Climate Change and Environmental Security in the Asia-Pacific Region

J.ScottHauger,Ph.D. Introduction: Climate Change and Environmental Security in the Asia-Pacific Region Increasinglyoverthelastfiveyears,nationalandinternationalsecurityorganizationsinthe Asia-Pacificregionarerecognizingglobalwarmingasapotentialthreattoenvironmentalsecurity andthusasachallengetonationalandregionalsecurity.Someislandnations,includingthe Maldives1 andKiribati,2 haveconcludedthatclimatechangeposesanexistentialthreat,asrising sealevelscouldsubmergetheirlow-lyingislands.Somelargernations,includingAustralia3 and the U.S.,4 are incorporating issues of climate change in their strategic defense planning in anticipationofahigherrateofhumanitarianassistanceanddisasterreliefmissions.Theirconcerns centeronforecastsofagrowingincidenceandseverityofclimate-relatednaturaldisasterssuchas flooding,tropicalcyclonesanddrought,andtheconsequentimpactsonfood,freshwaterand infrastructure.Suchevents,togetherwiththeirpotentialimpactsonhumandiseaseandmigration, couldposesignificantstressesonvulnerablenationswithlimitedabilitiesandresourcestorespond toenvironmentalstrains. Thelikelihoodofsucheventsisuncertain.Overthenext20years(2010-2030),best-caseand worst-casescenariosbasedonprojectedlevelsofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsdonotdiverge greatly.Currentprojections,extrapolatedfromhistoricalobservations,suggestariseinaverage globaltemperatureofabout1degreeC(2degreesF)by20305 andariseinsealevelofabout6cm (about2.5in).6 Becauseofthecomplexityoftheclimatesystem,however,scientistscannot unambiguouslyorpreciselyassociatethesephenomenawithfutureenvironmentalimpactsand their human consequences.  Moreover, linear extrapolations may not fully account for these phenomenaastheywillbeexperienced.Nonetheless,thereisbroadscientificagreementonthe generaltrend:theextraenergyinputtotheEarthsclimatesystemasaresultofglobalwarmingis resultinginmoreextremeweatherevents,andtheimpactwillincreaseovertime.Becausethe EarthsatmosphereactsasareservoirforGHGs,therewillbeasubstantiallagtimebetween effectivemitigationandanycoolingeffectattheEarthssurface,sothatpresenttrendsandtheir securityimplicationswillcontinueoverthenext20yearsandmore. Longer-termimpactsofclimatechangearedifficulttopredict,andwilldependinpartonthe results of international cooperation to reduce GHG emissions in the interim.7 The IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)workinggrouponimpacts,adaptationand vulnerabilityidentifiessomespecificthreatstotheAsia-Pacificregion.Theseincludeincreased floodinganddecliningoverallwaterresourcesinAsianrivers,coastalandriverfloodinginheavilypopulatedmega-deltaareas,andreducedfoodproductionincentralandsouthAsia.Watersecurity problemswillincreaseinsouthernandeasternAustralia,whilesealevelrisewillthreatensmall T h e I n T e r fa c e
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islandsinthePacificandIndianOceans.8 Theworkinggroupreportconcludesthatadaptation willbenecessarytoaddressimpactsresultingfromthewarmingwhichisalreadyunavoidabledue topastemissions.Theyfurtherstatethat,althoughmanyoptionsforadaptationareavailable, moreextensiveadaptationthaniscurrentlyoccurringisrequiredtoreducevulnerabilitytofuture climatechange.Existingbarriers,limitsandcostsarenotfullyunderstoodbecausetheydepend onspecific,geographicalandclimateriskfactorsaswellasparticularinstitutional,politicaland financialconstraints.9 Climate Science, Environmental Science and the Security Sector Climateandenvironmentalscientistsaresoundingaclearalarm:climatechangeislikelyto posetransnationalthreatstothesecurityofnationsintheAsia-Pacificregionandworldwide. Leadersandsecurityorganizationsacrosstheregionareconsideringandplanningtoaddressthose threatswithastrategicblendofpolicyinitiatives.Theseincludemitigation toreducethescaleof warming,adaptation tocopewiththeunavoidableimpactsofachangingenvironment,andcapacitybuilding forresponsetocrisesthatmayoccur. Mitigationislargelytheconcernoftheindustrial,energy,andtransportationsectors.Itisthe subjectofhigh-profileinternationalnegotiationstoreduceGHGemissionsandthecarbonloadin the atmosphere.  Security organizations with a large carbon footprint can contribute to GHG mitigation.Forexample,theU.S.DepartmentofDefensehassetagoalof34percentreductionin facilitiesemissionsbetween2008and2020.10 Likeothersectors,thesecuritysectorwillhavetoadapttoemergingclimatetrends.Changes inpolarice,forinstance,willlikelyimpactnavaloperations.Risingsealevelsmayposechallenges to coastal area facilities.  New patterns of rainfall, flooding, or desertification may impact agriculturalsystemsandcouldresultinlong-termdemographicchangesinsomeAsia-Pacific nations.TheIPCCSynthesis Report findsthatasaresultofclimatechange,freshwateravailability inAsiawilldecreaseinlargeriverbasins,whileheavilypopulated,coastalmega-deltaregions willbeatriskfromflooding.Atthesametime,climatechangewillcompoundthepressures onnaturalresourcesandtheenvironmentassociatedwithrapidurbanization,industrialisationand economicdevelopment.11 Thesephenomenawillchallengegovernmentsintheregionandrequire a whole-of-government approach.  As the U.S. Quadrennial Defense Review Report put it, climatechangewillshapetheoperatingenvironment,rolesandmissionsthatweundertake.12 Itisanassessmentthatappliestosecurityorganizationsacrosstheregion. Securityorganizationstypicallyhavemajorresponsibilitiesinrespondingtothekindsofnatural disastersandhumanitariancrisesthatclimatechangeisexpectedtoexacerbate.Insomecountries, themilitaryistheonlyinstitutionwiththecapacitytorespondtoamajordisaster.Humanitarian assistanceanddisasterrelief(HA/DR)operationsareasignificantpartofthedefensemissionof

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Asia-PacificnationsincludingtheU.S.,China,Australia,JapanandtheRepublicofKorea.An importantrationaleforsuchoperationsistheircontributiontosecurityandstabilityintheaffected regions.Intheabsenceofeffectiveplanningandactiontoprovideassistancetonationsaffected bythedirectimpactsofclimatechange,itissecurityorganizationsthatwillhavetheresponsibility forcopingwiththepotentialsocial,economicandpoliticalconsequencesoftheseeventstoinclude internalorexternalmigrationofclimaterefugees,disputesoveraccesstowaterresources,rising foodprices,orpoliticalinstabilityinnationswithinadequateresourcestoaddresstheadditional stressesimposedbyclimatechange. Meetingthechallengesofclimatechangeandsecurityinthe21st centurywillrequireleaders andprofessionalsinthesecuritysectortoworktogetherwithclimatescientists,environmental scientistsandengineerstodevelopahighlevelofunderstandingofclimatechangeanditsimpacts overtime.Policymakersmustbeabletoposetherightquestionstoresearchersandmakegood decisionsaboutresearchfunding.Thescienceandtechnology(S&T)communitymustlearnto communicatetheirfindingstopolicymakersinawaytheycanunderstandandactupon.Inthe Asia-Pacificregionhowever,networkingandknowledgetransferbetweentheS&Tandsecurity sectorsarestillintheirearlystagesofdevelopment,especiallyregardinglocalknowledgethatcan supportsecuritysectorplanningforadaptationandresponsetoclimatechange. Collaboration Between the S&T and Security Sectors: Global Issues Researchisproblem-driven.Issuesofclimatechange,itsenvironmentalimpactsandtheir societalimpactspresentahighlycomplexandmultidisciplinarysetofproblemsthatdependin manywaysontheneeds,themissionsandtheperspectivesofthosewhoarticulatetheproblem.A simplifiedschematichierarchyofproblemsispresentedinfigure1(p.58).Thehierarchyof researchquestionsprovidesaconceptualframeworkforunderstandingthewaysinwhichdifferent knowledgecommunitiesapproachtheproblemsofclimatechange.Italsoprovidespolicypoints ofdepartureintermsofwherethosedifferentcommunitiesmustinteracttoframequestionsandto shareknowledgeacrossprofessionalboundaries. Scientificcommunitiestypicallyaskthehigherlevelquestionsinfigure1andmaybeassociated withtheconceptoffundamentalorbasicresearch.Animportantstimulustoclimatechange research,forexample,wastheworkofachemist,Dr.DavidKeeling,whodevelopedadevicethat couldaccuratelymeasuretheatmosphericcontentofcarbondioxideand,in1957,installeditatan observatoryontopofMaunaLoainHawaii.Theresultingdata,releasedin1984,showedthat atmosphericcarbonwasincreasingovertime,andalertedthescientificworldtothethreatofglobal warming.13,14

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Figure 1. A Hierarchy of Climate Change-Related Research Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. WhatishappeningtotheEarthsclimateandwhy? Whatislikelytohappentotheclimateinthefuture? Whatwillclimaticchangesmeanfortheenvironment(biosphere)? Howwillenvironmentalimpactsaffectthehumanenvironmentorsocialorder? Whatcanwedotomitigateoradapttothoseenvironmentalimpacts? Whatdosecurityorganizationsneedtoknowtopreparetoadaptandrespondto thosechanges?

GlobalcollaborationacrossS&Tcommunities,withtheintentionofinformingpolicymaking, wasinstitutionalizedfouryearslaterin1988,whentheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram (UNEP)andtheWorldMeteorologicalOrganizationestablishedtheIPCC.Since1990,IPCChas issuedfourreportsthatsynthesizetheresultsofglobalresearchrelatedtothephysicalscience aspectsoftheclimatesystem(WorkingGroupIorWGI),thelikelyimpactsofclimatechangeon naturalandsocio-economicsystems(WGII),andthetechnologicaloptionsformitigatingclimate change(WGIII).Earlyreportsfocusedonestablishingtheexistenceandcausesofclimatechange, andestablishingtheneedforbetterdatatoaddressitsimpacts.Thethirdreport(2001)provideda lengthierconsiderationoffutureclimatescenariosasclimatemodelsimproved.Thefourthreport (2007)continuedthistrendandprovidedmoresubstantialconsiderationoffutureimpactsofclimate changeontheenvironment. IPCCwasawardedashareoftheNobelPeacePrizein2007afterthereleaseofitsfourthreport. Thefifthreportisscheduledforreleasein2013-2014.Scientistsfrom22Asia-Pacificnationsare namedasleadauthorsandrevieweditorsofthisupcomingreport,withmajorrepresentationfrom China,India,Australia,Japan,Canada,theU.S.andtheRussianFederation.Allthreeinitial meetingsoftheglobalworkinggroupswillbeheldinAsiaChina,JapanandtheRepublicof Korea.15 Inthecaseofclimatechange,sciencehasbeenthespurtopolicy.ThefirstIPCCreportin 1990 led to the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)in1992.Althoughtheconventionthattookeffectin1994addressedthemitigationof, andadaptationto,climatechange,itsactivitieswerelargelycenteredonissuesofmitigation.This emphasiswascontinuedinthe1997KyotoProtocolthatwasbasedonthesecondIPCCreport issuedin1995.Thethirdreport,in2001,informedtheseventhConferenceoftheParties(tothe UNFCC)inMarrakesh,whichsupportedtheworlds49leastdevelopedcountriesinthepreparation ofaNationalAdaptationProgrammeofAction(NAPA).16 Between2005and2011,13eligible Asia-PacificnationscompletedNAPAs,withonestillinprogress.17 Thefourthreport,withits increasingemphasisontheinevitabilityofglobalwarmingandgreaterconfidenceinprojectingits impactsonthehumanenvironment,influencedthe2009Copenhagenmeeting.Whilefailingto establishamitigationtreaty,themeetingnonethelessagreedtodevelopanadaptationframework. 58 T h e I n T e r fa c e
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The2010meetingsawtheadoptionbythepartiesoftheCancunAdaptationFrameworkandtheir commitmenttoestablishaUNFCCCAdaptationCommitteetohelpdevelopingcountriesformulate theirnationaladaptationstrategiesandgainaccesstofundsfortheirimplementation,workthat wasadvancedatthe2011meetinginDurban,SouthAfrica,throughtheestablishmentofaGreen ClimateFund. Thelast20years,then,haveseenthedevelopmentofglobal-levelinstitutionsforthesynthesis andreportingofclimateandenvironmentalresearchinsupportofpolicymakingfirstwithregards tounderstandingthephenomenonofglobalwarmingandthentomitigatingtheproblemthrough thereductionorcaptureofgreenhousegases.Morerecently,thescopeofinteresthasbroadened toincludeissuesofadaptationtothephenomenonofglobalwarmingwhichisthoughttobe inevitable.  This interest in adaptation to climate change at the global level as expressed in Marrakesh, Copenhagen, Cancun and Durban, is helping to promote collaboration between scientists and policy professionals working in the arena of international development in both governmentalandnon-governmentalagencies.Muchofthefocusoftheseemergingprogramsis onimprovingtheresilienceofnationalinfrastructurestorespondtoananticipatedincreasein climate-inducednaturaldisasters. However,progressinadaptationplanningandimplementationatthenationallevelremainsa lagging indicator. As of 2010, total funding of NAPA projects through the Least Developed CountriesFund(LDCF)establishedin2001amountsto$113million,withlessthan$25million goingtoAsia-Pacificcountries.Asaconsequence,theCancunCOPinstitutedmeasurestoimprove theabilityofnationstodesignNAPAstrategiesandtoaccessthefund.18 Moreover,nationsthat arechallengedbyclimatechangebutarenotcategorizedamongtheleastdeveloped,e.g.,Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan and the Philippines, must rely more heavily on their own initiative and resourcefulnesstodevelopadaptationstrategies. Collaboration Between the S&T and Security Sectors: National and Regional Issues Policycommunitieswhohaveneedofscience-basedinformationtoaddressanissue(possibly associatedwithappliedresearch)typicallyaskthelowerlevelquestionsinfigure1.Since2005, agrowingnumberofgovernmentagenciesandnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)concerned with environmentally sustainable economic development are asking questions regarding the potentialimpactsofclimatechangeintheirareasofresponsibility. In2007,forexample,drawing on the work of academic researchers, consultants and technical staff, the U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment(USAID)published Adapting to Climate Variability & Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planners.Theagencyidentifiedthemanualasthefirstof severaltoolsitisdevelopingtoassistplannersandstakeholdersastheycopewithachanging climate.19 Thatsameyear,theUnitedKingdomsDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID) andCanadasInternationalDevelopmentResearchCenter(IDRC)co-fundedanAsia-widereviewof climatechangeadaptationresearch.20,21,22

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Variousreportsacknowledgethenoveltyoftheseeffortsinadaptationresearch.Forinstance,the ChineseAcademyofSciencesreportsthat: ScientificresearchcapacityinChinaisstrong.Mostresearchattentioncontinuestobe devotedtotheeffectsofclimatechange,includingissuesofdatacollection,modelingand climateforecasting.Thereisalsogrowingattentiontotheimpactsofforecastchangeson ecosystems and biodiversity, and to assessments of aggregate costs of climate change impactsandadaptation.However,adaptationasaspecificdomainofresearcheffortin Chinaisanewconcept.23 DFIDandIDRCarefollowingupontheserecentinitiatives.DFID,forexample,isincluding climatechangeresearchasoneofsixagencyresearchareasforthefive-yearperiod2008-2013.24 USAIDcommissionedafeasibilitystudyfortheestablishmentofanAsianregionalCenterof ExcellenceonClimateChangeandDevelopment.25 TheJapanInternationalCooperationAgency (JICA),incollaborationwiththeWorldBankandtheAsianDevelopmentBank,undertookastudy oftheimpactsofclimatechangeonAsiancoastalareas.InDecember2010,itpublishedClimate Change Adaptation and International Development, whichpresentscasestudiesofclimatechange andadaptationinAsiaandAfricaandconsidersimprovementstotheinternationalarchitecturefor climatechangeadaptationassistance.26 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerned with international development, environmental conservation or humanitarian assistance are playing a seminal role in applied researchandsynthesistoaddressissuesofenvironmentalandhumanimpactsofclimatechange andtobringtheresultstotheattentionofpolicymakersandotherstakeholders.Forexample,the WoodrowWilsonCenterestablisheditsEnvironmentalChangeandSecurityProgramin1994,and since1997hasmanagedaChinaEnvironmentForumtoencouragedialogueonenvironmentaland energy challenges in China.  The early work of the Pew Center on Global Climate Change establishedin1997waslargelyconcernedwithmitigationanditspoliticalandeconomicimpacts. However,since2004,ithasincreasinglysponsoredprojectsthatconsideradaptation.27,28 InsomeAsia-Pacificnations,NGOsaretakingaleadinaddressingadaptationandsecurity issuesrelatedtoclimatechange.Forinstance,beginningin2007,LeadershipforEnvironmentand Development(LEAD)Pakistanbecamethefirstorganizationinthecountrytobuildadatabaseon climatechangeandin2008partneredwiththeBritishHighCommissiontoconductascopingstudy onoptionsforadaptationtoandmitigationofclimatechange.In2009,LEADestablishedaClimate ActionProgram,bringingtogetherseniorscientistsandpolicymakerstoincreasethelevelof awarenessofdecisionmakersinPakistan,toenhancethenationalcapacityandresourcestorespond toclimatechange,andtoencourageunifiedgovernmentpolicyresponsestothethreat.29,30 Majorinternationalfoundationshavealsoinstitutedprogramsforclimatechangeadaptation. TheInternationalOrganizationforMigration,forexample,recognizesmigrationasalegitimate adaptationstrategytoclimatechange.31 In2008,theRockefellerFoundationestablishedanAsian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network.32 In 2009, the MacArthur Foundation created a 60 T h e I n T e r fa c e
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researchprogramonClimateChange,EnvironmentalSecurityandNaturalDisasters33 andprovided funding to develop an Ecosystems and Livelihoods Adaptation Network, explaining that, mitigationisanecessarybutinsufficientresponse.Wecannolongeraffordtodismissadaptation asgivinginorworrythatitwillreduceincentivesforaddressingtherootcausesofclimate changes.Thiscreativenewnetworkwillnurturetheemergingfieldofadaptationscience,helping tobuildknowledgeandcatalyzenewideas.34 NGOs,thinktanksandquasi-governmentalinstitutionsoperatinginthedefenseandsecurity sectorsarealsobeginningtosynthesizeclimatechangeresearchandapplyfindingstoinform policymakersinthesecuritysector.Notableexamplesincludetheinfluential2007reportbythe CenterforNavalAnalyses(CNA),National Security and the Threat of Climate Change,35 andthe German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU) 2008 report to the German Federal Government,Climate Change as a Security Risk.36 Thesemuch-citedreportsdrewuponthefourth IPCCreportandsocialscienceresearchontopicsrelatedtoenvironmentandconflicttoprovide thefirstextensiveconsiderationsofclimatechangeanditsimplicationsforthesecuritysector. OrganizationsintheAsia-Pacificregionhavefollowedsuit:DrawingupontheGermanreport, theBangladeshInstituteofPeaceandSecurityStudiesin2009publishedanissuebriefonclimate changeandsecurity,andin2010,withsupportfromtheMacArthurFoundation, launchedaresearch projectonthesecurityimpactsofclimatechangeonBangladeshandSouthAsia.37,38 In2009,New DelhisInstituteforDefenceStudiesandAnalysespublishedareport, Security Implications of Climate Change for India,addressingissuesofadaptationaswellastheimpactofclimatechange onwarfightingandonIndiasbilateralrelationswithneighboringcountries.39 In2010,Singapores InstituteofInternationalAffairspublishedaconferencepaperonClimateChangeandSecurityin theAsia-Pacificforpresentationatthe2ndTokyoSeminaronCommonSecurityChallenges.40 Theseexamplesillustratethepointthatoverthelastfiveyears,policy-orientedthinktanksand NGOs around the region have increasingly come to play an intermediary role between S&T communitiesandpolicycommunitiesontopicsrelatedtoclimatechangeadaptation.Mostofthat workhasbeenwithinthedevelopmentcommunitywithafocusonsustainabledevelopmentand resilientinfrastructureinthefaceofanticipatedclimatechange.Thispastfiveyears,however, haveseensecurityorganizationsinthedevelopednationsframingandposingquestionsabout adaptationandresponsetoclimatechange. Collaboration Between the S&T and Security Sectors: Security Organizations In2010,boththeU.S.DepartmentofDefenseandtheDepartmentofStateissuedmajorpolicy documentsrecognizingclimatechangeasatransnationalthreat.TheU.S.StateDepartmentsfirst Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review identifiedclimatechangeasoneofsixfocus areasforU.S.developmentefforts.41 Thesepolicydocumentsdrewuponagrowingbodyofagency andagency-sponsoredresearchandanalysisaswellasthatofacademia,internationalorganizations and NGOs.  For instance, in 2007, the U.S.Army War Colleges Strategic Studies Institute T h e I n T e r fa c e
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conductedacolloquiumonnationalsecurityimplicationsofclimatechange.Theproceedingsof theconferenceinclude21essaysthattackleissuesofclimatescience,environmentalandhuman impacts, and military planning in the context of climate change.42 In 2009, the U.S. Navy establishedTaskForceClimateChange(reportingtotheChiefofNavalOperations),andin2010, publishedthefirstU.S.NavyClimateChangeRoadmapthatfocusedontheidentificationof S&Tneedstoinformnavaloperationsinthecontextofachangingclimate.43 Asnotedabove,in 2009,theAustraliannationaldefensestrategyaddressedissuesofclimatechangeanditsthreatto securityintheAsia-Pacificregion.44 Thesenationallevelpoliciesareonlybeginningtoshowup inplanningagendasatlowerechelons. TheChinesegovernmentisalsorespondingtoclimatechangeissuesattheintersectionof scienceandpolicy.EnglishlanguageresourcesincludeamajorpolicydocumentChinasNational ClimateChangeProgrammeapprovedbytheStateCouncilinJune2007.Theprogramfocuses onmitigationbutalsoaddressesadaptation,withconsiderationsofagriculture,forestry,water resources,andthethreattocoastalzones.45 Chinesepolicyforadaptationtoclimatechangeis framedbyaneconomicdevelopmentperspective,andemphasizestheneedforsustainabilityin developmentactivities.DuncanFreemanarguesthatclimatechangehasonlyamarginalposition inChinesesecuritypolicy,andthatChinaresiststhenotionthatsecurityandclimatechangeare linked.46 However,accordingtoareportbyChinascholarMichaelDavison,theChinesePeoples LiberationArmy(PLA)createdaMilitaryClimateChangeExpertCommitteeinNovember2008 todiscussthethreatofclimatechangetomilitarycapabilities.Thecommitteesuggestedstrategies fordisasterreliefmissions,andthePLANationalDefenseUniversityhasconductedapreliminary study.47 ThesecuritydimensionofclimatechangeinotherAsia-Pacificnationsisoftenlessdeveloped andnotasreadilytransparent.Forinstance,theBangladeshClimateChangeStrategyandAction PlanmanagedbytheMinistryofEnvironmentandForestriesidentifiestheNationalDisaster ManagementCouncilasaleadagencyforrespondingtoclimatechange.Italsoidentifiesarole fortheMeteorologicalDepartmentaswellastheNationalSpaceAgencythatfallsunderthe jurisdictionoftheMinistryofDefence.48 InIndonesia,anobserverwiththeCentreforStrategic andInternationalStudiesnotesthatthecountrysMinistryofDefencehadnospecificnational securityagendaforclimatechangeasrecentlyas2008.Aftertheelectionofanewpresidentin 2009,however,astrategicdefensereviewandaMinimumEssentialForcedocumentidentified climatechangeasapotentialthreatforconsiderationindevelopingIndonesiasstrategicsecurity requirements.49,50 Regionalsecurityorganizationsandconferencesarealsobeginningtoserveasforumsfor knowledgeexchangeonclimatechange.InMarch2010,forexample,theTokyo-Seminaron CommonSecurityChallengesincludedasessiononClimateChangeandtheRoleoftheArmed Forces.51 InApril2010,theleadersofASEANissuedastatementonclimatechangeinresponse totheCopenhagenAccord.Thestatementwasintwosections.Thefirstarticulatedasetof commonpoliciestowardGHGmitigation.Thesecondcalledforregionalcooperationinaddressing resilience(adaptation)toclimatechange,includingscientificcollaborationtodeterminelocal 62 T h e I n T e r fa c e
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impacts,andcooperativeresearchforfoodsecurity.Thejointstatementiswrittenfromasustainable developmentperspective,anddoesnotaddresstraditionalsecurityissuessuchashumanitarian assistanceordisasterrelief.52 InApril2010,theSouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation (SAARC)issuedtheThimphuStatementonClimateChangebywhichitsmembersagreedtoaset of16actionstocooperateonclimatechangeissuesofmitigationandadaptation.Italsoexhibits adevelopment-focusedconceptualframework.Onlyoneofits16articlesaddressessecuritysector issues:Section(xiv)callsfortheestablishmentofaSAARCInter-governmentalinitiativeon climate-relateddisasterstobesupportedbyaSAARCDisasterManagementCenter.53 Onecanarguethatthesecuritizationofclimatechangeisanemergentissueintheregion. GovernmentministriesintheU.S.andAustraliaandnon-governmentalorquasi-governmental thinktanksinnationsincludingJapan,IndiaandBangladesharestartingtoconsidertheroleofthe securitysectorinadaptationandresponsetotheimpactsofclimatechange.Mostdocuments recognizeaneedforbetterscience-basedknowledgeoflocalimpactstoguidepolicyforclimate changeadaptation.However,robustinstitutionsforascience-securitydialoguearelargelynotable fortheirabsence. Collaboration Between the S&T and Security Sectors: Interagency Collaboration Theinterfaceofscienceandpolicyatthenationallevelimpliesaneffectivemechanismfor interagencycooperationthatbringstogetherscientificandsecurityagencies.China,forinstance, establishedaNationalWorkingGroupforDealingwithClimateChangein1990andaNational CoordinationCommitteeonClimateChangein1998.The2007nationalclimatechangeprogram drewuponthecommitteesNational Assessment Report on Climate Change (2006), acollaborative effortofninegovernmentdepartmentsincludingtheMinistryofScienceandTechnology,theChina Meteorological Administration, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the State Environmental ProtectionAdministration,theNationalDevelopmentandReformCommissionandtheMinistry ofForeignAffairs. ThenewnationalpolicyinturnupgradedtheworkinggrouptoaNational LeadingGroupheadedbyPremierWenJiabaounderthejurisdicationoftheNationalDevelopment andReformCommission. 54,55,56 IntheU.S.,CongresscreatedaU.S.GlobalChangeResearchProgramin1990undertheWhite HouseOfficeofScienceandTechnologyPolicy.Theprogramcoordinatesandintegratesfederal researchonchangesintheglobalenvironmentacross13federalagenciesincludingtheDepartments ofStateandDefense.Untilrecently,theprogramfocusedonthefundamentalquestionsofclimate scienceandenvironmentalscienceatthetopoffigure1.Butin2008,theprogramreviseditsstrategic plan to consider the  associated issues of climate change impacts, adaptation, vulnerability and sustainability,aswellasdecisionsupporttostakeholders.57 Interagencyconsiderationofscienceand policy for adaptation to climate change assumed higher visibility with the establishment of an InteragencyClimateChangeAdaptationTaskForcein2009,anditschargebythePresidentthat agenciesshouldparticipateactivelytodevelopadomesticandinternationalstrategyforadaptationto climatechange.58 Ayearlater,initsfirstprogressreport,thetaskforceestablishedasetoffivegoals T h e I n T e r fa c e
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thatincludedimprovingtheintegrationofscienceintodecision-makingtosupportadaptationand enhancingeffortstoleadandsupportinternationaladaptation.Thisgoalspecificallyaddressedaneed forcollaborationamonginternationaldevelopment,nationalsecurityandtechnicalsupportagencies.59 TheimportanceofsuchinteragencycoordinationisunderlinedbyaMay2010reportfromthe French Institute of International Relations, an NGO, which recommended that Japan should improvethegovernanceonclimatechangebyenhancinggovernmentalcoordination.Lackof intra-governmentalcommunicationandcooperationpreventstheelaborationofaconsistentand coordinatedapproachtotackletheissueofclimatechange.Asupra-bureaucraticorganshould coordinatethedifferentadministrations.60 OtherAsia-Pacificnationshaveformedinteragencygroupstolinkscienceandpolicy.In2010, SingaporesInter-MinisterialCouncilonClimateChange,establishedin2007,wasreconstituted astheNationalClimateChangeSecretariatandassignedtothePrimeMinistersOffice.61 Australia tookadifferentapproach,creatingacabinet-levelDepartmentofClimateChangein2007thatwas recentlyreorganizedastheDepartmentofClimateChangeandEnergyEfficiency. Climatechangeissuesareaconcernforthewholeofsociety.Theyengagetheenergyand transportationssectorsonissuesofmitigation.Theyinformeconomicdevelopmentaswellasthe securitysectorsonissuesofadaptationandresponse.Theyrequiretheengagementoftheresearch and development sectors for their understanding and solution.  Interagency coordination and collaborationwillbenecessarytoeffectivelyaddressthesecomplexproblems.Transnational interagencycollaborationthroughmultilateralandbilateralrelationshipsmustalsobedeveloped toaddresstransnationalproblems.Sharingofbestpracticesamongnationsandthedevelopment ofbetterpracticeswithinandamongnationswillbeanimportantpartoftheagendaforthefuture. Summary Observations and Conclusions Therecanbelittledoubtthatthethreattoenvironmentalsecurityofglobalwarmingisrealand ofcentralinteresttosecurityorganizationsintheAsia-Pacificregionandtheworld.Scientific understandingofthecauseandtheprocessofclimatechangeisextensiveandgrowingandprovides aknowledgebasefornationalandinternationaleffortstomitigateGHGemissions.ManyAsiaPacificnationsareactiveinfundamentalclimateandenvironmentalresearchandparticipateinthe IPCCsystem.AllareengagedintheUNFCCCprocess.Knowledgesharingonmitigationissues isinstitutionalized,andsecurityagenciesareengagedinmeetingnationalgoalsforGHGmitigation. Inrecentyears,especiallysincethefourthIPCCreportin2007,policymakersacrosstheregion areincreasinglyconcernedwithproblemsofadaptationtoclimatechange.NGOsconcernedwith sustainabledevelopmentareplayinganimportantroleinframingtheproblemsofadaptationto climate change and have an intermediary role in linking the S&T and policy communities. Increasingly,securityorganizationsatthistimeprimarilydefenseandforeignministriesinthe majordevelopednationsarestartingtoanticipatetheneedtoadapttotheimpactsofclimate 64 T h e I n T e r fa c e
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changeonhumanandenvironmentalsecurityandthusonnationalsecurityandregionalstability. Perhapsmostimportantly,Asia-Pacificnationsarebuildingtheircapacitytoaddressthesecurity problemsassociatedwithclimatechange.Interagencytaskforcesarebringingtogetherscientists andsecurityprofessionalsatseniorlevelstofosterawhole-of-governmentapproachtotheproblems ofclimatechange.Multilateralsecurityorganizationsandconferencesareconsideringissuesof adaptationaswellasmitigation.Agenciesandorganizationsatthenational,regional,andglobal levelsarecognizantoftheneedforbetterscientificknowledgeofthelocalimpactsofclimate changeonthephysicalandsocialenvironments. Atthistime,theemerginglinkagesbetweenS&Tcommunitiesandsecuritycommunitiesare mostapparentindevelopednationsatthenationalagencylevel,withafocusonissuesofadaptation. Manylessdevelopedcountriesdonotappeartobewell-engagedinresearchandplanningfor adaptation to climate change.  Sub-national-level actors who will typically be tasked with respondingtochronicoracutesecurityimpactsofclimatechangearenottransparentlyengagedin formulating the questions for research.  Nor are the pathways for knowledge transfer fully developed. Asthesecuritysectordevelopsplansforadaptationandconsidersplanningforresponsetothe impactsofclimatechange,thereisanemergingneedformorerobustinstitutionstosupporta broaderanddeeperdialoguebetweenS&Tandsecuritycommunities.Securitypractitionersshould developquestionstotaskresearchcommunitiesandthenworktogethertodeveloprequirements andapproachestorespondtothestressesimposedbyclimatechange.Multinationalforumsshould seektodevelopcommonframeworksforaddressingsecurityproblemsinresponsetoclimate change. A corresponding need exists for sharing research, knowledge transfer, and problem assessmentbetweendevelopedanddevelopingnations. ______________________________________________________________________________

Notes
1. MohamedLatheef,ClimateChangeandtheMaldives:Adaptation,Mitigation,andInnovation(speechtotheUnitedNations GeneralAssembly,2007),http://www.un.org/ga/president/61/follow-up/climatechange/statements/statementMaldives.pdf. 2.KiribatiSeeksRelocationasClimateChangeSetsIn,Solomon Times Online, Feb16,2009, http://www.solomontimes.com/news.aspx?nwID=3584. 3. AustraliaDepartmentofDefence,Defending Australia in the Asia Pacific Century: Force 2030 (2009):39-40, http://defence.gov.au/whitepaper/docs/defence_white_paper_2009.pdf. 4.U.S.DepartmentofDefense,2010 Quadrennial Defense Review Report (February2010):84-88, http://www.defense.gov/qdr/images/QDR_as_of_12Feb10_1000.pdf. 5.HowMuchMoreWillEarthWarm?,Earth Observatory (U.S.NASA:2008), http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/page5.php. 6. TheRisingSeaLevel,Earth Observatory (U.S.NASA:2008),http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6638.

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7. Susan Solomon et al., Technical Summary, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007):70. 8. MartinL.Parryetal.,SummaryforPolicymakers,Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007):13-15. 9.Ibid.,19. 10. U.S.DepartmentofDefense,Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan (PublicVersion),August26,2010,1-12, http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/download/green_energy/dod_sustainability/DoD%20SSPP-PUBLIC-26Aug10.pdf . 11.AllaliAbdelkaderetal.,ClimateChange2007:SynthesisReport,http://www.ipcc.ch/,50. 12.U.S.DepartmentofDefense,2010 Quadrennial Defense Review Report,84. 13.JustinGillis,AScientist,HisWorkandaClimateReckoning,New York Times, December21,2010,1. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/22/science/earth/22carbon.html?scp=6&sq=Justin%20Gillis&st=cse. 14.40YearsofMaunaLoaCO2DatafromKeeling,OakRidgeNationalLaboratory(1998), http://cdiac.ornl.gov/new/keel_page.html. 15.InformationonleadauthorsisavailableattheIPCCwebsite: http://www.ipcc.ch/meetings/session32/inf07_p32_ipcc_ar5_authors_review_editors.pdf. Informationonfutureauthormeetings maybefoundathttp://www.ipcc.ch/. 16.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme[undated].NationalAdaptationProgrammesofAction(NAPAs)undertheClimate ChangeConvention, http://www.unep.org/DEC/OnLineManual/Compliance/NegotiatingMEAs/NationalImplementationPlans/Resource/tabid/627/Def ault.aspx. 17. The13areBangladesh(2005),Bhutan(2006),Cambodia(2007),Kiribati(2007),Laos(2009),Madagascar(2006),Maldives (2008),Nepal(2010),Samoa(2005),SolomonIslands(2008),Tuvalu(2007),Vanuatu(2007)andTimor-Leste(2011).Burmais inprogress. 18.GlobalEnvironmentFacility,LeastDevelopedCountriesFund(2010),http://www.thegef.org/gef/ldcf. 19. U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment.Adapting to Climate Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning (August2007),http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADJ990.pdf. 20.BernadetteP.Resurreccionetal.,ClimateChangeinAsia:KnowledgeGapsandResearchIssuesinSouthEastAsia, ISET-InternationalandISET-Nepal,June2008,http://www.preventionweb.net/files/8126_ClimateAdaptationSEASept081.pdf. 21.ClimateAdaptationinAsia:KnowledgeGapsandResearchIssuesinSouthAsia,ISET-InternationalandISET-Nepal, September2008,http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=8125. 22.ClimateAdaptationinAsia:KnowledgeGapsandResearchIssuesinChina,ISET-InternationalandISET-Nepal,September 2008,http://www.preventionweb.net/files/8127_ClimateAdaptationCHINASept081.pdf. 23.Ibid.,3. 24.DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment,Research Strategy 2008-2013 (U.K.), http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/consultation/DFID_ResearchStrategy2008LOWRES.pdf. 25.TetraTechInc.,AsiaRegionalCenterofExcellenceonClimateChangeandDevelopment(ARC):FeasibilityAssessment, June1,2010. 26. RyoFujikuraandMasatoKawanishi,eds.,Climate Change Adaptation and International Development: Making Development Cooperation More Effective (London:Earthscan,2010).

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