LOW COST LCD FREQUENCY METER

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by

SIJI SASIKUMAR SIMI A R SIMNA ANTONY

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SREE NARAYANA GURUKULAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,KADAYIRUPPU

MG UNIVERSITY : KOTTAYAM
MAY 2011

MG UNIVERSITY : KOTTAYAM

Department of Electronics and communication Engineering

MINI PROJECT REPORT 2011 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report LOW COST LCD FREQUENCY METER is the bonafide work of SIJI SASIKUMAR, SIMI A R, SIMNA ANTONY carried out the project work under my supervision. who

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SREE NARAYANA GURUKULAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KADAYIRUPPU KOLENCHERY

STAFF IN CHARGE DEPARTMENT OF ECE SNGCE KADAYIRUPU KOLENCHERY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Dedicating this project to the God Almighty whose abundant grace and mercies enabled its successful completion, we would like to express our profound gratitude to all the people who had inspired and motivated us to make this project a success. We wish to express our sincere thanks to our Principal, Dr.C.E.KRISHNAN, for providing an opportunity to undertake this project. We are deeply indebted to our project coordinator Prof.ARUMUGA SAMY Head of the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for providing us with valuable advice during the course of the study. We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to our guides Mr.DEEPAK.P, Mr. VISHNU and Mr. MAHESH for helps extended to us during the completion of the project. We extend our deep sense of gratitude to our Lecturers of Electronics and Communication Engineering Department for their valuable guidance as well as timely advice, which helped us a lot in completing the project successfully. Finally we would like to express my gratitude to Sree Narayana Gurukulam College of Engineering for providing us with all the facilities without which the project would not been possible.

ABSTRACT

The objective is to design and implement a low cost LCD frequency meter. Frequency meters have always been expensive tools. Now, with microcontrollers and liquidcrystal displays (LCDs) having become very economical and popular, it is possible to build a compact and low-cost LCD based frequency meter that can measure up to 15 kHz. A working system will ultimately be demonstrated to validate the description.

LIST OF FIGURES
1. BLOCK DIAGRAM 2. FILTER CAPACITOR OUTPUT 3. POWER SUPPLY 4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 5. IC 7805 PINOUT 6. OPTOCOUPLER 7. SCHMITT TRIGGER USING 555 8. ATMEGA 8 PINOUT

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 2 3 4

ABSTRACT LIST OF FIGURES INTRODUCTION BLOCK DIAGRAM BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION CIRCUIT DESIGN 4.1 POWER SUPPLY 13

8 10 11 13

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 5.1 5.2 POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

16 16 17 18 24 24 25

6 7

WORKING WAVEFORMS 7.1 7.2 POWER SUPPLY OPTOCOUPLER AND SCHMITT TRIGGER

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

PROGRAM PCB FABRICATION PCB LAYOUT PCB FABRICATION TECHNIQUE CONCLUSION SCOPE REFERENCE APPENDIX 15.1 15.2 ATMEGA 8 DATASHEET IC 7805 DATASHEET
6

26 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 38 44

15.3 15.4 15.5

555 DATASHEET MCT2E DATASHEET LCD 16X2 DATASHEET

47 50 52

1.INTRODUCTION

A frequency counter is an electronic instrument, or component of one, that is used for measuring frequency. Frequency is defined as the number of events of a particular sort occurring in a set period of time. Most frequency counters work by using a counter which accumulates the number of events occurring within a specific period of time. After a preset period (1 second, for example), the value in the counter is transferred to a display and the counter is reset to zero. If the event being measured repeats itself with sufficient stability and the frequency is considerably lower than that of the clock oscillator being used, the resolution of the measurement can be greatly improved by measuring the time required for an entire number of cycles, rather than counting the number of entire cycles observed for a pre-set duration (often referred to as the reciprocal technique). The internal oscillator which provides the time signals is called the timebase, and must be calibrated very accurately. If the thing to be counted is already in electronic form, simple interfacing to the instrument is all that is required. More complex signals may need some conditioning to make them suitable for counting. Most general purpose frequency counters will include some form of amplifier, filtering and shaping circuitry at the input. DSP technology, sensitivity control and hysteresis are other techniques to improve performance. The accuracy of a frequency counter is strongly dependent on the stability of its timebase. Highly accurate circuits are used to generate this for instrumentation purposes, usually using a quartz crystal oscillator within a sealed temperature-controlled chamber known as a crystal oven or OCXO (oven controlled crystal oscillator).

In this project we can measure line frequency.External signal frequency upto a range of 15 kHz can also be measured.The microcontroller that we are using is Atmega 8.LCD is used for displaying the output frequency.

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

LCD

Figure 1.Block diagram

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3. BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

A 230V 50Hz supply is applied to a step down transformer.A transformer designed to reduce voltage from primary to secondary is called astep - down transformer.The transformer output is 12v ac which is applied to a bridge rectifier.It is an arrangement of four diodesin a bridgeconfiguration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center -tapped secondary winding. The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or pulsating magnitude, an attribute commonly referred to as ripple.The output of the bridge rectifier is 12V dc and its fed to a power regulator.A power regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level.Here we get a 5V dc regulated output.This forms the power supply for the entire system. By using this system we can measure both line and external frequency.In order to measure line frequency the 12V ac output from the transformer is given to an optoisolator. In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by utilizing light waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and output".The main purpose of an opto-isolator is to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting
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transmissions on the other side. The output from an opto-isolator is given to a signal conditioner.In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation and any other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning.Inorder to measure external frequency upto a range of 15kHz,the signal is directly provided to the signal conditioner.The output from a signal conditioner is a square wave which is given to PD5(T1 (Timer/Counter 1 External Counter Input) ) of Atmega 8 microcontroller.an LCD is used to display the output frequency.A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liqui crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome.

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4. CIRCUIT DESIGN

4.1. POWER SUPPLY

1. Transformer Selection. Voltage in = 240V @ 50Hz Voltage Output required = 12V. Current required = 300mA. Transformer Turns ratio = 240/12 ~ 1:20 Current rating of secondary winding = 500mA. 2. Rectifier Design Bridge configuration. Current capacity of diode required = 500mA. Peak Reverse Voltage Required = X 12V = 6V. Diode Selected = 1N4007. If = 1A PRV = 1000V. 3. Filter Capacitor Since two diode conduct in series the voltage after rectification is 12V- 2 X0.7V = 10.6V Drop across silicon diode is 0.7V.

Figure 2. Filter capacitor output

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R4Output voltage Ripple = 10.6 7.6 = 3V. Current Requirement = 350mA. Total charge supplied by capacitor = 300mA X 10mS Voltage difference = 2.6V. Capacitance required = 300mA X 10mS/ 3V = 1000uF.

1. Current limiting Resistor R1 Voltage drop of LED = 1.6V. Forward current of LED = 5mA. Voltage supplayed = 5V R1 = (5V - 1.6V) / 5mA = 680E. R2

Current limiting resistor for Opto coupler LED. Forward voltage of LED = 1.5V Forward Current = 20mA Voltage in = 10.6V R = 10.6V 1.5V / 20mA = 455E. Use 470E resistor.

Vce Saturation = 0.25V VIN = 5V IC = 5mA. R4 = 5V 0.25V / 5mA = 950E Use 1K resistor.

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5. Voltage Regulator The Atmega8 MUC needs a clean 5V power supply. So we are generating the regulated 5V for National Semiconductors LM7805 Voltage regulator chip. This is a linear Voltage regulator.It is recommended to use a 1uf capacitor in the output of regulator .

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5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5.1.

POWER SUPPLY

Figure 3.Power supply

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5.2.

CIRCUIT

Figure 4.Circuit diagram

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6. WORKING
A 230V 50Hz power supply is provided to a step down transformer. Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration usually down to a lower level. Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of voltage transformation. Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.The output of the step down transformer is 12V ac.It is then given to a bridge rectifier to get 12Vdc. It is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. For many applications, especially with singlephase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or pulsating magnitude, an attribute commonly referred to as ripple. One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice that of the conventional full-wave circuit.The output of the bridge rectifier is fed to a voltage regulator IC 7805.

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Figure 5.IC 7805 pin out

C1 is required when the regulator is far from the power-supply filter. C2 is not required for stability; however, transient response is improved. The circuit has over overload and therminal protection.The output of 7805 is 5V dc.When the power supply is ON the led glows.This forms the power supply for the system.

By using this system we can measure line frequency as well as external signal frequency upto a range of 15kHz.Inorder to measure line frequency the output of the transformer ie, 12Vac is given to an optocoupler(MCT2E). MCT2E is a Standard Single Channel Phototransistor Couplers. Each optocoupler consists of gallium arsenide infrared LED and a silicon NPN phototransistor. The main purpose of an opto-isolator is to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting transmissions on the other side.

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Figure 6. Optocoupler

An opto-coupler is a small integrated circuit containing an LED and a photosensitive transistor located. During the forward biased conditon of the diode, the LED glows, which inturn provides a drive for the phototransistor used. This allows a signal in one circuit to be transferred to another circuit without the electrical connections. This ensures circuit protection. This ensures a galvanic isolation that is easy to apply in small electronic circuits. The intended effect of optosolator is the same as a transformer, because in this configuration the output is electronically isolated from the input. The diode can be seen as the emitter and phototransistor as receiver

accordingly. The diode converts the electronic signal to light and the transistor, the reverse process. The output of the opto-coupler is given to signal conditioner via a switch. Here the signal conditioner used is Schmitt trigger using a 555 IC.Finally the square wave output from the Schmitt trigger is fed to timer/counter of the microcontroller (Atmega 8) and thus the frequency is displayed onto the LCD.Inorder to measure external signal frequency, the signal is directly applied to the signal conditioner. A 555 can be wired as a Schmitt Trigger to clean up noise signals and generate a square wave.

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Figure 7.Schmitt trigger using 555

The output from the schmitt trigger is provided to T1 (Timer/Counter 1 External Counter Input) of the microcontroller Atmega 8. The PD0,PD1,PD2 and PD3 pins of Atmega 8 are connected to pin no. 11, 12,13 and 14 of lcd respectively. RXD Port D, Bit 0 RXD, Receive Data (Data input pin for the USART). When the USART Receiver is enabled this pin is configured as an input regardless of the value of DDD0. When the USART forces this pin to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTD0 bit. TXD Port D, Bit 1 TXD, Transmit Data (Data output pin for the USART). When the USART Transmitter is enabled, this pin is configured as an output regardless of the value of DDD1. INT0 Port D, Bit 2 INT0, External Interrupt source 0: The PD2 pin can serve as an external interrupt source.

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 INT1 Port D, Bit 3 INT1, External Interrupt source 1: The PD3 pin can serve as an external interrupt source.

Figure 8 .Atmega 8 pin out

The PC0,PC1 and PC2 pins of the Atmega 8 are connected to the pin no. 4,5 and 6 of the lcd respectively. Port C (PC5..PC0) Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and sourcecapability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-upresistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is not running. Clock to the microcontroller is given to the pins PB6 and PB7.
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PB7: XTAL2 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 2) TOSC2 (Timer Oscillator pin 2) PB6 : XTAL1 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 1 or External clock input) TOSC1 (Timer Oscillator pin 1)

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7. WAVEFORMS

7.1. POWER SUPPLY

24

7.2. OPTOCOUPLER AND SCHMITT TRIGGER

25

8. PROGRAM

extern void LCDstring(uint8_t* data, uint8_t nBytes); extern void LCDnum(unsigned int nNum); void initCounter1(void);

volatile unsigned int gnCount = 0; volatile unsigned char gucFlag = 0;

int main() { int Freq = 0; int SampleCount = 0; int unTemp;

initTimer0(); initCounter1(); LCDinit(); LCDclr (); Sei (); LCDstring ("Freq = ", 7); //LCDclr (); While (1) {

If (gucFlag == 1) {
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Freq += gnCount; If (SampleCount == 8) { Freq >>= 1; If (unTemp!= Freq) { LCDGotoXY(0,1); //Cursor to X Y position LCDstring(" ", 8); //Cursor to X Y

LCDGotoXY (0, 1); position LCDnum(Freq); } unTemp = Freq; SampleCount = 0; Freq = 0; } SampleCount ++; gucFlag = 0; } } return 0; }

ISR (TIMER0_OVF_vect) { //This is the interrupt service routine for TIMER0 OVERFLOW Interrupt. //CPU automatically calls this when TIMER0 overflows. cli ();
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gnCount = TCNT1; gucFlag = 1; TCNT1 = 0X00; TCNT0 = 0x0A; Sei (); }

void initTimer0(void) { // Prescaler = FCPU/1024 TCCR0|= (1<<CS02)|(1<<CS00);

//Enable Overflow Interrupt Enable TIMSK|=(1<<TOIE0);

//Initialize Counter TCNT0=0x0A; } void initCounter1(void) { // Clock sourse is T1 on rising edge; TCCR1B |= (1<<CS12)|(1<<CS11)|(1<<CS10);

//Initialize Counter TCNT1=0x00; }

#ifndef LCD_LIB
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#define LCD_LIB

#include <inttypes.h>

//Uncomment this if LCD 4 bit interface is used //****************************************** #define LCD_4bit //***********************************************

#define LCD_RS 0 #define LCD_RW 1 #define LCD_E 2

//define MCU pin connected to LCD RS //define MCU pin connected to LCD R/W //define MCU pin connected to LCD E //define MCU pin connected to LCD D0 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D1 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D1 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D2 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D3 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D4 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D5 //define MCU pin connected to LCD D6 //define MCU port connected to LCD data pins //define MCU port connected to LCD control pins //define MCU direction register for port connected to LCD

#define LCD_D0 0 #define LCD_D1 1 #define LCD_D2 2 #define LCD_D3 3 #define LCD_D4 0 #define LCD_D5 1 #define LCD_D6 2 #define LCD_D7 3 #define LDP PORTD #define LCP PORTC #define LDDR DDRD data pins #define LCDR DDRC control pins

//define MCU direction register for port connected to LCD

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#define LCD_CLR #define LCD_HOME

//DB0: clear display 1 //DB1: return to home position 2 //DB2: set entry mode 1 0 3 2 1 0 //DB1: increment //DB2: shift //DB3: turn lcd/cursor on //DB2: turn display on //DB1: turn cursor on //DB0: blinking cursor

#define LCD_ENTRY_MODE #define LCD_ENTRY_INC #define LCD_ENTRY_SHIFT #define LCD_ON_CTRL #define LCD_ON_DISPLAY #define LCD_ON_CURSOR #define LCD_ON_BLINK #define LCD_MOVE #define LCD_MOVE_DISP #define LCD_MOVE_RIGHT #define LCD_FUNCTION 5

4 //DB4: move cursor/display 3 2 //DB3: move display (0-> move cursor) //DB2: move right (0-> left) //DB5: function set

#define LCD_FUNCTION_8BIT 4 //DB4: set 8BIT mode (0->4BIT mode) #define LCD_FUNCTION_2LINES 3 //DB3: two lines (0->one line) #define LCD_FUNCTION_10DOTS 2 #define LCD_CGRAM #define LCD_DDRAM // reading: #define LCD_BUSY #define LCD_LINES #define LCD_LINE_LENGTH 7 //DB7: LCD is busy 2 16 //visible lines //line length (in characters) //DB2: 5x10 font (0->5x7 font)

6 //DB6: set CG RAM address 7 //DB7: set DD RAM address

// cursor position to DDRAM mapping #define LCD_LINE0_DDRAMADDR #define LCD_LINE1_DDRAMADDR #define LCD_LINE2_DDRAMADDR #define LCD_LINE3_DDRAMADDR // progress bar defines
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0x00 0x40 0x14 0x54

#define PROGRESSPIXELS_PER_CHAR 6

void LCDsensdChar(uint8_t); void LCDsendCommand(uint8_t); void LCDinit(void); void LCDclr(void); void LCDhome(void); void LCDstring(uint8_t*, uint8_t);

//forms data ready to send to 74HC164 //forms data ready to send to 74HC164 //Initializes LCD //Clears LCD //LCD cursor home //Outputs string to LCD

void LCDGotoXY(uint8_t, uint8_t); //Cursor to X Y position void CopyStringtoLCD(const uint8_t*, uint8_t, uint8_t);//copies flash string to LCD at x,y void LCDdefinechar(const uint8_t *,uint8_t);//write char to LCD CGRAM void LCDshiftRight(uint8_t); void LCDshiftLeft(uint8_t); void LCDcursorOn(void); //shift by n characters Right //shift by n characters Left //Underline cursor ON

void LCDcursorOnBlink(void); //Underline blinking cursor ON void LCDcursorOFF(void); void LCDblank(void); void LCDvisible(void); //Cursor OFF //LCD blank but not cleared //LCD visible

void LCDcursorLeft(uint8_t); //Shift cursor left by n void LCDcursorRight(uint8_t); //shif cursor right by n // displays a horizontal progress bar at the current cursor location // <progress> is the value the bargraph should indicate // <maxprogress> is the value at the end of the bargraph // <length> is the number of LCD characters that the bargraph should cover //adapted from AVRLIB - displays progress only for 8 bit variables void LCDprogressBar(uint8_t progress, uint8_t maxprogress, uint8_t length); #endi
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9. PCB FABRICATION

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9. PCB LAYOUT

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11. PCB FABRICATION TECHNIQUE

The first step of assembling is to produce a printed circuit board. The fabrication of the program counter plays a crucial role in the electronic field. The success of the circuit is also dependent on the PCB. As far as the cost is concerned, more than 25% of the total cost is for the PCB design and fabrication. The board is designed using a personal computer. The layout is drawn using the software Adobe PageMaker 6.5. The layout is printed in a buffer sheet using a laser procedure. First, a negative screen of the layout is prepared with the help of a professional screen printer. Then the copper clad sheet is kept under this screen. The screen printing ink is poured on the screen and brushed through the top of the screen. The printed board is kept under shade for few hours till the ink becomes dry. The etching medium is prepared with the un-hydrous ferric chloride water. The printed board is kept in this solution till the exposed copper dissolves in the solution fully. After that the board is taken out and rinsed in flowing water under a tap. The ink is removed with solder in order to prevent oxidation. Another screen, which contains component side layout, is prepared and the same is printed on the component side of the board. A paper epoxy laminate is used as the board. Both the component and the track layout of the peripheral PCB is given at the end of this report.

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12. CONCLUSION

This project thereby has brought about a more convenient means of measuring the frequency oof a signal. Using liquid rystal display the measured frequency can also be displayed instead of calculating the frequency of the signal from its time period,like the usual procedure.by size,weight and cost also this system pays a better source for the purpose of measuring signal frequencies. Just like the system as a whole and its design,handling this also is much simpler than the usual CRO and DSO. Unlike the complicated systems available in market, these require not much skill on handling them.

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13. SCOPE
The circuit thus completed can be used to measure the line as well as the external frequency of signals fed. Certain modifications to the circuit can be brought into effect to make it possible to measure and display the voltage n time period of the signal.

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14. REFERENCE
Electronic circuits and devices: J.B. Gupta. Op-amps and linear integrated circuits: Ramakanth A. Gayakward Integrated circuits : K.R. Botkar

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15. APPENDIX 15.1. ATMEGA 8 DATASHEET

Features High-performance, Low-power AtmelAVR 8-bit Microcontroller Advanced RISC Architecture 130 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments 8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory 512Bytes EEPROM 1Kbyte Internal SRAM Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation Programming Lock for Software Security Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Three PWM Channels 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package
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Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy 6-channel ADC in PDIP package Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features

Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and Standby I/O and Packages 23 Programmable I/O Lines 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF Operating Voltages 2.7V - 5.5V (ATmega8L) 4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8) Speed Grades 0 - 8MHz (ATmega8L) 0 - 16MHz (ATmega8) Power Consumption at 4Mhz, 3V, 25C Active: 3.6mA Idle Mode: 1.0mA Power-down Mode: 0.5A
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Overview The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega8 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

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Block Diagram Figure 1. Block Diagram

41

Pin Descriptions VCC Digital supply voltage. GND Ground. Port B (PB7..PB0)/XTAL1/ XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2 Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for eachbit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a resetcondition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting. Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7..6 is used as TOSC2.1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set. The various special features of Port B are elaborated on page 56. Port C (PC5.PC0) Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for eachbit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sinkand source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will sourcecurrent if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a resetcondition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. PC6/RESET If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electricalcharacteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clockis not running. Shorterpulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset.
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Port D (PD7.PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for eachbit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sinkand source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will sourcecurrent if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a resetcondition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. RESET Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generatea reset, even if the clock is not running. XTAL1 Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2 Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and ADC (7..6). Itshould be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5..4) use digitalsupply voltage, VCC. AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

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15.2. IC 7805 DATASHEET

FEATURES 1% Output Tolerance at 25C Limiting 2% Output Tolerance Over Full Operating Range Improved Version of mA7800 Series Thermal Shutdown Pinout Identical to mA7800 Series Internal Short-Circuit Current

DESCRIPTION/ORDERING INFORMATION POSITIVE-VOLTAGE REGULATORS 1% Output Tolerance at 25C Internal Short-Circuit Current Limiting 2% Output Tolerance Over Full Operating Pinout Identical to mA7800 Series Range Improved Version of mA7800 Series Thermal Shutdown Each fixed-voltage precision regulator in the TL780 series is capable of supplying 1.5 A of load current. A uniquetemperature-compensation technique, coupled with an internally trimmed band-gap reference, has resulted inimproved accuracy when compared to other three-terminal regulators. Advanced layout techniques

provideexcellent line, load, and thermal regulation. The internal current-limiting and thermal-shutdown featuresessentially make the devices immune to overload.
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15.3. 555 DATASHEET

DESCRIPTION The 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producingaccurate time delays, or oscillation. In the time delaymode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one externalresistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, thefree running frequency and the duty cycle are both accuratelycontrolled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the outputstructure can source or sink up to 200 mA. FEATURES Turn-off time less than 2 ms Max. operating frequency greater than 500 kHz Timing from microseconds to hours Operates in both astable and monostable modes High output current Adjustable duty cycle TTL compatible Temperature stability of 0.005% per C APPLICATIONS Precision timing Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation

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15.4. MCT2E DATASHEET

COMPATIBLE WITH STANDARD TTL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS _ Gallium Arsenide Diode Infrared Source Optically Coupled to a Silicon npn Phototransistor _ High Direct-Current Transfer Ratio _ Base Lead Provided for Conventional Transistor Biasing _ High-Voltage Electrical Isolation . . . 1.5-kV, or 3.55-kV Rating _ Plastic Dual-In-Line Package _ High-Speed Switching: tr = 5 s, tf = 5 s Typical _ Designed to be Interchangeable with General Instruments MCT2 and MCT2E absolute maximum ratings at 25C free-air temperature (unless otherwise noted) Input-to-output voltage: MCT 1.5 kV MCT2E 3.55 kV Collector-base voltage 70 V Collector-emitter voltage 30 V Emitter-collector voltage 7 V Emitter-base voltage 7 V Input-diode reverse voltage 3 V Input-diode continuous forward current 60 mA Input-diode peak forward current (tw 1 ns, PRF 300 Hz) 3 A Continuous power dissipation at (or below) 25C free-air temperature: Infrared-emitting diode 200 mW Phototransistor 200 mW
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Total, infrared-emitting diode plus phototransistor 250 mW Operating free-air temperature range, TA 55C to 100C Storage temperature range, Tstg 55C to 150C Lead temperature 1,6 mm (1/16 inch) from case for 10 seconds 260

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15.5. LCD 16X2 DATASHEET

FEATURES 5 x 8 dots with cursor Built-in controller (KS 0066 or Equivalent) + 5V power supply (Also available for + 3V) 1/16 duty cycle B/L to be driven by pin 1, pin 2 or pin 15, pin 16 or A.K (LED) N.V. optional for + 3V power supply

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