
mine the end point in a titration. In acid-base titra-
tions organic substances (weak acids or weak bases)
are generally used as indicators. They change their
colour within a certain pH range. The colour change
and the pH range of some common indicators are
tabulated below:
________________________________________
Indicator pH range Colour
change
________________________________________
Methyl orange 3.2 4.5 Orange to red
Methyl red 4.4 6.5 Red to yellow
Litmus 5.5 7.5 Red to blue
Phenol red 6.8 8.4 Yellow to red
Phenolphthalein 8.3 10.5 Colourless to pink
________________________________________
Theory of acid-base indicators : Two theories have
been proposed to explain the change of colour of
acid-base indicators with change in pH.
1. Ostwald's theory:
According to this theory
(a) The colour change is due to ionisation of the acid-
base indicator. The unionised form has different
colour than the ionised form.
(b) The ionisation of the indicator is largely affected in
acids and bases as it is either a weak acid or a weak
base. In case, the indicator is a weak acid, its
ionisation is very much low in acids due to common
ions while it is fairly ionised in alkalies. Similarly if the
indicator is a weak base, its ionisation is large in
acids and low in alkalies due to common ions.
Considering two important indicators phenolphtha-
lein (a weak acid) and methyl orange (a weak base),
Ostwald's theory can be illustrated as follows:
PAGE # 35
Phenolphthalein: It can be represented as HPh. It
ionises in solution to a small extent as:
HPh H
+
+ Ph

Colourless Pink
Applying law of mass action,
K =
] HPh [
] Ph ][ H [
+
The undissociated molecules of phenolphthalein are
colourless while ph

ions are pink in colour. In pres-

ence of an acid, the ionisation of HPh is practically
negligible as the equilibrium shifts to left hand side
due to high concentration of H
+
ions. Thus, the solu-
tion would remain colourless. On addition of alkali,
hydrogen ions are removed by OH

ions in the form of

water molecules and the equilibrium shifts to right
hand side. Thus, the concentration of ph

ions in-
creases in solution and they impart pink colour to the
solution.
Let us derive Hendetson's equation for an indicator
HIn + H
2
O H
3
+
O + In

'Acid form' 'Base form'

Conjugate acid-base pair
K
In
=
] HIn [
] O H ][ In [
3
+
K
In
= Ionization constant of indicator
[H
3
+
O] = K
In

] In [
] HIn [

pH = log
10
[H
3
+
O] = log
10
[K
In
] log
10
] In [
] HIn [

pH = pK
In
+ log
10

] HIn [
] In [

(Henderson's equation for
indicator)
At equivalence point ;
[In

] = [HIn] and pH = pK
In
Methyl orange : It is a very weak base and can be
represented as MeOH. It is ionised in solution to give
Me
+
and OH

ions.
MeOH Me
+
+OH

Orange Red
Applying law of mass action,
K =
] MeOH [
] OH ][ Me [
+
In presence of an acid, OH

ions are removed in the

form of water molecules and the above equilibrium
shifts to right hand side. Thus, sufficient Me
+
ions are
produced which impart red colour to the solution. On
addition of alkali, the concentration of OH

ions in-
creases in the solution and the equilibrium shifts to
left hand side, i.e., the ionisation of MeOH is practi-
cally negligible. Thus, the solution acquires the colour
of unionised methyl orange molecules, i.e. orange.
This theory also explains the reason why phenol-
phthalein is not a suitable indicator for titrating a weak
base against strong acid. The OH

ions furnished by
a weak base are not sufficient to shift the equilibrium
towards right hand side considerably, i.e., pH is not
reached to 8.3. Thus, the solution does not attain
pink colour. Similarly, it can be explained why methyl
orange is not a suitable indicator for the titration of
weak acid with strong base.
SOLUBILITY
The solubility of a solute in a solution is always
expressed with respect to the saturated solution.
(a) Definition :
The maximum amount of the solute which can be
dissolved in 100g (0.1kg) of the solvent to form a
saturated solution at a given temperature.
Suppose w gram of a solute is dissolved in W gram
of a solvent to make a saturated solution at a fixed
temperature and pressure. The solubility of the solute
will be given by -
W
w
100 =
solvent the of Mass
solute the of Mass
100
For example, the solubility of potassium chloride in
water at 20C and 1 atm. is 34.7 g per 100g of water.
This means that under normal conditions 100 g of
water at 20C and 1 atm. cannot dissolve more than
34.7g of KCl.
(b) Effect of Temperature and Pressure on
Solubility of a Solids :
The solubility of a substance in liquids generally
increases with rise in temperature but hardly changes
with the change in pressure. The effect of temperature
depends upon the heat energy changes which
accompany the process.
Note :
If heat energy is needed or absorbed in the process,
it is of endothermic nature. If heat energy is evolved
or released in the process, it is of exothermic nature.
(i) Effect of temperature on endothermic dissolution
process : Most of the salts like sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, sodium nitrate, ammonium
chloride etc. dissolve in water with the absorption of
heat. In all these salts the solubility increases with
rise in temperature. This means that sodium chloride
becomes more soluble in water upon heating.
(ii) Effect of temperature on exothermic dissolution
process : Few salts like lithium carbonate, sodium
carbonate monohydrate, ceri um sul phate etc.
dissolve in water with the evolution of heat. This
means that the process is of exothermic nature. In
these salts the solubility in water decreases with rise
in temperature.
PAGE # 36
Note :
1. While expressing the solubility, the solution must
be saturated but for expressing concentration (mass
percent or volume percent), the solution need not to
be saturated in nature.
2. While expressing solubility, mass of solvent is
considered but for expressing concentration the
mass or volume of the solution may be taken into
consideration.
(c) Ef fect of Temperature on the Solubility
of a Gas
(i) The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with
the rise in temperature.
(ii) The solubility of gases in liquids increases on
increasing the pressure and decreases on decreas-
ing the pressure.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Ex.47 12 grams of potassium sulphate dissolves in
75 grams of water at 60C. What is the solubility
of potassium sulphate in water at that temperature ?
Sol. Solubility = 100
solvent of mass
solute of mass

=
75
12
100 = 16 g
Thus, the sol ubi l i ty of potassi um sul phate i n
water is 16 g at 60C.
Ex.48 4 g of a solute are dissolved in 40 g of water to
form a saturated solution at 25C. Calculate the
solubility of the solute.
Sol. Solubility =
solvent of Mass
solute of Mass
100
Mass of solute = 4 g
Mass of solvent = 40 g
Solubility =
40
4
100 = 10 g
Ex.49 (a) What mass of potassium chloride would be
needed to form a saturated solution in 50 g of
water at 298 K ? Given that solubility of the salt is
46g per 100g at this temperature.
(b) What will happen if this solution is cooled ?
Sol. (a) Mass of potassium chloride in 100 g of water
in saturated solution = 46 g
Mass of potassium chloride in 50 g of water in
saturated solution.
=
100
46
(50g) = 23 g
(b) When the solution is cooled, the solubility of
salt in water will decrease. This means, that upon
cooling, it will start separating from the solution
in crystalline form.

EXERCISE
1. The solubility of K
2
SO
4
in water is 16 g at 50C. The
minimum amount of water required to dissolve 4 g
K
2
SO
4
is -
(A) 10 g (B) 25 g
(C) 50 g (D) 75 g
2. Molarity of H
2
SO
4
(density 1.8g/mL) is 18M. The
molality of this solution is -
(A)36 (B) 200
(C) 500 (D) 18
3. 8g of sulphur are burnt to form SO
2
, which is oxidised
by Cl
2
water. The solution is treated with BaCl
2
solution. The amount of BaSO
4
precipitated is -
(A) 1.0 mole (B) 0.5 mole
(C) 0.75 mole (D) 0.25 mole
4. In a compound A
x
B
y
-
(A) Mole of A = Mole of B = mole of A
x
B
y
(B) Eq. of A = Eq. of B = Eq. of A
x
B
y
(C) X mole of A = y mole of B = (x + y) mole of A
x
B
y
(D) X mole of A = y mole of B
5. The percentage of sodium in a breakfast cereal
labelled as 110 mg of sodium per 100 g of cereal is -
(A) 11% (B) 1.10%
(C) 0.110% (D) 110%
6. Two elements A (at. wt. 75) and B (at. wt. 16) combine
to yield a compound. The % by weight of A in the
compound was found to be 75.08. The empirical
formula of the compound is -
(A) A
2
B (B) A
2
B
3
(C) AB (D) AB
2
7. No. of oxalic acid molecules in 100 mL of 0.02 N
oxalic acid are -
(A) 6.023 10
20
(B) 6.023 10
21
(C) 6.023 10
22
(D) 6.023 10
23
8. Which of the following sample contains the maximum
number of atoms -
(A) 1 mg of C
4
H
10
(B) 1 mg of N
2
(C) 1 mg of Na (D) 1 mL of water
9. The total number of protons, electrons and neutrons
in 12 g of C
12
6
is -
(A) 1.084 10
25
(B) 6.022 10
23
(C) 6.022 10
22
(D) 18
10. 4.4 g of CO
2
and 2.24 litre of H
2
at STP are mixed in a
container. The total number of molecules present in
the container will be -
(A) 6.022 10
23
(B) 1.2044 10
23
(C) 2 mole (D) 6.023 10
24
PAGE # 37
11. Which is not a molecular formula ?
(A) C
6
H
12
O
6
(B) Ca(NO
3
)
2
(C) C
2
H
4
O
2
(D) N
2
O
12. The hydrated salt, Na
2
SO
4
. nH
2
O undergoes 55.9%
loss in weight on heating and becomes anhydrous.
The value of n will be -
(A) 5 (B) 3
(C) 7 (D) 10
13. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng mode of expressi ng
concentration is independent of temperature -
(A) Molarity (B) Molality
(C) Formality (D) Normality
14. The haemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles of most
of the mammals contains approximately 0.33% of
iron by weight. The molecular weight of haemoglobin
is 67,200. The number of iron atoms in each molecule
of haemoglobin is (Atomic weight of iron = 56) -
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 5
15. An oxide of metal have 20% oxygen, the eq. wt. of
metal oxide is -
(A) 32 (B) 40
(C) 48 (D) 52
16. How much water is to be added to dilute 10 mL of 10
N HCl to make it decinormal ?
(A) 990 mL (B) 1010 mL
(C) 100 mL (D) 1000 mL
17. The pair of compounds which cannot exist in solution is -
(A) NaHCO
3
and NaOH
(B) Na
2
SO
3
and NaHCO
3
(C) Na
2
CO
3
and NaOH
(D) NaHCO
3
and NaCl
18. If 250 mL of a solution contains 24.5 g H
2
SO
4
the
molarity and normality respectively are -
(A) 1 M, 2 N (B) 1M,0.5 N
(C) 0.5 M, 1N (D) 2M, 1N
19. The mole fraction of NaCl, in a solution containing 1
mole of NaCl in 1000 g of water is -
(A) 0.0177 (B) 0.001
(C) 0.5 (D) 0.244
20. 3.0 molal NaOH solution has a density of 1.110 g/
mL. The molarity of the solution is -
(A) 2.9732 (B) 3.05
(C) 3.64 (D) 3.0504
21. How many atoms are contained in a mole of Ca(OH)
2
-
(A) 30 6.02 10
23
atoms/mol
(B) 5 6.02 10
23
atoms/mol
(C) 6 6.02 10
23
atoms/mol
(D) None of these
22. Insul i n contai ns 3.4% sul phur. The mi ni mum
molecular weight of insulin is -
(A) 941.176 u (B) 944 u
(C) 945.27 u (D) None of these
23. Number of moles present in 1 m
3
of a gas at NTP are -
(A) 44.6 (B) 40.6
(C) 42.6 (D) 48.6
24. Weight of oxygen in Fe
2
O
3
and FeO is in the simple
ratio of -
(A) 3 : 2 (B) 1 : 2
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 3 : 1
25. 2.76 g of silver carbonate on being strongly heated
yield a residue weighing -
(A) 2.16g (B) 2.48 g
(C) 2.32 g (D) 2.64 g
26. How many gram of KCl would have to be dissolved in
60 g of H
2
O to give 20% by weight of solution -
(A) 15 g (B) 1.5 g
(C) 11.5 g (D) 31.5 g
27. When the same amount of zinc is treated separately
with excess of H
2
SO
4
and excess of NaOH, the ratio
of volumes of H
2
evolved is -
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 9 : 4
28. Amount of oxygen required for combustion of 1 kg of a
mixture of butane and isobutane is -
(A) 1.8 kg (B) 2.7 kg
(C) 4.5 kg (D) 3.58 kg
29. Rakesh needs 1.71 g of sugar (C
12
H
22
O
11
) to sweeten
his tea. What would be the number of carbon atoms
present in his tea ?
(A) 3.6 10
22
(B) 7.2 10
21
(C) 0.05 10
23
(D) 6.6 10
22
30. The total number of AlF
3
molecule in a sample of AlF
3
containing 3.01 10
23
ions of F

is -
(A) 9.0 10
24
(B) 3.0 10
24
(C) 7.5 10
23
(D)10
23
31. The volume occupied by one molecule of water
(density 1 g/cm
3
) is -
(A) 18 cm
3
(B) 22400 cm
3
(C) 6.023 10
23
(D) 3.0 10
23
cm
3
PAGE # 38
32. 224 mL of a triatomic gas weigh 1 g at 273 K and 1
atm. The mass of one atom of this gas is -
(A) 8.30 10
23
g (B) 2.08 10
23
g
(C) 5.53 10
23
g (D) 6.24 10
23
g
33. The percentage of P
2
O
5
in diammonium hydrogen
phosphate is -
(A) 77.58 (B) 46.96
(C) 53.78 (D) 23.48
34. The mole fraction of water in 20% (wt. /wt.) aqueous
solution of H
2
O
2
is -
(A)
68
77
(B)
77
68
(C)
80
20
(D)
20
80
35. Which of the following has the maximum mass ?
(A) 25 g of Hg
(B) 2 moles of H
2
O
(C) 2 moles of CO
2
(D) 4 g atom of oxygen
36. Total mass of neutrons in 7mg of
14
C is -
(A) 3 10
20
kg (B) 4 10
6
kg
(C) 5 10
7
kg (D) 4 10
7
kg
37. Vapour density of a metal chloride is 66. Its oxide
contains 53% metal. The atomic weight of metal is -
(A) 21 (B) 54
(C) 26.74 (D) 2.086
38. The number of atoms in 4.25 g NH
3
is approximately -
(A) 1 10
23
(B) 1.5 10
23
(C) 2 10
23
(D) 6 10
23
39. The modern atomic weight scale is based on -
(A) C
12
(B) O
16
(C) H
1
(D) C
13
40. Amount of oxygen in 32.2g of Na
2
SO
4
. 10H
2
O is -
(A) 20.8 g (B) 22.4 g
(C) 2.24 g (D) 2.08 g
41. Which of the followings does not change on dilution ?
(A) Molarity of solution
(B) Molality of solution
(C) Millimoles and milli equivalent of solute
(D) Mole fraction of solute
42. Equal masses of O
2
, H
2
and CH
4
are taken in a
container. The respective mole ratio of these gases
in container is -
(A) 1 : 16 : 2 (B) 16 : 1 : 2
(C) 1 : 2 : 16 (D) 16 : 2 : 1
43. The number of molecules present in 11.2 litre CO
2
at
STP is -
(A) 6.023 10
32
(B) 6.023 10
23
(C) 3.011 10
23
(D) None of these
44. 250 ml of 0.1 N solution of AgNO
3
are added to 250
ml of a 0.1 N solution of NaCl. The concentration of
nitrate ion in the resulting solution will be -
(A) 0.1N (B) 1.2 N
(C) 0.01 N (D) 0.05 N
45. Amount of BaSO
4
formed on mixing the aqueous
solution of 2.08 g BaCl
2
and excess of dilute H
2
SO
4
is -
(A) 2.33 g (B) 2.08 g
(C) 1.04 g (D) 1.165 g
46. 2g of NaOH and 4.9 g of H
2
SO
4
were mixed and
volume is made 1 litre. The normality of the resulting
solution will be -
(A) 1N (B) 0.05 N
(C) 0.5 N (D) 0.1N
47. 1g of a metal carbonate neutralises completely 200
mL of 0.1N HCl. The equivalent weight of metal
carbonate is -
(A) 25 (B) 50
(C) 100 (D) 75
48. 100 mL of 0.5 N NaOH were added to 20 ml of 1N
HCl and 10 mL of 3 N H
2
SO
4
. The solution is -
(A) acidic (B) basic
(C) neutral (D) none of these
49. 1M solution of H
2
SO
4
is diluted from 1 litre to 5 litres ,
the normality of the resulting solution will be -
(A) 0.2 N (B) 0.1 N
(C) 0.4 N (D) 0.5 N
50. The volume of 7g of N
2
at S.T.P. is -
(A) 11.2 L (B) 22.4 L
(C) 5.6 L (D) 6.5 L
51. One mole of calcium phosphide on reaction with
excess of water gives -
(A) three moles of phosphine
(B) one mole phosphoric acid
(C) two moles of phosphine
(D) one mole of P
2
O
5
52. Mg (OH)
2
in the form of milk of magnesia is used to
neutralize excess stomach acid. How many moles of
stomach acid can be neutralized by 1 g of Mg(OH)
2
?
(Molar mass of Mg(OH)
2
= 58.33)
(A) 0.0171 (B) 0.0343
(C) 0.686 (D) 1.25
PAGE # 39
53. Cal ci um carbonate decomposes on heati ng
according to the following equation -
CaCO
3
(s) CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
How many mol es of CO
2
wi ll be obtained by
decomposition of 50 g CaCO
3
?
(A)
2
3
(B)
2
5
(C)
2
1
(D) 1
54. Sulphur trioxide is prepared by the following two
reactions -
S
8
(s) + 8O
2
(g) 8SO
2
(g)
2SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2SO
3
(g)
How many grams of SO
3
are produced from 1 mole
of S
8
?
(A) 1280 (B) 640
(C) 960 (D) 320
55. PH
3
(g) decomposes on heati ng to produce
phosphorous and hydrogen. The change in volume
when 100 mL of such gas decomposed is -
(A) + 50 mL (B) + 500 mL
(C) 50 mL (D) 500 mL
56. What amount of BaSO
4
can be obtained on mixing
0.5 mole BaCl
2
with 1 mole of H
2
SO
4
?
(A) 0.5 mol (B) 0.15 mol
(C) 0.1 mol (D) 0.2 mol
57. In the reaction , CrO
5
+ H
2
SO
4
Cr
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ H
2
O + O
2
one mole of CrO
5
will liberate how many moles of O
2
?
(A) 5/2 (B) 5/4
(C) 9/2 (D) None
58. Cal ci um carbonate decomposes on heati ng
according to the equation -
CaCO
3
(s) CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
At STP the volume of CO
2
obtained by thermal
decomposition of 50 g of CaCO
3
will be -
(A) 22.4 litre (B) 44 litre
(C) 11.2 litre (D) 1 litre
59. When FeCl
3
is ignited in an atmosphere of pure
oxygen, the following reaction takes place-
4FeCl
3
(s) + 3O
2
(g) 2Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 6Cl
2
(g)
If 3 moles of FeCl
3
are ignited in the presence of 2
moles of O
2
gas, how much of which reagent is
present in excess and therefore, remains unreacted ?
(A) 0.33 mole FeCl
3
remains unreacted
(B) 0.67 mole FeCl
3
remains unreacted
(C) 0.25 mole O
2
remains unreacted
(D) 0.50 mole O
2
remains unreacted
60. The volume of CO
2
(in litres) liberated at STP when
10 g of 90% pure limestone is heated completely, is-
(A) 22.4 L (B) 2.24 L
(C) 20.16 L (D) 2.016 L
61. A metal oxide has the formula Z
2
O
3
. It can be reduced
by hydrogen to give free metal and water. 0.1596 g of
the metal requires 6 mg of hydrogen for complete
reduction. The atomic mass of the metal is -
(A) 27.9 (B) 159.6
(C) 79.8 (D) 55.8
Question number 62, 63, 64 and 65 are based on the
following information :
Q. Dissolved oxygen in water is determined by using a
redox reaction. Following equations describe the
procedure -
I 2Mn
2+
(aq) + 4OH

(aq) + O
2
(g) 2MnO
2
(s) + 2H
2
O( )
II MnO
2
(s)+2I

(aq)+4H
+
(aq) Mn
2+
(aq)+I
2
(aq) + 2H
2
O( )
III
2
3 2
O S 2 (aq) + I
2
(aq)
2
6 4
O S 2 (aq) + 2I

(aq)
62. How many moles of
2
3 2
O S are equivalent to each
mole of O
2
?
(A) 0.5 B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 4
63. What amount of I
2
will be liberated from 8 g dissolved
oxygen ?
(A) 127 g (B) 254 g
(C) 504 g (D) 1008 g
64. 3 10
3
moles O
2
is dissolved per litre of water, then
what will be molarity of I

produced in the given

reaction ?
(A) 3 10
3
M (B) 4 3 10
3
M
(C) 2 3 10
3
M (D)
3
10 3
2
1
M
65. 8 mg dissolved oxygen will consume -
(A) 5 10
4
mol Mn
+2
(B) 2.5 10
4
mol Mn
2+
(C) 10 mol Mn
2+
(D) 2 mol Mn
2+
66. 2 g of a base whose eq. wt. is 40 reacts with 3 g of an
acid. The eq. wt. of the acid is-
(A) 40 (B) 60
(C) 10 (D) 80
67. Normality of 1% H
2
SO
4
solution is nearly -
(A) 2.5 (B) 0.1
(C) 0.2 (D) 1
68. What volume of 0.1 N HNO
3
solution can be prepared
from 6.3 g of HNO
3
?
(A) 1 litre (B) 2 litres
(C) 0.5 litre (D) 4 litres
PAGE # 40
69. The volume of water to be added to 200 mL of
seminormal HCl solution to make it decinormal is -
(A) 200 mL (B) 400 mL
(C) 600 mL (D) 800 mL
70. 0.2 g of a sample of H
2
O
2
required 10 mL of 1N KMnO
4
in a titration in the presence of H
2
SO
4
. Purity of H
2
O
2
is-
(A) 25% (B) 85%
(C) 65% (D) 95%
71. Which of the following has the highest normality ?
(A) 1 M H
2
SO
4
(B) 1 M H
3
PO
3
(C) 1 M H
3
PO
4
(D) 1 M HNO
3
72. The molarity of 98% H
2
SO
4
(d = 1.8g/mL) by wt. is -
(A) 6 M (B) 18.74 M
(C) 10 M (D) 4 M
73. 0.7 g of Na
2
CO
3
. xH
2
O is dissolved in 100 mL. 20 mL
of which required to neutralize 19.8 mL of 0.1 N HCl.
The value of x is -
(A) 4 (B) 3
(C) 2 (D) 1
74. 0.45 g of an acid of molecular weight 90 was
neutralised by 20 mL of 0.5 N caustic potash. The
basicity of the acid is -
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
75. 1 litre of 18 molar H
2
SO
4
has been diluted to 100
litres. The normality of the resulting solution is -
(A) 0.09 N (B) 0.18
(C) 1800 N (D) 0.36
76. 150 ml of
10
N
HCl is required to react completely with
1.0 g of a sample of limestone. The percentage purity
of calcium carbonate is -
(A) 75% (B) 50%
(C) 80% (D) 90%
77. 50 ml of
10
N
HCl is treated with 70 ml
10
N
NaOH.
Resultant solution is neutral ized by 100 ml of
sulphuric acid. The normality of H
2
SO
4
-
(A) N/50 (B) N/25
(C) N/30 (D) N/10
78. 200 mL of
10
N
HCl were added to 1 g calcium car-
bonate, what would remain after the reaction ?
(A) CaCO
3
(B) HCl
(C) Neither of the two (D) Part of both
79. Equivalent mass of KMnO
4
, when it is converted to
MnSO
4
is -
(A) M/5 (B) M/3
(C) M/6 (D) M/2
80. A 3 N solution of H
2
SO
4
in water is prepared from
Conc. H
2
SO
4
(36 N) by diluting [KVPY-PartII-2007]
(A) 20 ml of the conc. H
2
SO
4
to 240 ml
(B) 10 ml of the conc. H
2
SO
4
to 240 ml
(C) 1 ml of the conc. H
2
SO
4
to 36 ml
(D) 20 ml of the conc. H
2
SO
4
to 36 ml
81. The solubility curve of KNO
3
as a function of tempera-
ture is given below [KVPY-Part-II-2007]
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
50
100
150
200
250
Temperature (C)
S
o
l
u
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
g
/
1
0
0

m
l

w
a
t
e
r
)

The amount of KNO
3
that will crystallize when a satu-
rated solution of KNO
3
in 100 ml of water is cooled
from 90C to 30 C, is
(A) 16 g (B) 100 g
(C) 56 g (D)160 g
82. The volume of 0.5 M aqueous NaOH solution required
to neutralize 10 ml of 2 M aqueous HCl solution is :
[KVPY-Part-I-2008]
(A) 20ml (B) 40ml
(C) 80ml (D) 120ml
83. 3.0110
23
molecules of elemental Sulphur will react
with 0.5 mole of oxygen gas completely to produce
[KVPY-Part-I-2008]
(A) 6.02 10
23
molecules of SO
3
(B) 6.02 10
23
molecules of SO
2
(C) 3.01 10
23
molecules of SO
3
(D) 3.01 x 10
23
molecules of SO
2
84. The solubility of a gas in a solution is measured in
three cases as shown in the figure given below where
w is the weight of a solid slab placed on the top of the
cylinder lid. The solubility will follow the order :
[KVPY-Part-I-2008]
gas
solution
w

gas
solution
w w

gas
solution
w w w
(A) a > b > c (B) a < b < c
(C) a = b = c (D) a >b < c
PAGE # 41

85. The density of a salt solution is1.13 g cm

3
and it
contains 18% of NaCI by weight. The volume of the
solution containing 36.0 g of the salt will be :
[KVPY-Part-II-2008]
(A) 200 cm
3
(B) 217 cm
3
(C) 177 cm
3
(D) 157cm
3
86. One mole of nitrogen gas on reaction with 3.01 x 10
23
molecules of hydrogen gas produces -
[KVPY-Part-I-2009]
(A) one mole of ammonia
(B) 2.0 x 10
23
molecules of ammonia
(C) 2 moles of ammonia
(D) 3.01 10
23
molecules of ammonia
87. [KVPY-Part-I-2009]
Solubility
g/I
20 40 60 80 100
KNO
3
KCl
Temperature (C)
50
100
150
200
250
Given the solubility curves of KNO
3
and KCl, which of
the following statements is not true ?
(A) At room temperature the solubility of KNO
3
and
KCI are not equal
(B) The solubilities of both KNO
3
and KCI increase
with temperature
(C) The solubility of KCI decreases with temperature
(D) The solubility of KNO
3
increases much more com-
pared to that of KCl with increase in temperature
88. 10 ml of an aqueous solution containing 222 mg of
calcium chloride (mol. wt. = 111) is diluted to 100 ml.
The concentration of chloride ion in the resulting so-
lution is - [KVPY-Part-II-2009]
(A) 0.02 mol/lit. (B) 0.01 mol/lit.
(C) 0.04 mol/lit (D) 2.0 mol/lit.
89. Aluminium reduces manganese dioxide to manga-
nese at high temperature. The amount of aluminium
required to reduce one gram mole of manganese
dioxide is - [KVPY-Part-II-2009]
(A) 1/2 gram mole (B) 1 gram mole
(C) 3/4 gram mole (D) 4/3 gram mole
90. One mole of oxalic acid is equivalent to
[IJSO-2009]
(A) 0.5 mole of NaOH (B) 1 mole of NaOH
(C) 1.5 mole of NaOH (D) 2 mole of NaOH