COMMUN. SOIL SCI. PLANT ANAL.

, 32(5&6), 617 632 (2001)

RED SOILS OF THRACE (GREECE): PROPERTIES, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRODUCTIVITY

C. Haidouti, T. Karyotis, I. Massas, and A. Haroulis Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855 Athens, Greece Fax: 30 1 5294101

ABSTRACT Soil mapping and classication of the agricultural land in regions of Thrace (Northern Greece) revealed that red soils in this province constitute a signicant portion of the total agricultural land, supporting several land utilization types. The study area is located in the meso-mediterranean bioclimatic zone and the soils moisture regime is xeric. These red soils were developed on Quaternary calcareous deposits and belong to the great groups of Rhodoxeralfs, which are the majority of the studied soils, and Xerorthents. They occur on well-drained sites, mainly on shoulder and backslope geomorphic surfaces, they have been affected by erosion and in some cases the argillic horizons of the Rhodoxeralfs have being exposed at the surface. The depth distributions of iron and manganese oxides indicate that these red soils are probably at a high development stage. The signicant correlation of free iron oxides (Fed) to redness rating (RR) and the pedogenetic environment, that favors the formation and stability of hematite, leads to the assumption that in the studied red soils hematite is the predominant iron oxide responsible for soils red coloration. Field observations and
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laboratory analyses suggested that red soils of Thrace are of low to medium productivity and erosion control, soil water conservation, minimum tillage, preservation of organic matter and the use of non-acidifying fertilizers should be practiced to improve their productivity.

INTRODUCTION Although red soils, for several decades commonly referred to as Terra Rossa, form an essential part of the Mediterranean landscape, their origin and development is still a matter of controversy. In general, they overlie on hard crystalline limestone and some authors believe that they have been developed on the insoluble constituents of limestone (1, 2). Others, however, believe that the soils cannot have been derived entirely from the weathering of limestone and have proposed origins as diverse as volcanic ash, iron-rich marine sediments and eolian deposits for their parent material (3). Several authors have attributed the red color of the soil to hematite (4, 5, 6, 7, 8). While the role of hematite in the soil as a red pigmentation substance seems to be well established, the pedogenetic environment that leads to the preferential formation and maintenance of the red coloring in the soils is still under debate. However, Boero and Schwertmann (8) suggested that the specic pedoenvironment in which Terra Rossas formed is characterized by an association of mediterranean climate and high internal drainage, which prevails under the karstic conditions created by hard limestone and neutral pH. Red soils in Greece are distributed throughout the country and frequently occur in the southern and eastern provinces. They are widespread on the Tertiary deposits on hilly areas, as well as Pleistocene materials on the lowlands. They are also found on hard limestone or marble on mountainous or hilly, sloping landscapes. They occur on a variety of geomorphic surfaces, but always on well drained sites. These soils support several land utilization types that depend on soil depth, degree of erosion, erodibility risk, and geomorphic surface. In soils derived from hard limestone the main land utilization type is extensive grazing and a large portion of these soils is at the terminal stage of soil erosion. In the vast majority of red soils found on slightly sloping or at landscapes, the land utilization types consist mainly of irrigated and intensively cultivated farms. Generaly, the natural fertility of these soils is medium to low. The objective of this paper is to study the red soils of Thrace and particularly their morphological, physical and chemical properties, and the degree of soil development, as well as to estimate factors limiting soil productivity. Soils considered in this study as red colored are those with Munsell hues redder than 5YR (9).

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Study Area In the province of Thrace (latitude limits: 22 West, 24 East, 42 North, 40 South) the soils of 130,000 hectares of agricultural land were classied according to the Keys of Soil Taxonomy System (10) and a soil map was produced (11). According to Soil Taxonomy, Alsols, Inceptisols and Entisols were the dominant soil orders in this district. Red soils of Thrace have developed on Quaternary calcareous deposits, they cover quite large areas and are classied as Rhodoxeralfs, which are the majority of the studied red soils and Xerorthents. Due to their adverse characteristics these soils are of low to medium productivity and are cultivated mainly with wheat, oats and olive trees. According to data provided by the Greek Meteorological Service the mean annual precipitation is 650 mm, the mean air temperature is 14.8 C and the mean relative humidity is 66%. As it is illustrated in Figure 1 from the mid-June to the mid September the rainfall is too low, the air temperature is high and the water available for plant growth (soil moisture rainfall) is less than potential evapotranspiration. So, for the normal growth of cultivated plants additional water should be provided through irrigation systems. The climate of the region is characterized as Mesomediterranean (12) and the soil moisture regime as xeric (10), which is typical for the soils under Mediterranean climate.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Both eld and laboratory studies were conducted for soil characterization. Seven pedons representative of the red soils of the area (numbered P1 P7) were described and sampled using standard soil survey procedures (10). According to the Keys of Soil Taxonomy System (10), ve of these pedons were classied as Rhodoxeralfs and two as Xerorthents. The laboratory analyses conducted on the ne earth (2 mm) were: mechanical analysis by the hydrometer method (13); carbonates determination by HCl dissolution and the measurement of evolved CO2; pH measurement at a 1 : 1 soil-water ratio; determination of the organic carbon content by the Walkley-Black wet digestion method (14); cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations determined by the sodium acetate method (14). Iron and manganese oxides were extracted by citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) (15) and by ammonium oxalate techniques (16) and determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (Varian SpectrAA-300). The notations Fed and Mnd refer to iron and manganese extracted by the CBD method and the notation Feo refer to iron extracted by ammonium

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Figure 1. Ombro-thermic diagram. When P2T there is adequate moisture for plant growth and when P2T moisture decit occurs. Ombro-thermic diagram was created of the mean monthly precipitation and temperature values representing the period of the year when the moisture decit occurs in the study region (marked area). Data provided by the Greek Meteorological Service for the period 1955 1993.

oxalate. The soil available iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were estimated by DTPA extraction and their concentrations in the extracted solutions were determined by A.A.S. (17). Total nitrogen was determined by a Kjedahl procedure. Depending on soil acidity, Olsen and Bray I methods were used to estimate available phosphorus (17). All soil samples were treated in triplicate. Reagent blanks were also prepared by carrying out the extraction procedures but in the absence of the samples. The soils were given a redness rating (RR) for their red color according to the following expression (18): RR (H x C )/V, where C and V are the numerical values of the Munsell chroma and value, respectively. The numerical values of H were: 7.5 for 2.5YR; 5 for 5YR; 2.5 for 7.5YR and 0 for 10YR.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Morphological and Physical Properties Based on eld observations red soils of Thrace are located mainly on shoulder and backslope geomorphic surfaces, they have been eroded and in some cases the argillic horizons of Rhodoxerals have being exposed on the surface. In most cases these soils are deep, with the exception of the very shallow soil unit represented by prole P7. The occurence of gravels throughout the soil prole, which constitute about 5% of the soil volume, contribute to satisfactory drainage conditions. Soil prole P3 is representative of an area where polygenetic Alsols have developed. The polygenetic sequa of soil proles found on deep red deposits indicate that erosion and transportation was interrupted and long periods of undisturbed conditions allowed the formation of argillic horizons in these prole sequa. The preservation of red color in the deep deposits indicates that conditions favouring the stability of hematite have prevailed for a long time in the respective sites. The studied soils are medium to ne textured (soil texture ranges from ne sandy/loam to clay) and they have developed strong angular or subangular blocky or prismatic structure in the argillic horizons (Table 1). The horizon boundaries are usually clear or gradual and in some cases a calcic horizon was developed within a depth of 60 65 cm from the soil surface (Table 1).

Chemical Properties Land Productivity The majority of the studied soils were acid to neutral and the pH remained rather constant or slightly increased with depth. Organic carbon content was very low, rarely exceeded 1%, and decreased with depth. The low organic carbon content is a common characteristic of cultivated soils in Greece. The C /N ratio mean value for the surface horizons was about 11 and decreased to about 7 in the subsurface horizons (Table 2). Base saturation ranged from 44 to 100% and Ca 2 and Mg 2 were the main exchangeable cations saturating 34 and 27% of the CEC, respectively. There was a denite trend in all soil proles for Ca 2 and Mg 2 to increase with depth, probably due to leaching from the upper part of the proles. Exchangeable K, as an index of soil available K for plant uptake, in most cases was low (19). Although exchangeable K is present in sufcient amounts in most Greek soils, the results suggest that red soils of Thrace are the exception of this rule and measures for improving K status in these soils should be implemented. Finally, Na was present

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Table 1. Morphological and Physical Properties of the Studied Soils Landscape Position Horizon Texture Structure Shoulder Depth (cm) Clay % Color (Moist) Horizons CaCO3 Limit** Equiv.***

Prole*/ Land Use

P1

Wheat Backslope

Ap Bt2 BC C

0 18 18 49 49 68 68 120

SCL SCL SCL SCL

21 26 31 25

1msbk 3msbk 1msbk 1msbk

5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 5 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6

A C G

P2

Oat

Ap Bt1 Bt2 BC 2Bt1 2Bt2

0 25 25 49 49 69 69 92 92 145 145 165

L SCL CL SCL CL C

22 25 27 23 35 44

massive 2msbk 2msbk 1msbk 3mabk 3mpr

2.5YR 5 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 5 / 6 2.5YR 3 / 6

A C C G D C G

P3

Backslope

HAIDOUTI ET AL.

Olive trees

Ap Bt BC

0 18 18 45 45 80

L L L

16 17 13

1msbk 2msbk 1msbk

2.5YR 3 / 4 2.5YR 4 / 6 5YR 4 / 6

P4 E EV

Shoulder

Wheat Backslope C G A G C

Ap Bt2 BC Ck1

0 18 18 42 42 64 64 130

SCL C SC CL

21 46 35 27

3msbk 3mabk 2msbk massive

2.5YR 3 / 4 2.5YR 3 / 4 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 5 / 6

G G G

P5

Wheat Backslope

Ap Bt BC

0 18 18 43 43 82

SCL CL CL

21 33 34

1msbk 3msbk 1msbk

5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6

P6

Oat Shoulder Ap C 0 18 18 42 SC SCL 37 23 2msbk massive

RED SOILS OF THRACE, GREECE

Ap AC C

0 30 30 80 80 150

SL SCL SCL

17 27 27

massive 3msbk 3msbk

5YR 4 / 4 2.5YR 3 / 4 2.5YR 5 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6 2.5YR 4 / 6

P7 Wheat

* Rhodoxeralfs: P1, P2, P3, P4, P5; Xerorthents: P6, P7. ** A: Abrupt; C: Clear; D: Diffused; G: Gradual. *** E: 1 4% CaCO3 equiv.; EV: 8% CaCO3 equiv.

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Table 2. Chemical Properties of the Studied Soils Depth (cm) 0 18 18 49 49 68 68 120 0 25 25 49 49 69 69 92 92 145 145 165 0 18 18 45 45 80 16.8 19.2 17.2 1.50 0.70 0.90 89 36 52 15.3 18.5 16.3 26.0 28.8 29.8 27.6 31.1 35.5 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 1.60 1.70 46 49 54 65 51 48 24.8 27.4 28.2 25.8 29.5 33.8 1.22 0.92 1.05 1.11 1.35 1.33 1.46 0.84 1.07 11.3 24.9 18.4 18.1 0.60 1.00 0.90 1.30 53 40 49 72 10.7 23.9 17.5 16.8 0.73 0.35 0.25 0.43 6.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 4.7 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.3 3.8 8.7 4.4 6.2 Fed mg/g Feo mg/g Feo/Fed Fed-Feo X100 mg/g Mnd mg/g Mnd/Fed x10 Fed/Sand 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.17 0.03 0.04 0.04 O.C. % 0.52 0.45 0.27 0.10 0.60 0.23 0.17 0.12 0.23 0.17 1.54 0.12 0.04 C /N 12.4 7.0 N.D.# N.D. 11.1 7.9 N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. 9.5 7.1 N.D. pH 1:1 6.3 6.2 6.5 6.5 5.3 5.6 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.2 6.8 5.7 6.6

Prole*

Horizon

P1

Ap Bt2 BC C

P2

Ap Bt1 Bt2 BC 2Bt1 2Bt2

HAIDOUTI ET AL.

P3

Ap Bt BC

P4

Ap Bt2 BC Ck1 0 18 18 43 43 82 0 30 30 80 80 150 0 18 18 42 29.3 14.8 0.90 0.40 31 27 28.4 14.4 0.12 0.07 0.4 0.5 0.06 0.02 14.1 26.1 23.6 1.90 2.40 2.40 135 92 102 12.2 23.7 21.2 0.60 0.97 0.95 4.3 3.7 4.0 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.72 0.23 0.14 0.58 0.28 9.5 22.1 26.8 2.20 1.70 1.50 232 77 56 7.3 20.4 25.3 1.15 1.09 1.10 1.2 4.9 4.1 0.02 0.06 0.08 1.32 0.18 0.08 8.9 5.6 N.D. 11.4 6.6 N.D. 12.1 8.5

0 18 18 42 42 64 64 130

26.7 28.4 30.1 15.4

1.90 2.90 0.90 0.40

71 102 30 26

24.8 25.5 29.2 15.0

0.56 0.44 0.65 0.41

2.1 1.6 2.2 2.7

0.04 0.07 0.06 0.06

0.95 0.37 0.20 0.27

12.8 6.7 N.D. N.D.

5.7 6.7 7.1 7.6 6.4 6.0 6.8 6.8 6.4 6.5 5.4 5.0

P5

Ap Bt BC

P6

Ap AC C

RED SOILS OF THRACE, GREECE

P7

Ap C

* Rhodoxeralfs: P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6; Xerorthents: P6, P7. # N.D.: Not determined. Fed: Iron extracted by the CBD method. Mnd: Manganese extracted by the CBD method. Feo: Iron extracted by ammonium oxalate. O.C.: Organic carbon.

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Table 3. Chemical Properties of the Studied Soils Depth (cm) 0 18 18 49 49 68 68 120 0 25 25 49 49 69 69 92 92 145 145 165 0 18 18 45 45 80 23.9 20.2 20.8 5.2 4.1 4.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 21.8 30.7 31.8 30.9 35.7 39.9 2.3 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.7 4.6 1.9 3.8 4.2 3.9 5.1 6.2 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 16.4 10.1 6.1 8.2 6.7 4.1 4.0 4.8 3.8 12.3 33.6 25.9 21.6 2.0 3.8 3.2 2.9 1.1 6.3 5.2 4.8 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.4 2.1 4.2 4.4 4.9 CEC cmol/kg Ca cmol/kg Mg cmol/kg K cmol/kg Fe mg/kg Mn mg/kg 9.6 8.4 4.9 10.1 52.5 17.7 17.8 16.3 16.6 9.1 12.1 7.7 8.8 Cu mg/kg 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 Zn mg/kg 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 P mg/kg 26.0 26.6 20.1 13.4 3.6 5.1 1.5 0.9 0.9 1.1 6.8 1.9 2.6

Prole*

Horizon

P1

Ap Bt2 BC C

P2

Ap Bt1 Bt2 BC 2Bt1 2Bt2

HAIDOUTI ET AL.

P3

Ap Bt BC

P4

Ap Bt2 BC Ck1 0 18 18 43 43 82 0 30 30 80 80 150 0 18 18 42 27.0 18.4 4.1 3.4 2.7 1.8 0.4 0.2 4.3 3.9 3.0 0.5 13.4 20.5 22.2 3.0 3.4 3.7 0.8 1.7 2.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 9.2 4.5 3.5 9.2 7.6 4.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 19.3 27.0 29.9 3.7 4.5 5.4 3.0 4.2 5.3 1.2 0.6 0.6 12.0 4.9 2.7 20.0 17.0 7.2 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3

0 18 18 42 42 64 64 130

26.4 38.9 33.2 27.8

4.8 8.5 11.5 10.5

3.2 3.4 4.1 7.1

0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1

7.6 4.1 3.8 1.5

23.8 2.7 2.3 1.3

1.0 0.5 0.5 0.2

0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1

10.6 1.6 1.6 2.5 10.9 2.2 2.6 24.0 4.7 5.6 1.6 1.4

P5

Ap Bt BC

P6

Ap AC C

RED SOILS OF THRACE, GREECE

P7

Ap C

* Rhodoxeralfs: P1, P2, P3, P4, P5; Xerorthents: P6, P7. CEC: Cation exchange capacity. Ca, Mg, K: Exchangeable. Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn: Extracted by DTPA. P: Available phosphorus.

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HAIDOUTI ET AL.

only in negligible amounts (much lower than 15% of CEC). Cation exchange capacity values in most soils were medium to high due mainly to texture and fertilizers could be utilized sufciently when applied to the studied soils (Table 3). Micronutrients extracted with DTPA were found in most cases in concentrations less than the sufciency level for crop production (19, 20) (Table 3). For the studied soils the deciency of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn could be attributed to parent material heredity and pH as well. In order to improve land productivity and consequently to obtain satisfactory yields, proper micronutrient application should be recommended. Available phosphorus (P) extracted from the Ap horizons of pedons P1 and P6 was considered as sufcient to support the growth of most arable plants and from the pedons P4 and P5 as marginal (21). However, the sharp decline in P concentrations in the underlying horizons, with the exception of prole P1, indicated that increased concentration of available P in the Ap horizons of these pedons was the result of fertilizer application. In proles P2, P3 and P7 phosphorus concentration was too low (21) and hence proper application of P fertilizer must be suggested.

Iron and Manganese Oxides The elements Fe and Mn are greatly affected by the processes of soil prole genesis and interpretations of free iron (Fe 3 ) percentages frequently have been used as aids in determining relative ages of soils that were developed on the same parent material (22, 23, 24, 25). As is reported by White and Dixon (26), Mn oxides are important because they are among the rst crystalline phases to form during weathering. Feo, Fed, and Fed-Feo values and the ratio Feo/Fed (Table 3) indicated that the red soils of the study area exhibit a similar degree of development and/or are of the same age. The Feo values (iron extracted from poorly crystalline oxides) obtained for both soil types were considered as low. CBD extracted iron, considered to be a measure of total pedogenetic Fe (27), had much higher values. Thus the active ratio (Feo/Fed) was less than 0.14 for all horizons with the exception of prole P4 Ap horizon. These ndings are in good agreement with Torrent et al. (18) who found that for red soils of Spain, irrespective of parent material and environment, the active ratio has values less than 0.15. Arduino et al. (24), used the term active iron for the oxalate extracted Fe (Feo) and proposed that changes in forms of iron continue as soils became older with Fe progressively going into less active forms (Fed-Feo). Thus, both Fed-Feo and Feo/Fed values suggested that Rhodoxeralfs and

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629

Xerorthents in the study area were at about the same stage of development, but local microtopography and human intervention (different cultivation practices, extensive grazing) have resulted in the formation of two different red soil types. No denite trend was observed between the Feo percentage and the amount of organic matter. Similar data were reported by Mirabella and Carnicelly (28). According to Torrent et al. (18), in the dry and warm soils of the xeric moisture regime in the Mediterranean region, organic matter is rapidly decomposed and therefore Fe released from silicates is not organically complexed but is precipitated as ferrihydrite. RR was well correlated to Fed-Feo values (r0.66, P0.001), suggesting that red coloration increased with the crystallinity of iron oxides. According to that hematite is responsible for the red color of the soils, it can be assumed that in the studied red soils crystalline iron oxides are present mainly in the form of hematite. As it is supported by Schwertmann and Taylor (7), the formation and stability of hematite depend on a) the presence of parent materials containing iron, b) xeric soil moisture and thermic soil temperature regimes, c) low organic matter content, and d) pH between 7 and 8. Most of these prerequisites apply for the studied red soils, supporting the hypothesis that hematite is the prevailing iron oxide. The similarity between the depth distribution patterns of the free iron oxides and those of clay, conrmed by a signicant correlation (r0.67, P0.001), indicates that the iron oxides have participated rather passively in the general movement of colloids into the B horizons (22). Examination of the Fed/sand values (Table 2) conrms the movement of iron oxides (since sand is weathered to a fairly uniform suite of resistant minerals in all horizons) (29). There is no denite trend of Mnd distribution with depth (Table 2), but it seems that this was rather constant or Mnd values slightly decrease in some argillic horizons. McCahon and Munn (30) stated that increasing Mnd in the B horizons characterizes less developed soils. According to this our result support that the red soils of Thrace are soils with a comparatively high degree of development. McDaniel and Buol (31) used the amount of Mnd relative to Fed within soils, as an indicator to relative Eh-pH gradients as inferred from morphological evidence of reduction and pH measurements. They concluded that in well-drained soils with increasing pH values with depth, the Mnd/Fed ratios increase in the B/C or Cr (saprolite) horizons. The studied soils are well drained, being similar to the soils of the above reference in morphological evidence of reduction, and their pH remains rather constant or slightly increases with depth. For these soils Mnd/ Fed values are higher in the surface horizons and remain rather constant throughout the rest of the soil proles (Table 2). This result is in agreement with Khan and Fenton (32), who reported that Mnd/Fed depth distributions in well-drained soils are nearly constant.

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CONCLUSIONS The red soils of Thrace region were developed on Quaternary calcareous deposits and consist mainly of materials eroded and transported from the near-by limestone slopes. Their red color has likely inherited from their parent materials and its preservation in the deep deposits indicates that conditions favouring the stability of hematite have prevailed for a long time at the respective sites. The studied red soils were classied as Rhodoxeralfs and Xerorthents and appear to be at a relatively high development stage, or possibly they are of a fairly old age, as it is indicated by the depth distributions of iron and manganese oxides. They are widespread throughout the study area and occur on well-drained sites, also conrmed by the prole distribution of the Mnd/Fed ratio. These soils have been eroded and in some Rhodoxeralfs the argillic horizons have been exposed to the surface. In such cases the erodibility of the exposed materials is rather low due to their medium to ne texture and their strong angular or subangular blocky structure. The main limitation factors regarding soil productivity are: The summer drought; the low to moderate erosion risk; the strong structured argillic horizons of Rhodoxeralfs that are exposed on the surface; the presence of a calcic horizon in some soils, with an upper limit in the rst 60 65 cm from the soil surface; the low concentrations of plant available Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn; the low organic mater content; the moderate to low available phosphorus concentrations; and the low exchangeable potassium content.

REFERENCES Cointepas, J.P. Les Sols Rouges et Bruns Mediterraneens de Tunisie. Transactions Conference Mediterranean Soils: Madrid, Spain, 1966; 187194. 2. Gal, M. 1967. Clay Mineralogy in the Study of the Genesis of Terra Rossa and Rendzina Soil Originating from Calcareous Rocks. Proc. Int. Clay Conf. (Jerusalem, Israel) 1966, 1, 199 207. 3. Kubiena, W.L. Micromorphological Features of Soil Geography; Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ, 1971. 4. Torrent, J.; Schwertmann, U.; Fechter, H.; Alferez, F. Quantitative Relationships Between Soil Color and Hematite Content. Soil Sci. 1983, 136, 354 358. 5. Torrent, J.; Schwertmann, U. Inunce of Hematite on the Color of Red Beds. J. Sediment. Petrol. 1987, 57, 682 686. 6. Boero, V.; Schwertmann, U. Occurrence and Transformations of Iron and 1.

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22.

Manganese in a Colluvial Terra Rossa Toposequence of Northern Italy. Catena 1987, 14, 519 531. Schwertmann, U.; Taylor, R.M. Iron Oxides. In Minerals in Soil Environments, 2nd Ed.; Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B., Eds.; Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI, 1989; 379 438. Boero, V.; Schwertmann, U. Iron Oxide Mineralogy of Terra Rossa and Its Genetic Implications. Geoderma 1989, 44, 319 327. Munsell Color Company. Munsell Soil Color Charts. Munsell Color Company, Inc.: Balimore, MD, 1954. Soil Survey Staff. Keys of Soil Taxonomy, 7th Ed.; USDA, Washington, DC, 1996. Haidouti, C.; Haroulis, A.; Karyotis, T.; Massas, I. Soil Map of the Agricultural Land of Thrace Province; Agricultural University of Athens: Greece, 1994. UNESCO/FAO. Bioclimatic Map of the Mediterranean Zone: Explanatory Notes, Arid Zone Research XXI; FAO, Rome, Italy, 1963; 58 pp. Bouyoucos, G.H. A Recalibration of the Hydrometer Method for Making Mechanical Analysis of Soils. Agron. J. 1951, 43, 434 438. Black, C.A. (Ed.). Methods of Soils Analysis. American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, 1965. Mehra, O.P.; Jackson, M.L. Iron Oxide Removal from Soils and Clays by a Dithionate-Citrate System Buffered with Sodium Bicarbonate. In Proceedings of the 7th National Conference on Clays and Clay Minerals; Pergamon Press: New York, NY, 1960; 317 327. Schwertmann, U. Differenzierung der Eisenoxide des Bodens Durch Extraktion mit Ammoniumoxalat-Losung. Z. Panzenernaehr., Dueng., Bodenkd. 1964, 105, 194 202. Page, A.L. (Ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis, 2nd Ed.; American Society of Agronomy; Madison, WI, 1982; Part 2. Torrent, J.; Schwertmann, U.; Schulze, D.G. Iron Oxide Mineralogy of Some Soils of Two River Terrace Sequences in Spain. Geoderma 1980, 23, 191 208. Mengel, K.; Kirkby, E. Principles of Plant Nutrition, 2nd Ed.; International Potash Institute: Bern, Switzerland, 1979. Martens, D.C.; Lindsay, W.L. Testing Soils for Copper, Iron, Manganese and Zinc. In Soil Testing and Plant Analysis, 3rd Ed.; Westerman, R.L.; Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI, 1990; 229 260. Olsen, L.R.; Sommers, L.E. Phosphorus. In Methods of Soil Analysis, 2nd Ed.; Page, A.L., Ed.; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, 1982; Part 2, 403 427. Blume, H.P.; Schwertmann, U. Genetic Evaluation of Prole Distribution of

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23. 24.

25.

26. 27.

28.

29.

30. 31. 32.

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