PROOF OF FERMAT-CATALAN CONJECTURE THROUGH

THE NEW ABC CONJECTURE

Ing. Pier Francesco Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, Francesco Di Noto

Abstract
In this paper we show a proof of Fermat-Catalan conjecture through the new abc
conjecture.


















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Index:

1. PROOF OF FERMAT-CATALAN CONJECTURE............................................................................. 3
1.1 RANGE OF VALIDITY OF THE EQUATIONS OF FERMAT-CATALAN................... 11
2. PROOF OF THE CATALAN'S CONJECTURE ................................................................................ 17
3. SUPER-GENERAL TRINOMIAL EQUATION.................................................................................. 24
3.1 BEAL'S CONJECTURE...................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 ANOTHER PROOF OF FERMATS LAST THEOREM THROUGH BEALS
CONJECTURE.......................................................................................................................... 30
4. PROOF OF PILLAI'S CONJECTURE.............................................................................................. 31
5. PROOF OF TIJDEMAN'S CONJECTURE....................................................................................... 35
6. EXAMPLES OF PILLAIS CONJECTURE....................................................................................... 42
6.1 PERFECT POWERS LINKED TO PILLAIS CONJECTURE ......................................... 47



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1. PROOF OF FERMAT-CATALAN CONJECTURE

The FermatCatalan conjecture combines ideas of Fermats Great Theorem and the Catalan
conjecture, hence the name. The conjecture states that the equation
a
m
+ b
n
= c
k
has only finite solutions in N+
has only finitely many solutions (a,b,c,m,n,k); here a, b, c are positive coprime integers and m, n, k are
positive integers satisfying

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1

As the new abc conjecture is given:
{rad (abc)} 6
2

> c


6
2

= 1,644934... 1,6449 this is a limit.

We note that this value is very near to the following 1,64809064 1,6480 that is a value regarding
some frequencies connected to the musical system based on the aurea ratio (1,61803398)

This inequality holds for ALL triples (a, b, c) of coprime positive integers, with a + b = c
Lets try to apply the new abc conjecture with the following solutions that are known:


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1
m
+ 2
3
= 3
2

{rad (1*2*3)} 6
2

> 9
6
1,645
= 19,05 > 9
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,976.(m 7, so 1
7
= 1 is OK)


2
5
+ 7
2
= 3
4

{rad (2*7*3)} 6
2

> 81
42
1,645
= 467,99> 81
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
=0,95



13
2
+ 7
3
= 2
9

{rad (13*7*2)} 6
2

> 512
182
1,645
= 5221,76 > 512
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,9444.



2
7
+ 17
3
= 71
2

{rad (2*17*71)} 6
2

> 5041
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2414
1,645
= 366.946,54 > 5041
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,976



3
5
+ 11
4
= 122
2

{rad (3*11*2*61)} 6
2

> 14884
4026
1,645
= 851.172,04 > 14884
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,95


33
8
+ 1549034
2
= 15613
3

{rad (3*11*2*61*12697*13*1201)} 6
2

> 3805914951397
798.107.238.786
1,645
= 37921958271956418245,68 > 380.591.495.1397
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
=0,95833



1414
3
+2213459
2
= 65
7

{rad (2*7*101*479*4621*5*13)} 6
2

> 4902227890625
203.439.016.690
1,645
= 4002896288091211907,85 > 4.902.227.890.625
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,976.
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9262
3
+ 15312283
2
= 113
7

{rad (2*11*421*7*53*149*277*113)} 6
2

> 235260548044817
16.025.927.261.498
1,645
= 5271498777020594764161,13 > 235.260.548.044.817
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
=0,976.



17
7
+76271
3
= 21063928
2

{rad (17*13*5867*2*79*33329)} 6
2

> 443689062789184
(that is divisible for 16 and 64)
6.827.909.123.074
1,645
= 1295398290051100057437,9 > 443.689.062.789.184
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,976.

We note that if 443689062789184 is divisible for 16 and 64, this value can be connected also with the
following Ramanujan function regarding the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the
superstrings:


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.

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43
8
+ 96222
3
= 30042907
2

{rad (43*2*3*7*29*79*109*275623)} 6
2

> 902576261010649
124.303.909.686.222
1,645
= 153259525699804607160993,02 > 902.576.261.010.649
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,95833.


The first of these (1
m
+2
3
=3
2
) is the only solution where one of a, b or c is 1; this is the Catalan
conjecture, proven in 2002 by Preda Mihailescu. Technically, this case leads infinitely many solutions
(since we can pick any m for m>6), but for the purposes of the statement of the Fermat-Catalan
conjecture we count all these solutions as one.





PROOF

a
m
+ b
n
= c
k

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1
As the new abc conjecture is given:
{rad (a
m
b
n
c
k
)} 6
2

> c
k
Lets apply
rad (a
m
b
n
c
k
) abc < c
m
k
c
n
k
c

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Please not that we cannot write, as is as in the case of Fermat's Great Theorem the inequality
rad (a
n
b
n
c
n
) < c
3
because
it doesn't apply
a < c and b < c.
The values of a, b and c may be any as long as obviously > 1

c
k
< c 6
2

\
|
+ + 1
n
k
m
k


This implies that we have no solutions if
k
6
2

\
|
+ + 1
n
k
m
k

and hence dividing by k

1
6
2

\
|
+ +
k n m
1 1 1


It depends on values of m, n and k


|

\
|
+ +
k n m
1 1 1

2
6

= 0,6079

and hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1

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This is a stronger inequality of the initial statement


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1

which then is wrong, because for


|

\
|
+ +
k n m
1 1 1

2
6

= 0,6079

we cannot have integer solutions-and this is the lower limit.

If

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
> 1
We have infinite solutions of one of (2, 2, k), (2, 3, 3), (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5).

If

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 1
We have finitely many solutions of one of (2, 4, 4), (2, 3, 6), (3, 3, 3).



In fact from the examples above we have seen that the MINIMUM value for


|

\
|
+ +
k n m
1 1 1



was



13
2
+ 7
3
= 2
9

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{rad (13*7*2)} 6
2

> 512
182
1,645
= 5221,76 > 512

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
= 0,9444.

Also here, we note that 512 / 8 = 64 and that 8 is a Fibonaccis number and the number of
the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the superstrings by the following
Ramanujan function:


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.



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1.1 RANGE OF VALIDITY OF THE EQUATIONS OF FERMAT-CATALAN


a
m
+ b
n
= c
k

we have solutions, according to the new abc conjecture, if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1

So, for example

1)If we choose


4
1
+
5
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 6,33

then the only possible values are


2
1
,
3
1
and
6
1





2)If we choose


5
1
+
6
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 4,14

then the only possible values are

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2
1
,
3
1
and
4
1





3)If we choose


6
1
+
7
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 3,35

then the only possible values are


2
1
,
3
1





4)If we choose


7
1
+
8
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 2,94

then the only possible value is


2
1


and thus also for


7
1
+
k
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

k = 8, 9, 10, 11, 12..

then the only possible value is
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2
1





5)If we choose


3
1
+
4
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 40,7

then the only possible values are


5
1
,
6
1
.
40
1


Please note that the value of
2
1
exceeds the upper limit
k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1 and therefore isnt good.




6)If we choose


2
1
+
3
1
+
x
1
< 1

x > 6

then the only possible values are


7
1
,
8
1
.
N
1


N



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7)If we choose


2
1
+
4
1
+
x
1
< 1

x > 4

then the only possible values are


5
1
,
6
1
.
N
1


N




8)If we choose


2
1
+
5
1
+
x
1
< 1

x > 3,33

then the only possible values are


4
1
,
6
1
.
N
1


N




From the set of solutions above we have only solutions:

in the conjecture of Fermat-Catalan when one of the exponents m or n or k is equal to 2.

In our examples this happens almost always, except in the cases 1, 2, 3 and 5.

In example 1)
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4
1
+
5
1
+
x
1
>
2
6

\

x < 6,33

then the only possible values are


2
1
,
3
1
and
6
1


So we can have

a
4
+ b
5
= c
3
or any permutation of 3, 4 and 5, as

a
3
+ b
5
= c
4
a
3
+ b
4
= c
5
The last equation cannot give solutions.


In the same way we have

a
5
+ b
6
= c
4
a
4
+ b
6
= c
5
a
4
+ b
5
= c
6

The last equation cannot give solutions.

So we have the subset

a
4
+ b
5
= c
3
a
3
+ b
5
= c
4
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a
5
+ b
6
= c
4
a
4
+ b
6
= c
5

The solutions for this quartet of equations is very complicated and can only be obtained with the aid of
computers.
Also remember that we can choose any values for a, b and c, not the usual values "small" that we are
accustomed.
So that we have solutions and, therefore, the difficulty lies in the exponential growth of these powers.



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2. PROOF OF THE CATALAN'S CONJECTURE

Catalan's conjecture (or Mihilescu's theorem) is now a theorem that was conjectured by the
mathematician Eugene Charles Catalan in 1844 and proven in 2002 by Preda Mihilescu.
2
3
and 3
2
are two powers of natural numbers, whose values 8 and 9 respectively are consecutive. The
theorem states that this is the only case of two consecutive powers. That is to say, that the only
solution in the natural numbers of
c
k
b
n
= 1
for c, k, b, n > 1

1 + b
n
= c
k


is

1 + 2
3
= 3
2



so worth the inequality

k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1
But what value we have to choose for m?
We use the trick of taking m = so that we have he following inequality

1

+ 2
3
= 3
2



k n
1 1
+
< 1
Lets apply the new abc conjecture and so let's show this conjecture:
rad (1*b
n
c
k
) bc < c
n
k
c
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c
k
< c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k


This implies that we have no solutions if
k
6
2

\
|
+1
n
k

and hence dividing by k

1
6
2

\
|
+
k n
1 1


It depends on values of n and k


|

\
|
+
k n
1 1

2
6

= 0,6079


and hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
1 1
< 1

This is a stronger inequality of the initial statement


k n
1 1
+
< 1

which then is wrong, because for

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|

\
|
+
k n
1 1

2
6

= 0,6079

we cannot have integer solutions.



We can prove this way:

If n = 3 we have

1 + b
3
= c
k


hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
1 1
< 1

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k
1
3
1
< 1

k <
2
2
18
3

= 3,6417

k >
2
3
= 1,5

and hence

1, 5 < k < 3,6417

Having to take only integer values

k = 2 or
k = 3 ,this is impossible otherwise

1 + b
3
= c
3

Has no sense, the difference between two cubes is never equal to 1

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therefore remains only this equation that is valid

1 + b
3
= c
2

with two unknowns b and c

Is then the solution sought

1 + 2
3
= 3
2





But If we choose n = 4 we have

1 + b
4
= c
k


hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
1 1
< 1

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k
1
4
1
< 1

k <
2
2
24
4

= 2,7938

k >
3
4
= 1,3333

and hence

1,3333< k < 2,7938

Having to take only integer values

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We note that in the inequality k <
2
2
24
4

= 2,7938, we have 24, number that is connected with the

modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan
function:




( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.



Furthermore, we note that 1,3333< k < 2,7938 are very near to the following values: 1,33333333
and 2,79256959, (the first is equal) values corresponding to frequencies concerning the musical system
based on the Phi (i.e. the aurea ratio 1,61803398)



k = 2

1 + b
4
= c
2



with two unknowns b and c




But for what value of n we have that k = 2

1 + b
n
= c
2


hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
2
1 1
n
< 1
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n <
2
2
12
2

= 9,2655.

n > 2

and hence

2 < n < 9,2655.

Having to take only integer values


1 + b
n
= c
2


n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9

with two unknowns b and c.

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Since the equation is symmetric

1 + b
n
= c
k


is equivalent to solve the unknown n or k


So, for example, we LIMIT the field equations valid


1 + b
2
= c
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9


1 + b
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
= c
2

Solving this set of equations of only 14 equations, we find the only possible solution is the
following

1 + 2
3
= 3
2




Thus, for example, it isn't possible to have an equation as

1 + 10
3
= 2,68
7

Apart from the fact that c is not an integer, what is important to note is the value of the exponent of
the inequality abc that exceeds the maximum value of
6
2

= 1,6449

(rad (10*2,68))
q
= 2,68
7


q = 2,098 > 1,6449

that's no good and it shows that all the other infinite equations with any n and k aren't possible,
except field equation above.

Notes that the field equations have n exponent or k exponent equal to 2, otherwise we don't have
solutions.
This occurs also in the general case of the conjecture of Fermat-Catalan where one of the
exponents m or n or k is equal to 2.

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3. SUPER-GENERAL TRINOMIAL EQUATION

We can also prove the case of super-general trinomial equation

Aa
m
+ Bb
q
= Cc
k


rad (A*B*C*a
m
b
n
c
k
) ABCabc < ABC c
m
k
c
n
k
c

Cc
k
< (ABC) 6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+ + 1
n
k
m
k

c
k
< (A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) c 6
2

\
|
+ + 1
n
k
m
k

Now to solve this inequality we assume that
(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c
e
6
2

with
e 0
so
c
k
< c
e
6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+ + 1
n
k
m
k


c
k
< c 6
2

\
|
+ + + e
n
k
m
k
1

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This implies that we have no solutions if
k
6
2

\
|
+ + + e
n
k
m
k
1
and hence dividing by k

1
6
2

\
|
+ + +
k
e
k n m
1 1 1


It depends on values of n, k and e


|

\
|
+ + +
k
e
k n m
1 1 1

2
6

= 0,6079


and hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ + +
k
e
k n m
1 1 1
< 1

with
e 0


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k n m
1 1 1
< 1

(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c
e
6
2

and we have the case of Fermat-Catalan conjecture with A = 1, B = 1 and C =1, in fact:
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(1 6
2

1 6
2

1
1
6
2

) = c
0
= 1



instead if e=1 we have:


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k n m
2 1 1
< 1
a special case with

(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c 6
2

Of course it must always apply the inequality


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1
so e is limited by n and k

This shows by the new abc conjecture that we have only finitely many solutions (a,b,c,m,n,k) where
(m or n or k) = 2, one of the three, otherwise the inequality doesn't hold.


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Famous example of Ramanujan

a
3
+ b
3
= 1729
rad (a
3
* b
3
* 1729) > 1729

In fact there are 2 solutions

12
3
+ 1
3
= 1729
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rad (12
3
*1
3
* 1729) = 2*3*7*13*19 = 10374 > 1729

or even better (for the quantity or quality of the radical)

10
3
+ 9
3
= 1729
rad (10
3
* 9
3
* 1729) = 2*3*5*7*13*19 = 51870 > 1729




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3.1 BEAL'S CONJECTURE

Beal's conjecture is a conjecture that states
If
a
m
+ b
q
= c
k
where a, b, c, m, n, and k are positive integers with m, n, and k 3 then a, b, c have a common factor.

Examples
To illustrate, the solution 3
3
+ 6
3
= 3
5
has bases with a common factor of 3, and the solution 7
6
+ 7
7
=
98
3
has bases with a common factor of 7. Indeed the equation has infinitely many solutions, including
for example
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( )
1 +
+ = + + +
m
m m
m
m m
m
m m
b a b a b b a a

for any 3 , , > m b a . But no such solution of the equation is a counterexample to the conjecture, since
the bases all have the factor
m m
b a + in common.
The example 7
3
+ 13
2
= 2
9
shows that the conjecture is false if one of the exponents is allowed to be 2.

Properties
A variation of the conjecture where m, n, and k (instead of a, b, c) must have a common prime factor is
not true. See, for example 27
4
+ 162
3
= 9
7
(3, 4 and 7 have no common factor)

PROOF

By the case of super-general trinomial equation
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Aa
m
+ Bb
q
= Cc
k

We have Beals conjecture replacing
A = B = C =1
And so we return to the FermatCatalan conjecture BUT with exponent m, n, and k 3 (2 is not
allowed).
This shows by the new abc conjecture that we have only finitely many solutions (a,b,c,m,n,k) where
(m or n or k) = 2, one of the three, otherwise the inequality doesn't hold (remember that a, b, c must
be coprime).
In fact we have trivial solutions with a common factor only with m, n, and k 3.



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3.1.1 ANOTHER PROOF OF FERMATS LAST THEOREM THROUGH
BEALS CONJECTURE

Beal's conjecture is a generalization of Fermat's last theorem, which corresponds to the case
z y x = = . If
x x x
c b a = + with 3 x , then either the bases are coprime or share a common factor. If
they share a common factor, it can be divided out of each to yield an equation with smaller, coprime
bases.
Now since Beal's conjecture is true, Fermats last theorem can be proven by contradiction:
Let there be positive integers n 3 and a, b, c such that

a
n
+ b
q
= c
n
where c is the smallest possible.
Then, by the Beal's conjecture with m = n = k = n it is shown there exists a base p dividing each of a,
b and c. However, then

n
p
a
|
|

\
|
+
n
p
b
|
|

\
|
=
n
p
c
|
|

\
|

which contradicts C being the smallest possible, BECAUSE C DOESNT HAVE TO BE
DIVISIBLE BY p.
This shows the positive integers n, a, b, c cannot exist, thus proving Fermat's last theorem.

CVD


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4. PROOF OF PILLAI'S CONJECTURE

Pillai's conjecture concerns a general difference of perfect powers .
Pillai conjectured that the gaps in the sequence of perfect powers tend to infinity.
This is equivalent to saying that each positive integer occurs only finitely many times as a difference
of perfect powers: more generally, in 1931 Pillai conjectured that for fixed positive integers A, B, C the
equation

A + Bb
n
= Cc
k
has only finitely many solutions (b,c,n,k) with (n,k) (2,2).

Lets apply the new abc conjecture
rad (A*B*C*b
n
c
k
) ABCbc < ABCc
n
k
c

Cc
k
< (ABC) 6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k

c
k
< (A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k

Now to solve this inequality we assume that
(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c
e
6
2

with
e 0
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so
c
k
< c
e
6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k


c
k
< c 6
2

\
|
+ + e
n
k
1


This implies that we have no solutions if
k
6
2

\
|
+ + e
n
k
1
and hence dividing by k

1
6
2

\
|
+ +
k
e
k n
1 1


It depends on values of n, k and e


|

\
|
+ +
k
e
k n
1 1

2
6

= 0,6079


and hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k
e
k n
1 1
< 1

with
e 0
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if e=0 we have:


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
1 1
< 1

(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c
e
6
2

and we have the case of Catalan conjecture with A = 1, B = 1 and C =1, in fact:

(1 6
2

1 6
2

1
1
6
2

) = c
0
= 1



instead if e=1 we have:


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
2 1
< 1
a special case with

(A 6
2

B 6
2

C
1
6
2

) = c 6
2

Of course it must always apply the inequality


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1
so e is limited by n and k
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2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k
e
k n
1 1
< 1

However. all the cases are a stronger inequality of the initial statement


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1


This shows by the new abc conjecture that we have only finitely many solutions (b,c,n,k) with (n,k)
(2,2), otherwise the inequality doesn't hold.



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5. PROOF OF TIJDEMAN'S CONJECTURE

Tijdeman's conjecture states that there are at most a finite number of consecutive powers.
Stated another way, the set of solutions in integers b, c, n, k of the exponential diophantine equation

A + b
n
= c
k
for exponents n and k 2, is finite.
If A =1 the theorem was proven by Mihailescu and it's the Catalan's conjecture, as we have seen before
and is also known as Tijdeman's theorem.
But with A 2, n and k 2 we have an unsolved problem, called the generalized Tijdeman problem. It
is conjectured that this set also will be finite. This would follow from a yet stronger conjecture of Pillai
stating that the equation
A + Bb
n
= Cc
k
only has a finite number of solutions, that we have shown above.

In fact
Lets apply the new abc conjecture
rad (A*b
n
c
k
) Abc < Ac
n
k
c

c
k
< (A) 6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k


Now to solve this inequality we assume that
A 6
2

= c
e
6
2

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with
e 0
so
c
k
< c
e
6
2

c 6
2

\
|
+1
n
k

and then follow all the calculation as before

and hence we have solutions if and only if

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k
e
k n
1 1
< 1

with
e 0
if e=0 we have:


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
1 1
< 1

A 6
2

= c
e
6
2

and we have the case of Catalan conjecture with A = 1, in fact:

(1 6
2

) = c
0
= 1

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instead if e=1 we have:


2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+
k n
2 1
< 1
a special case with

A 6
2

= c 6
2

A = c


Of course it must always apply the inequality


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1
so e is limited by n and k

2
6

= 0,6079 <
|

\
|
+ +
k k
e
n
1 1
< 1

However. all the cases are a stronger inequality of the initial statement


k n m
1 1 1
+ +
< 1


This shows by the new abc conjecture that we have only finitely many solutions (b,c,n,k) with (n,k)
(n,n), otherwise the inequality doesn't hold.

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Now we want remember that:

( )

= =
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

p p
p p
61 607927102 . 0
6
2
1
1
1 1
1
2
1
2 2

%.

) 2 (
1

=
2
6

= 0,6079....
where refers to the Riemann zeta function, the identity relating the product over primes to (2) is an
example of an Euler product, and the evaluation of (2) as
2
/6 is the famous Basel problem.
With regard the value
6
2

, we have also some interesting mathematical connections with some sectors

of string theory.
If a series, ( )

=
0
!
n
n
n
x f
n
x
A , is divergent, for a x > , ( a , constant), multiplying, both sides of the
previous relation, for
x
e

, and integrating, with respect to x , between the limits zero and infinity, we
obtain another divergent series, defined by:

( )

=
0
0
0
!
n
x n n x
dx e x
n
A
dx x f e . (5.1)

Now, we have the following relation:

0
! 1
k
k
k x
k
x
B
e
x
. (5.2)

Applying to this relation, the integration of eq. (5.1), we have that:

+ = = =

0
0
0
0 1
2
2
1
1
!
1
1
k k k
k k
x k
k x
x
B B dx e x
k
B
e
dx xe
. (5.3)

Now we compute the integral that is to the left-hand side of the (5.3). We obtain:


( )
( )

=
+
= =

0 0
0
0
0
2
2
2
1
6 2
1
1 1
k k
k x
x
x x
x
x
k
dx xe
e
dx e xe
e
dx xe
. (5.4)

Thence, from the (5.3), we obtain:

=
1
2
2
2
3
6
k
k
B

. (5.5)

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The left-hand side of the (5.5) is just a divergent series, that is represented from the value of the right-
hand side of this expression.
Substituting in the (5.2), x to x , we have:


( )

0
! 1
k
k
k x
k
x
B
e
x
. (5.6)

For 2 x , the precedent relation is divergent, thence, applying to the same relation, the integration
of eq. (5.1), we have:


( )
( )

=
+
= =

0 0
0
0
0
2
2
1
6 1
1
1 1
k k
k x
x
x
x
x
k
dx xe dx
e
x
e dx
e
x
e

; (5.7)


( )
( )

+ + = =

0
0
0 1
2
2
1
1 1
!
1
k k k
k
k
k
x k
k
k
B B dx e x
k
B . (5.8)

Equalling the results of the two last relations, we obtain:

=
1
2
2
2
3
6
k
k
B

, (5.9)

that is identical to the (5.5).
With regard the string theory, we can to obtain mathematical connections with some equations
concerning a two-parameter family of Wilson loop operators in N = 4 supersymmetric Yang-Mills
theory which interpolates smoothly between the 1/2 BPS line or circle, principally some equations
concerning the one-loop determinants

With regard the calculation of the 2-loop graphs for the Wilson loop with a cusp in the case of non-
zero , the resulting expression can be written as a sum of the contribution of ladder graphs and the
interacting graphs

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) , , ,
2
int
2 2
V V V
lad
+ =

( )
( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
+
=
0
2
2
2
log
1
1
log
sin
cos cos
,

i
i
i
i
lad
e z
e z
ze
ze
z
dz
V

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+ + =
1
0
2 2 2
int
1 , 1 cos 2 , cos cos 4 , z z z dzY V . (5.10)

The integrand in the last expression is the scalar triangle graph the Feynman diagram arising at
one-loop order from the cubic interaction between three scalars separated by distances given by the
arguments
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( )


=
2
3
2
2
2
1
4
2
2
13
2
23
2
12
1 1
, ,
w x w x w x
w d x x x Y

,
2
2
j i ij
x x x = . (5.11)

This integral is known in closed form. For
2
13
2
23
2
12
, x x x < it is equal to

( ) +

\
| +

\
| +
=
2
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
, ,
2 2
2
2
13
2
13
2
23
2
12
A t s
Li
A t s
Li
A x
x x x Y



(

(
|

\
| +
|

\
| +
+
2
1
ln
2
1
ln 2 ln ln
A t s A t s
t s

2
13
2
12
x
x
s = ,
2
13
2
23
x
x
t = , ( ) st t s A 4 1
2
= . (5.12)

Thence, we have that:

( ) =

=
2
3
2
2
2
1
4
2
2
13
2
23
2
12
1 1
, ,
w x w x w x
w d x x x Y

\
| +

\
| +
=
2
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
2 2
2
2
13
A t s
Li
A t s
Li
A x

(
|

\
| +
|

\
| +
+
2
1
ln
2
1
ln 2 ln ln
A t s A t s
t s . (5.12b)

This expression is valid for 1 , < t s with the principle branch of the logarithms and dilogarithms. If
2
12
x
is the largest, then the result is the same function divided by s and the replacement s s / 1 and
s t t / . Likewise when
3
23
x is the largest. In our case, if we take 3 / 2 > , then for 1 z the first
two arguments of Y in (5.10) are less than unity and in that regime Y evaluates to

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+ + + + =

i i i i i
ze e ze z ze Li ze Li
z
i
Y 1 log log 1 log log 1
6 sin
2 2
2
. (5.13)

The integration then gives

( )( )

+
=
1
0
sin 3

dzY . (5.14)

With the prefactor we find the final expression (valid by analytical continuation for all < 0 ) is
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( )
( ) ( )( )

=
sin
cos cos
3
4
,
2
int
V . (5.15)

The first integral in (5.10) can also be done analytically. Again one should take care in choosing
branch cuts for the logarithms, where the principle branch is for small . The result is


( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
|
|

\
|
+

=
3
2
2
2
2
3 2
2
2
3 6
3
sin
cos cos
4 ,

i
e Li i e Li V
i i
lad
. (5.16)

Thence, form (5.10), we have the following expression:


( )
( )
( )
=
|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
+
=

0
2
2
2
log
1
1
log
sin
cos cos
,

i
i
i
i
lad
e z
e z
ze
ze
z
dz
V

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
|
|

\
|
+

=
3
2
2
2
2
3 2
2
3 6
3
sin
cos cos
4

i
e Li i e Li
i i
. (5.16b)





We have the following mathematical connection:


( )
( )
=
+
= =

0 0
0
0
0
2
2
1
6 1
1
1 1
k k
k x
x
x
x
x
k
dx xe dx
e
x
e dx
e
x
e



( )
( )
( )
=
|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
+
=

0
2
2
2
log
1
1
log
sin
cos cos
,

i
i
i
i
lad
e z
e z
ze
ze
z
dz
V

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
|
|

\
|
+

=
3
2
2
2
2
3 2
2
3 6
3
sin
cos cos
4

i
e Li i e Li
i i
. (5.17)






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6. EXAMPLES OF PILLAIS CONJECTURE


We see a table with x and y consecutive numbers with exponents 2 and 3, and then a similar table with
exponents 3 and 4 for Pillai

x^2 y^3 Algebraic
difference
y^3-x^2
Square root of
the difference
Observations
final digits
1, 7, 9 of the
differences
3^2 = 9 2^3=8 1 1 1
4^2=16 3^3=27 11 3,31 1
5^2= 25 4^3= 64 39 6,24 9
6^2=36 5^3=125 89 9,43 9
7^2=49 6^3= 216 167 12,92 7
8^2=64 7^3=343 279 16,70 9
9^2=81 8^3=512 431 20,70 1
10^2=100 9^3=729 629 25,07 9
11^2=121 10^3=1000 879 29,64 9
12^2=144 11^3=1331 1187 34,45 7
13^2=169 12^3=1728 1559 39,48 9
14^2=196 13^3=2197 2001 44,73 1
15^2=225 14^3=2744 2519 50,18 9



As we can see, the successive differences grow more and tend to infinity (their square roots grow
about 4 or 5 at least up to x = 15), and therefore the only possible solution is the first,
with one difference, as Catalan's conjecture. Furthermore, we note that the final digits of the
differences are always 1, 7 and 9, are identified two successive groups of 9, 9, 7, 9, 1 after the pair 1, 7
Initial.
They are absent then the final digits 3 and 5.

The fact that he chose:

x
3
- (x + 1)
2
= k

x
3
- x
2
- 2x -k - 1 = 0

The solutions of this equation gives the values of x, being the divisors of the number (k 1), by the
rule of Ruffini.

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We can observe that the trinomial

x
3
- x
2
- 2x - 1

for any value of x results in an odd integer with the final digit that can only be 1, 7 or 9.
This proves precisely for induction.

Since Pillais conjecture applies to the equation

A + Bb
n
= Cc
k
Cc
k
- Bbn = A
the difference A is an integer odd or even that can also be repeated a finite number of times.

In fact the sequence of the powers perfect is the following.


1, 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 125, 128, 144, 169, 196, 216, 225, 243, 256, 289, 324, 343,
361, 400, 441, 484, 512, 529, 576, 625, 676, 729, 784, 841, 900, 961, 1000, 1024, 1089, 1156, 1225, 1296,
1331, 1369, 1444, 1521, 1600, 1681, 1728, 1764





Examples:

2
5
3
3
= 5

12
2
2
7
= 16




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Now we see the same table for the conjecture Pillai, limited to the exponents 3 and 4 in place of 2 and
3.


x^3 y^4 Algebraic
difference
y^4- x^3
Square root of
the difference
Observations
final digits
1, 3, 7 and 9 of
the differences
3^3 = 27 2^4 = 16 11 3,31 1
4^3=64 3^4=81 17 4,12 7
5^3=125 4^4= 256 131 11,44 1
6^3= 216 5^4=625 409 20,22 9
7^3=343 6^4=1296 953 30,87 3
8^3=512 7^4=2401 1889 43,46 9
9^3= 729 8^4=4096 3367 58,02 7
10^3=1000 9^4=6561 5561 74,57 1
11^3=1331 10^4= 10000 8669 93,10 9
12^3=1728 11^4= 14641 12913 113,63 3
13^3=2197 12^4=20736 18539 136,15 9
14^3=2744 13^4=28561 25817 160,67 7
15^3=3375 14^4=38416 35041 187,19 1



Now, however, we note that the differences are still growing faster than in the table above, and
therefore also their square roots.
Now the differences between the final digits there is also the number 3, but there is a little more order
in the sequences of the final digits: we identify two identical successive groups: 7 1 9 3 9:07 1 9 3 9
after initial sequence 1; but also the third group begins with 7 and 1.

Further calculations with successive powers and their differences (from Pillai's conjecture) show some
interesting regularities, which we quote:


Consecutive powers (for conjecture Pillai)


1, 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 81,100,121,125,128,144, 169,196,216, 225,243, 256, 289, 324,
343, 361, 400, 441, 484, 512, 529, 576, 625, 676, 729, 784, 841, 900, 961, 1000,1024, 1089, 1156,
1225, 1296, 1331, 1369, 1444, 1521, 1600, 1681, 1728, 1764

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consecutive differences

3 Fibonacci
4 =2^2
1 only solution for the catalans conjecture (proved)
7 prime
9 =3^2
2 Fibonacci
5 Fibonacci
4 =2^2
13 Fibonacci
15 =3*5
17 prime
19 prime
21 Fibonacci
4 = 2^2
3 Fibonacci
16 =4^2
25 =5^2
27 =3^3
20 =2*2*5
9 =3^2
18 =2*3*3
33 =3*11
35 =5*7
19 prime
18 =2*3*3
39 =3*13
41 prime
43 prime
28 =2*2*7
17 prime
47 prime
49 = 7^2
51 prime
53 prime
55 Fibonacci
57 =3*19
59 = prime
61 =prime
39 =3*13
24 =2*2*2*3
65 =5*13
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67 prime
69 = 3*23
71 prime
35 =5*7
38 = 2*19
75 = 3*5*5
77 =7*7
79 prime
81 =9^2= 3^4
47 prime
36 =6^2

We note that 4 occurs three times, twice on 3, 9 twice, 7 and 13 once, 6, 8, 10 and 12 zero times.
The odd numbers in blue differ by 2 to groups of two, three or four consecutive numbers, with a group
of eight consecutive odd numbers. After this cycle falls to about half last number in blue (ex. 71/35 =
2.02, 81/47 = 1.7) and after two or three sizes too small recurs again, obviously with consecutive
numbers gradually larger.

They are present Fibonacci numbers (3, 5, 13, 21), square (4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 81 and even a cube
(27). We assume that this trend continues as the semiregular differences growth of consecutive powers,
and could contribute to another definitive proof of Pillai's conjecture, according to which these
differences are repeated in a finite number of times.

This means that the smaller numbers of this estimate will never be more later, and therefore their
presence exists in a finite number of times, just as says the conjecture, so that proves true even if only
by empirical means these numerical evidence, but not analytical.


Conclusions

Remember that Pillai's conjecture states that for any given positive integer A there are only a finite
number of pairs of perfect powers whose difference is A, but from the proof above that we have that
for fixed positive integers A, B, C the equation

Cc
k
- Bb
n
= A

has only finitely many solutions (b,c,n,k) with (n,k) (2,2).
This is equivalent to saying that each positive integer A is valid and occurs only finitely many times
as a difference of perfect powers.

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6.1 PERFECT POWERS LINKED TO PILLAIS CONJECTURE

A sequence of perfect powers can be generated by iterating through the possible values for m and k.
The first few ascending perfect powers in numerical order (showing duplicate powers) are the
following:
2
2
= 4, 2
3
= 8, 3
2
= 9, 2
4
= 16, 4
2
= 16, 5
2
= 25, 3
3
= 27, 2
5
= 32, 6
2
= 36, 7
2
= 49, 2
6
= 64, 4
3
=
64, 8
2
= 64,
The sum of the reciprocals of the perfect powers (including duplicates) is 1:

=
=
2 2
1
1
m k
k
m
.

The first perfect powers without duplicates are:
(sometimes 1), 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 81,100,121,125,128,144, 169,196,216,
225,243, 256, 289, 324, 343, 361, 400, 441, 484, 512, 529, 576, 625, 676, 729, 784, 841, 900,
961, 1000,1024, 1089, 1156, 1225, 1296, 1331, 1369, 1444, 1521, 1600, 1681, 1728, 1764
The sum of the reciprocals of the perfect powers p without duplicates is:
( ) ( ) ( )

=
=
p k
k k
p
2
... 874464365 . 0 1
1

where (k) is the Moebius function function and (k) is the Riemann zeta function.
Instead the sum of 1/(p1) over the set of perfect powers p, excluding 1 and excluding duplicates, is 1:

= + + + + + + + =

p
p
. 1 ...
31
1
26
1
24
1
15
1
8
1
7
1
3
1
1
1


Versione 1.0
22/3/2013
Pagina 48 di 49


This is sometimes known as the Goldbach-Euler theorem.

But what happens if we add the differences of the reciprocals of the perfect powers?

= +

2 1
1
k k k
p p
=
4
1
+ 1 +
7
1
+
9
1
+
2
1
+
5
1
+
4
1
+
13
1
+.=

Since it must appear all natural numbers (with also duplicates) we have a sum a bit more of the series
of the Harmonic series, thats a divergent infinite series.

This proves also that the gaps in the sequence of perfect powers tend to infinity.



Versione 1.0
22/3/2013
Pagina 49 di 49




References all on this web site http://nardelli.xoom.it/virgiliowizard/

1) IL CONCETTO MATEMATICO DI ABBONDANZA E IL RELATIVO
GRAFICO PER LA RH1
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli (Gruppo B. Riemann)


2) NOVITA SULLA CONGETTURA DEBOLE DI GOLDBACH
Gruppo B.Riemann
Francesco Di Noto,Michele Nardelli
3)Appunti sulla congettura abc
Gruppo B. Riemann*
*Gruppo amatoriale per la ricerca matematica sui numeri primi, sulle loro congetture e sulle loro
connessioni con le teorie di stringa
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli

4) I numeri primoriali p# alla base della dimostrazione definitiva della congettura di Goldbach
(nuove evidenze numeriche)
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
5) ESTENSIONI DELLE CONGETTURE,FORTE E DEBOLE, DI GOLDBACH
(a k = primi , con N e k entrambi pari o dispari)
Gruppo B. Riemann*
Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
*Gruppo amatoriale per la ricerca matematica sui numeri primi, sulle loro congetture e sulle loro
connessioni con le teorie di stringa.


6) IPOTESI SULLA VERITA DELLE CONGETTURE SUI NUMERI PRIMI CON
GRAFICI COMET E CONTRO ESEMPI NULLI
(Legendre, Goldbach, Riemann)
Michele Nardelli ,Francesco Di Noto,