Relativistic Nonlinear Effects in Plasmas PDF

RELATIVISTIC NONLINEAR EFFECTS IN PLASMAS
P.K. SHUKLA, N.N. RAO and M.Y. YU Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Ruhr.-Universitt Bochum, D-4630 Bochum 1, Fed. Rep. Germany and N.L. TSINTSADZE Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Georgian S.S.R., Tbilisi, U.S.S.R.
NORTH-HOLLAND - AMSTERDAM
PHYSICS REPORTS (Review Section of Physics Letters) 138, Nos. 1 & 2 (1986) 1149. North-Holland, Amsterdam
RELATIVISTIC NONLINEAR EFFECTS IN PLASMAS P.K. SHUKLA, N.N. RAO* and M.Y. YU
Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Ruhr-Universitdt Bochum, D-4630 Bochum 1, Fed. Rep. Germany
and N.L. TSINTSADZE

Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Georgian S.S.R., Tbilisi, U.S.S.R. Received 7 November 1985 Contents: 1. Introduction 2. Basic equations 3. Relativistic effects in unmagnetized plasmas 3.1. Electron plasma waves 3.2. Electromagnetic waves 3.3. Stimulated Raman scattering 3.4. Stimulated Brillouin scattering 3.5. Finite amplitude electromagnetic solitons 3.6. Weakly relativistic self-trapped laser beams 3.7. Three-dimensional relativistic solitons 3.8. Relativistic self-focusing 3.9. Intense self-trapped laser beams 3.10. Stability of supersonic solitary waves 3.11. Wave breaking 4. Relativistic nonlinear effects in magnetized plasmas 4.1. Electrostatic upper-hybrid waves 4.2. Nonlinear ordinary mode radiation 4.3. Ultrarelativistic cyclotron waves 4.4. Circularly polarized waves of weakly relativistic amplitudes 4.5. Finite amplitude envelope solitons 3 9 12 12 18 23 26 28 39 41 42 44 46 48 52 53 58 65 79 81 5. Profile modifications, shock structures, and magnetic field generation 5.1. A survey of the nonrelativistic results 5.2. Relativistic profile modifications 5.3. Compressionrarefaction wave-plateau shocks 5.4. Rarefaction wave-plateau shocks 5.5. Self-generation of magnetic fields 6. Nonlinear waves in electronpositron plasmas 6.1 Characteristics of an electronpositron plasma 6.2. Finite amplitude waves and solitons 6.3. Particle acceleration and heating 6.4. Weakly nonlinear theories 7. Some applications associated with relativistic effects 7.1. Free electron lasers 7.2. Cyclotron resonance masers 7.3. Particle acceleration by electromagnetic waves 7.4. Beat-wave accelerators 7.5. Interaction of bunched electron beam with a plasma 8. Conclusions Appendices References
93 93 94 94 99 104 113 114 116 121 124 130 130 136 137 138 140 140 142 144
Permanent address: Physical Research Laboratory, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380 009, India.
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P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas Abstract:
The purpose of this article is to present a review of the nonlinear effects associated with relativistic electron-mass variation and the ponderomotive force in unmagnetized as well as magnetized plasmas. Many high-frequency waves can become unstable with respect to the electron-mass modulation and the excitation of low-frequency density fluctuations. The nonlinear equations which govern the evolution of the modulationally unstable waves are derived. The phenomena of soliton formation, radiation collapse, and profile modification are investigated. Finite amplitude theories of the envelope solitons are reviewed. In a multidimensional situation, the electromagnetic waves can undergo self-focusing. The use of the variational methods allows one to calculate the nonlinear wavenumber and radius of the self-focused laser beams. Analytical solutions for the self-trapped radiation and the three-dimensional relativistic solitons are obtained. It is found that magnetized plasmas can support the propagation of new types of ultrarelativistic electromagnetic waves. The modulational instability of the latter is analyzed. Furthermore, it is shown that the relativistic pondefomotive force in a magnetized plasma can produce large amplitude field-aligned electrostatic potentials which can effectively accelerate particles to very high energies. Finally, we consider the nonlinear propagation of intense electromagnetic waves in electronpositron plasmas. Possible applications in inertial fusion, beat-wave particle accelerator, rf heating of magnetically confined plasmas, and pulsar radiation are pointed out.
1. Introduction The interaction of electromagnetic waves With charged particles is of practical interest in the study of laboratory as Well as astrophysical plasmas. Linear theory shows that electromagnetic waves with frequencies less than the electron plasma frequency cannot propagate in an unmagnetized plasma. However, for large field intensities, nonlinear effects [116]such as the relativistic electron-mass variation [110] and the ponderomotive force [1315] can lead to a downshift of the local electron plasma frequency. This results in the possibility of electromagnetic wave energy penetration into the overdense region as defined classically. Phenomena such as this are very important in the studies of laserpellet interaction, the rf heating of magnetically confined fusion plasmas, the radar-induced modification of the ionosphere, the free electron lasers, the gyrotrons, as well as some wave-driven particle accelerators. When the wave intensity is sufficiently large, the directed component of the electron velocity can become quite large. For example, the ratio of the quiver velocity, v0 = eE/meo w to the velocity of light c is [17]
v0/c
=
6 x 10A\/7,
(1.1)
where e is the electronic charge, E is the wave electric field, w is the wave frequency, meo is the electron 2 and A is the laser wavelength in microns. For a laser with rest mass, I is the laser intensity in W/cm A = 10.6 p.m and I = 1016 WI cm2, one finds v 0 0.6c. In such cases, the effects of relativistic electron-mass have to be included in any investigations involving such waves. Akhiezer and Polovin [1] presented a general theory of nonlinear wave motion in an electron plasma. Taking into account the electron-mass variation as well as the second-order density perturbation effects, they derived a set of nonlinear equations and also the corresponding dispersion relation for the waves. Specifically, they showed that in a cold plasma an intense plane electromagnetic wave of large amplitude can drive electrons to relativistic velocities and produce a strong nonlinear Lorentz force in the longitudinal direction, thus leading to a coupling between the transverse and the parallel (with respect to the wavevector) momenta. Hence, the electromagnetic waves are coupled to the Langmuir waves. If the phase velocity of the coupled waves is greater than the velocity of light, the motion is bounded. Approximate analytical results for the coupled electromagnetic and Langmuir waves have been discussed by several authors [1,310]. Decoster [10] reviewed the recent progress in the study of wave motion including relativistic effects. He has also discussed a weak coupling analysis, and the existence of nonlinear resonances.
P.K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
There have been several [110] derivations of the dispersion relations for the relativistic propagation of electromagnetic wave in an electron plasma. In the weakly relativistic limit v0 ~ c, one finds the electron plasma wave dispersion relation [6] w=w~0(13u~/16), (1.2)
where Urn = eE/meow 0c, and w~,0is the unperturbed electron plasma frequency. On the other hand, for Um~ 1, one obtains f6] w~s2 where eE
w
=
3/2
1TWp0(l~Um)
1/2
,
(1.3)
4, so that
\r2meocwpo(1
u~~)~
irmeocw~oI2eE.
(1.4) 0 can propagate
Equations (1.2) and (1.4) show that pure longitudinal waves with frequencies less than w~ in an electron plasma. The relativistic electron-mass variation as well as the harmonic generation nonlinearities were included by Sluijter and Montgomery [3] in their study of linearly polarized electromagnetic waves. In the weakly relativistic limit, their dispersion relation is
2 ~0 2
kc +
22
2c
(~
3
22
4w
kc 2
)]
[71
(1.5)
where k is the wavenumber. In the strongly relativistic limit U~~ 1, one finds
2 22 1 2 22 +~TWpo/WUrn~
~kc
(1.6)
where kc ~ w has been assumed. On the other hand, for circularly polarized electromagnetic waves, harmonic generation does not occur. Relativistic electron-mass variation effects lead to [6] 2c2 + w~ 2 (1.7) 2 = k 0(1 + U~,)
.
Thus, waves in the frequency range

+ ~~2)_1/4 <
w <w~
(1.8)
can also propagate in the plasma. In fact, it can be shown that both electron plasma waves and electromagnetic waves in unmagnetized [110] as well as magnetized [1822] plasmas can propagate in the overdense region because of the electron-mass variation nonlinearity which downshifts the local electron plasma frequency.
P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
The relativistic electron-mass modulation nonlinearity can have some important consequences [2326]. Tsintsadze [23]demonstrated that the electron-mass modulation nonlinearity can parametrically excite both high- and low-frequency waves. Later, Lin and Tsintsadze [24] carried out computer simulations of the same effect and found that the relativistic modulational instability can compete with the oscillating two-stream instability of Nishikawa [27]. The physical picture of the relativistic modulational instability can be described as follows [24]: Imagine that an electron plasma wave arising from noise is superimposed on the pump wave and produces a field pattern in the form of a displaced sine wave. Because of the relativistic mass-variation effect, the electrons are lighter in the trough region and heavier in the crest region. As a result, the electrons in the troughs lead to plasma oscillations faster than those in the crests can get out of phase with the latter. The result induces enhanced density bunching and produces the relativistic instability. Drake et al. [25] have shown that, because of the electron-mass changes, electrostatic perturbations of long-wavelength electromagnetic waves slow down in regions of high intensity, causing the wave to steepen and break. The latter process can enhance the absorption of the waves by the plasma. Drake, Lee and Tsintsadze [26] have investigated the stability of long-wavelength plane polarized electromagnetic waves when the oscillatory energy of the electron exceeds the rest energy. It was found that a strongly relativistic pump wave is unstable to purely electronic perturbations polarized along the direction of the electric field vector, and that the decay into coupled electron and ion modes, which occurs in the nonrelativistic case [27], does not take place. The authors suggested that this instability can have a strong influence on cosmic-ray acceleration [28]by pulsar fields. Kennel, Schmidt and Wilcox [28]proposed that the wave energy of ultra-relativistic plasmons propagating outward from the pulsars can be converted into directed particle energy, thus producing a large number of high-velocity particles. The role of the relativistic electron-mass variation in the mode conversion of electromagnetic waves in a plasma with a density gradient was investigated by Drake and Lee [29]. The physical mechanism responsible for the relativistic wave breaking has been given by Drake and Lee [29]. In the underdense region of the plasma where the local plasma frequency is larger than the radiation frequency, the plasma responds very weakly to the driver because of the large mismatch between driver and normal mode frequencies, However, as one moves down the density gradient, the frequency mismatch becomes smaller and hence the driver has a much larger amplitude. Around the critical point (w~0 w), the electron-mass increase in the plasmons locally reduces the electron plasma frequency to balance the initial mismatch. Accordingly, a resonance between w and the new normal modes is established. Consequently, the plasma wave reaches a much larger amplitude on the underdense side of the critical layer than above it. A sharp discontinuity in the wave structure results and causes the wave to break. Max, Arons and Langdon [30] demonstrated that the nonlinear frequency shift of a strong electromagnetic wave in a plasma, due to weak relativistic and the nonlinear Lorentz force effects, can produce modulation and filamentation (or self-focusing) instabilities. From the SluijterMontgomery [3] nonlinear frequency shift mentioned earlier, it is also possible [31]to study the modulational instability of linearly polarized electromagnetic waves. Steady state self-focusing can be understood [30] in terms of geometrical optics [13].From eq. (1.5), it follows that if the intensity u~ is enhanced at a point, the phase velocity is decreased locally relative to its value outside. This leads to a bending of the wavefront, thus enhancing the intensity of focusing the light downstream in the direction of the wavevector. On the other hand, self-modulation occurs when the perturbations are aligned in the direction of the wave. The physics of the modulational instability can be demonstrated [13] by considering a nonlinear train with 2) = w 2, where D is a constant. Defining the phase wave function O(x, t) dispersion relation w(k, E 0(k) DE
P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas

=
by k = ~O and w
~O,we have t~~kc~w.That is [13, 301 2. (~ + Vgilx)k = DoXE If a small sinusoidal perturbation L~E to the original constant envelope amplitude E
(1.9)
0 of the wave train is introduced (fig. 1), then, in the frame moving with the group velocity Vg = (wQ/k)kk, one observes from eq. (1.5) that the wavenumber Lik = k k0 changes in time at the rate 2ED d~E/i1x0. Here, x0 is the Lagrangian coordinate specifying the position on the wave envelope, and D is a positive number. In the region A of fig. 1, where ~9i~E/x0 <0, tik decreases with time. For positive group dispersion dVglt9k >0, a decrease of i~k implies a decrease of the group velocity. Thus, in the region A, energy slowly propagates backwards in the moving frame. By similar arguments, one finds that in the region B energy slowly propagates forwards. Accordingly, energy piles up at the local maximum of ~E, starting a purely growing instability. Similar to the nonrelativistic case, the spacetime evolution of the relativistic modulational instability is governed by the nonlinear Schrdinger equation [3134]. The latter admits periodic as well as localized solutions [311. Envelope solitons arise when the relativistic nonlinearity is balanced by the dispersion of the waves. Small amplitude [3134] as well as finite amplitude [35] one-dimensional electromagnetic solitary waves have been found. On the other hand, one can also encounter three-dimensional pulses [36] which have undergone self-focusing [3751] to the point that self-consistent stationary pulse shapes are achieved. The propagation of three-dimensional, localized, circularly polarized electromagnetic waves has been studied by Gersten and Tzoar [36]including the relativistic electron-mass variation nonlinearity. Soliton propagation both below and above the plasma frequency can occur. Besides the electron-mass variation nonlinearity, the self-interaction of large amplitude waves also leads to a time-averaged low-frequency nonlinear force, namely, the ponderomotive force [14]. The latter, because of the large mass of the ions, acts mainly on the electrons, expelling them from regions of high-field intensity. The ambipolar field thus created pulls away the ions. The local plasma density is therefore reduced by the ponderomotive force [52,54]. The combined effect of the ponderomotive force and the relativistic electron-mass variation on the modulational instability [5558], soliton formation [5967], self-focusing [4851], as well as profile modification [68,69] has been investigated. Using the
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a modulated wave packet.
P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
quasi-neutrality assumption, Tsintsadze and Tskhakaya [59] discussed small-amplitude localized laser pulses, whereas Yu, Shukla and Spatschek [59]demonstrated the existence of finite amplitude rarefaction and compressional solitons with subsonic and supersonic velocities in warm plasmas, respectively. Kozlov et al. [60] considered envelope solitons of circularly polarized intense electromagnetic waves in cold plasmas. More recently, Rao et al. [64] presented a general analytic investigation of this problem, including the nonlinearities arising from the relativistic ponderomotive force and the relativistic electron-mass variation, as well as accounting for the nonlinear ion dynamics and charge separation effects. In this treatment, the electrons are in thermal equilibrium with the combined (ponderomotive and ambipolar) fields. The results showed the existence of finite amplitude electromagnetic solitons for subsonic and supersonic velocities accompanied by low-frequency rarefaction and compressional wave, respectively. The adiabatic response in large amplitude electromagnetic waves was analyzed by Shukla [62]. The appearance of supersonic solitons with density humps can be attributed to the inclusion of relativistic and ponderomotive force simultaneously. When the relativistic effects are strong, the relativistic electron-mass increase dominates over the density increase associated with the density hump, the combined effect still being a net reduction of the local plasma frequency. Quantitatively, one [59]can understand the above discussions by considering the small-amplitude limit as follows: The local plasma frequency, including the ponderomotive force modification of the density n = 1 j3u~I2(1 M2) and the relativistic electron-mass variation m~ = meo(1 + u~)V2 meo(i + u~/2), is given by [59]

[1
~/3u~~/(1 M2)
(1.10)
Here, /3 = c2/v~and M (=soliton velocity/sound speed) is the Mach number. Modulational instability and soliton formation is possible if the nonlinear frequency shift ~ to is negative, or (u ~I 2)[ /3(1 M2) 1] <0, which clearly allows the appearance of M2 > 1 solitons as long as /3/Il M21 < 1. On the other hand, in the nonrelativistic limit, which is realized by letting /3 ~ while keeping $u~, = E218JTfloTe fixed, the above condition becomes f3u~,I2(1 M2) <0 so that only M2 <1 solitons can appear. On the other hand, Yu, Shukla, and Tsintsadze [611and Shukla, Yu and Tsintsadze [65]considered the case when the incident laser light is so strong that the radiation pressure dominates over the electron thermal pressure [70]. Here, the low-frequency electrostatic potential is balanced by the relativistic ponderomotive potential. Forced Raman, Brillouin, and quasi-static responses to the circularly polarized laser were investigated. The resulting forced Raman interaction appears on the time scale of the electron plasma period, and can give rise to the envelope solitons [61]with density excesses on the wings. Such a profile has been encountered in computer simulations [60,71] of laserplasma interaction. The forced Brillouin process occurs on the ion time scale and is responsible for compressional localized envelope pulses [65]. Furthermore, Stroscio et a!. [68]included the relativistic ponderomotive force in their study of self-consistent stationary equilibria resulting from the interaction of intense electromagnetic waves with an expanding plasma. It is found that relativistic effects can modify the plasma flow speed in the outer and the inner density shelves quantitatively. Since laser-produced and astrophysical plasmas are generally magnetized, the problem of modulational instability, solitonformation, and profile modification in plasmas needs to be reconsidered by including the effects of an external magnetic field. The theory of multidimensional large amplitude wave propagation in magnetized plasmas can be quite complicated. Efforts have been made to consider some simple cases, such as wave propagation along or perpendicular to the external field. The nonlinear
*
P. K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
dispersion relation for strong, circularly polarized waves propagating along the external magnetic field has been derived by many authors [1821, 7279]. In the ultra-relativistic limit, new nonlinear waves propagating in magnetized plasmas have been obtained [7379].The modulational instability and nonlinear properties of the ultrarelativistic waves are studied in refs. [74771. Small amplitude nonlinear cyclotron waves propagating along the magnetic field have been analyzed in refs. [8081]. Rao, Shukla and Yu [66] showed that, just as for an unmagnetized plasma, intense electromagnetic waves propagating along an external magnetic field can produce large amplitude electrostatic fields in the direction of the external magnetic field. Solitons exist when the radiation pressure dominates over the plasma pressure. Furthermore, when the low-frequency plasma response is quasi-neutral, arbitrary large amplitude envelope pulses of circularly polarized radiation along the external magnetic field can exist [67]. It was suggested that the investigation of free electron lasers [82, 83] and laser-driven electrostatic particle beat-wave accelerators [84] should also take into account the effects of relativistic wave interaction with magnetized plasmas. In addition, the interaction of strong electromagnetic waves with magnetized plasmas may also create solitons in electronpositron plasmas relevant to the pulsar magnetosphere [85, 86]. We present in this article a review of some important problems associated with the relativistic nonlinear effects in unmagnetized as well as magnetized plasmas. The organization of the material is as follows: In the next section, we consider the relevant equations which describe the process of parametric interaction, soliton formation, etc. These are the two-fluid relativistic hydrodynamic equations together with the Maxwell equations. For the purpose of estimating thermal effects we shall include pressure force terms which are nonrelativistic. Since we are mainly concerned with wave modulation, in most cases we shall distinguish between fast and slow plasma motion. In section 3, we discuss relativistic nonlinear effects in unmagnetized plasmas. The relativistic modulational instability investigated by Tsintsadze [23]will be reviewed. Here, the combined effects of the ponderomotive force and the relativistic electron-mass variation is analyzed. Electrostatic instabilities [551 can arise in the presence of external pumping. This section also contains an extended discussion of the nonlinear electromagnetic wave propagation problem. Both linearly and circularly polarized waves are considered. The processes of stimulated Raman and the Brillouin scattering are investigated in detail. We present also the nonlinear evolution equations which govern the evolution of modulationally unstable waves. The phenomena of wave localization and collapse are studied. Finite amplitude theories of electromagnetic wave envelope solitons are discussed. Furthermore, it is shown that the inclusion of multidimensional effects can give rise to self-focusing and self-trapping of waves. Three-dimensional relativistic solitons are discussed. The problems of soliton stability and wave breaking are also investigated. In section 4, we discuss the relativistic effects in magnetized plasmas. Here, we consider wave propagation across and along the external magnetic field. The nonlinear coupling of the electrostatic upper-hybrid [8789] and the ordinary electromagnetic waves with the background plasma is considered, accounting for the relativistic and ponderomotive force nonlinearities. Also discussed are the ultrarelativistic circularly polarized electromagnetic waves propagating along the external magnetic field. The effects of oblique modulation are presented. At the end of this section, we discuss circularly polarized electromagnetic waves of weakly relativistic amplitudes and give a nonlinear theory for the large amplitude field-aligned electromagnetic wave solitons. Criteria for the wave localization are given. In section 5, we shall discuss profile modification and shock wave structures in laser-irradiated plasmas. First, we present a brief survey of nonrelativistic results, highlighting some of the analytical developments. The following sections deal with the problem of relativistic effects on compressionrarefaction shocks and rarefaction wave-plateau shocks. The structure of the compressionrarefaction shocks is
addressed in section 5.3. Explicit profiles for different field quantities are given. The results demonstrate the existence of supercritical density bumps near the critical region, agreeing with simulation as well as experimental results. The effects of an external magnetic field on the rarefaction wave-plateau shocks is then analyzed for circularly polarized incident waves. The relativistic nonlinearities due to the ponderomotive force and the electron-mass variation in the presence of an external magnetic field are included in the analysis. It is shown that while the outer shelf density does not change much quantitatively, the inner shelf density can become subcritical depending on the relative strengths of the incident waves and the external magnetic field as well as the wave polarization. This suggests the possibility of making the density surface more transparent to the incident waves and, thereby, enhance the size of the interaction region and the absorption of energy by the plasma. We consider in the last section a possible mechanism for the generation of magnetic fields in plasmas irradiated with laser beams. The results demonstrate that beam inhomogeneities coupled with ponderomotive effects can lead to the generation of strong magnetic fields. For intense beams, the strength of the self-generated fields can be of the order of a few mega-Gauss, which is the typical value observed in the experiments as well as the simulations. In section 6, we shall consider the physics of electromagnetic waves in electronpositron plasmas. Because of the equality of the masses of the particles, these plasmas show some very different behaviour when compared with the usual electronion plasmas. It is found that the extraordinary electromagnetic waves and the upper-hybrid waves are decoupled. The dispersion relation of the extraordinary mode is identical to that of the circularly polarized electromagnetic waves along the external magnetic field. The modulational instability and wave localization are investigated, taking into account the strong magnetic field of the pulsar magnetosphere. It is suggested that the solitary electromagnetic pulses in a strongly magnetized electronpositron plasma could be associated with the pulsar radiation. The acceleration and heating of cosmic ray particles by the pulsar radiation are also investigated. Section 7 discusses the importance of relativistic effects with regard to electromagnetic wave generation [82] and particle acceleration [84]. The topics include free electron lasers, gyrotrons, beat-wave accelerators, etc. In free electron lasers, the energy of the relativistic electron beams is converted into tunable electromagnetic waves. The gyrotrons are based on the cyclotron-maser instability in which beam electrons are phase bunched due to the relativistic electron-mass variation in the fields of the cavity modes. The concept of beat-wave accelerator relies on the trapping of fast electrons in the high phase velocity electrostatic oscillations. The latter are created by intense lasers or particle beams. The advantages and limitations of various schemes are discussed. The last section contains a brief conclusion as well as a discussion of future works which can be carried out. It is clearly not possible to cover in this report all the recent progress in the area of nonlinear relativistic wave propagation. Our choice of topics is necessarily biased toward those which are consistent with our own research activities. Nevertheless, we believe that this review will be useful for those who are interested in the basic physics of relativistic propagation, and wish to have an overview of the various problems involved.
2. Basic equations We will be considering in this report various types of nonlinear interactions of high-frequency electromagnetic (or electrostatic) waves with a two-component plasma consisting of electrons and ions. Towards the end, we shall discuss also some nonlinear effects in electronpositron plasmas which find
10
applications in astrophysical contexts. The basic model followed throughout is a two-fluid model supplemented by isothermal or adiabatic equation of state for the species. The effect of an external magnetic field will be considered separately in various sections. To simplify the discussion and also to point out the basic physics involved, we will not take into account kinetic effects such as waveparticle interaction, Landau damping, etc. Furthermore, the use of a fluid picture can be justified by the fact that one is interested here in the macroscopic, average nonlinear behaviour of the plasma rather than the microscopic properties. This justification can further be supported by the length and time scales involved in the interactions. The basic equations relevant to our discussion are the fluid equations for the conservation of mass and momentum of the individual fluids supplemented by the Maxwell equations. The relativistic fluid equations are given by d~n1+V.(n1v1)0, ~ v1XB) ~-VP1. (2.1) (2.2)
The wave electric (E) and the magnetic (B) fields are governed by the Maxwell equations, namely, (2.3) VxB
= ~.
~
n~q1v~, +
o~E,
(2.4) (2.5) (2.6)
VE=41T~q1n1, VB=0.
The following notations are used in eqs. (2.1)(2.6): n., v~.and P1 denote, respectively, the number density, the fluid velocity and the fluid pressure where the subscript j indicates the species, namely, 2)~2 denotes the relativistic momentum of jspecies] = i(ions), e(electrons) and p(positrons); p1 = m.0v1I(1 v~Ic and c is the velocity of light; mo denotes the rest mass of the particles. The wave fields E and B can be defined in terms of the vector (A) and the scalar (~) potentials as,
B=VxA, E=~.d~AV~. We shall use throughout the Lorentz gauge condition,
(2.7) (2.8)
V~A+~~cb=0.
(2.9)
11
The potentials A and q5 are then governed by the following inhomogeneous wave equations: (2.10)
V2~_~~ 9~q~41Tp,
(2.11)
where p
n 1q1 and J = ~ nq1v,, denote the total charge density and the total current density. In order to close the above set of equations, one needs to specify an equation of state for the pressure. For isothermal processes, the equation of state is given by
=
P1=n1T1,
(2.12)
where T1 represents the temperature of species]. On the other hand, for adiabatic responses, one uses as equation of state: d~(P1n~) = 0, (2.13)
where a1 is the usual adiabatic index which is the ratio of the specific heats. Equation (2.13) is valid for those thermodynamic processes where the net heat flux is zero. A few comments must be made about the correctness of the continuity equation (2.1) as well as the equations of state (2.12) and (2.13) for processes where relativistic effects are taken into account. Firstly, since the density is not a Lorentz invariant quantity, it follows that one must account for changes in the particle number density due to relativistic effects. However, since all the calculations are carried out in one frame of reference, namely, the laboratory frame of reference or in an inertial frame moving with respect to it, the fact that the number density is not a Lorentz invariant quantity is not relevant to the present discussion. The effects due to the Lorentz noninvariance are important only when there is a change from one inertial frame to another. An extended discussion of this aspect of the problem can be found in ref. [7]. On the other hand, at relativistic plasma temperatures the macroscopic equations of state as given by eqs. (2.12) and (2.13) are not valid. Rather, one should resort to kinetic treatment [90]. Nonlinear equations governing the parametric interactions of large amplitude waves with relativistically hot plasmas are discussed in the literature [33, 91]. The mode coupling formalism allows one to consider scattering of strong waves off subluminous electrostatic fluctuations. In strong fields the charged particles acquire relativistic speeds and the thermal energy of the particles exceed their rest energy in a plasma which is relativistically hot. Such circumstances arise in several astrophysical environments [92]. However, we shall be considering in this review only those relativistic effects which arise due to the high-frequency motion of the particles. For large field intensities, the latter becomes relativistic resulting in the nonlinearities due to the ponderomotive force and the particle-mass variation whereas the low-frequency motion and the temperature are still nonrelativistic. The use of the macroscopic equations of state (2.12) and (2.13) can then be justified at least in the lowest order.
12
P.K. Shukla et a!.. Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
3. Relativistic effects in unmagnetized plasmas 3.1. Electron plasma waves It is well known that p-polarized electromagnetic wave obliquely incident on density gradient is mode converted into localized electron plasma waves [93] at the critical density surface where the wave frequency matches the local plasma frequency. In the linear theory of the mode conversion process, the large amplitude plasma wave saturates when the energy input from the electromagnetic waves is balanced by the energy loss due to convection of the wave out of the resonant region [93].As long as the electron thermal velocity is smaller than the velocity of light, convection of the plasma waves is weak. When the oscillatory velocity of the electrons in the mode converted cold plasma waves approaches the velocity of light, the resulting oscillation of the electron mass may strongly influence the nonlinear evolution of these waves. Tsintsadze [23] has shown that mass oscillation in a large-amplitude, long-wavelength plasma wave can parametrically excite shorter wavelength plasma waves, and the growth rate of the resulting instabilities can exceed those of the decay or oscillating two-stream instabilities [27].In the following, we discuss the relativistic parametric instabilities of Tsintsadze [23],and Lin and Tsintsadze [24].The role of ponderomotive-force driven density fluctuation is examined and the nonlinear solutions for the modulationally unstable waves are given. 3.1.1. Modulational instability and soliton formation Let us first consider the stability of a purely electronic plasma against excited oscillations in a strong high-frequency field. When the frequency of the parametrically excited mode is around the electron plasma frequency, the ions do not take part in the oscillations, but serve as a neutralizing background in the equilibrium. For illustrative purposes, we assume that in equilibrium the plasma is subject to an external dipole electric field, E = E0 sin w0t, where the wavelength of the oscillating electric field and the plasma inhomogeneity scale length are assumed to be much longer than the wavelength of the parametrically excited mode. The electron oscillating velocity in the equilibrium electric field is then given by 2 (3.1) v0(t) = VE cos w0tI(1 + v~ cos~ w0t) where i~= VEIc, and VE = eEo/meowo is the quiver velocity. It follows from eq. (3.1) that the relativistic periodic time variation of the electron mass under the action of the assumed driver is
,
2 (3.2) 0t)~ We now perturb the equilibrium and study the parametric amplification of the electrostatic wave (E = V4). In the one-dimensional electrostatic approximation (kill, E = lo~4), the parametric instability due to the electron-mass variation can be studied by a set of electron fluid equations which includes the continuity equation, the relativistic equation of motion, and Poissons equation:
=
.
me(t)
meo(1 +
i.~cos2
~n
~(nv)O,
+
(3.3a)
=
vr)(yu)
w~ 0(n n0)
~
men
8~(ln n),
(3.3b)
13
Note that in eq. (3.3b) we have used the Poisson equation 9~4=4~e(n n0), (3.3c)
and the ions are assumed to be immobile. Letting n = + &ne, v = v0 + ?iv (~~e ~ n0, ~v ~ v0), retaining only the linear terms in eqs. (3.3a) and (3.3b), and taking the Fourier transformation in the spatial domain, we find [24] ~ in0k av exp(ip), 2A~e)8neexp(i~p), vexP~)j 1 = 1W (1 +3k (1v 0/c) no
=
~
exp(up)]
(3.4a)
2Imeo, ADe = Lte/topO is the electron Debye length, ~ and v are the where = kv~ dt, w~ = 4irnoe number density and the velocity perturbations associated with the electrons, respectively; n 0 is the average plasma density, and Vte = (Tel meo )1 /2 is the electron thermal velocity. Eliminating ~iv from eqs. 2, one finds [23, 24] (3.4a) and (3.4b), and taking the weak relativistic limit, namely V~ <c + w~[1 ~ cos(2w 0t)]F = 0, (3.5)

4 ~J
where 2A~e), w~~(1 + 3k and F is related to the electron number density perturbation by
=
F (1 u~/c2)3129t[~ne exp(ip)]. Equation (3.5) is in the form of the Mathieu equation. The growth rate y 0 of the first unstable mode is determined by [24]
2A~e)][2AW+ 3k2A~e ~i~]} (3.6) Yo = ~w0{[~v~ (2z~w + 3k where Aw = w~ is the frequency mismatch. Clearly, the instability occurs provided that the thermal effects or the frequency mismatch are retained in the theory. The maximum growth rate is given by [23]
, to 0
)max~h1~~?O~
(3.7)
Let us now compare eq. (3.7) with the maximum growth rate of the oscillating two-stream instability
[27] 13w
Ymax
=
~V~(m~0/2m1)
00
It turns out that the two growth rates become comparable in a deuterium plasma (m1lm~0 = 3600) for
14
P. K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasrnas
= 0.5c. If one includes both the frequency mismatch and the Landau damping in determining the growth rate, the critical pump strength required for the electron-mass modulational instability to become the dominant process is reduced to about = 0.35c. Lin and Tsintsadze [24] carried out two computer simulations in order to verify the theoretical predictions. In the first run, the ions were kept immobile and ~ = 0.35, to0 = 0.95w~0,CIVte = 20 were
VE
taken. The growth rates of the unstable modes in the linear stage are in good agreement with the theoretical growth rate. The time development of the parametrically unstable modes shows that after t = 250w the amplitude of the most unstable mode can become comparable with the pump strength and that this unstable mode produces a very strong disturbance. Such large self-consistent fields can give rise to substantial nonlinear frequency shifts; this proves to be the cause of wave energy saturation in the simulation. The inclusion of the ion motion (with deuterium mass m~ = 3600me0) in the simulation yields a somewhat larger growth rate. This enhancement certainly comes from the fact that the forces associated with the oscillating two-stream instability reinforce those due to the electron-mass modulation and thus they enhance each other. A number of authors [33, 34] have derived a nonlinear Schrdinger equation which governs the evolution of the relativistic modulational instability of electron plasma waves. For ck < w~,0,the harmonic generation nonlinearity can be ignored and one of the simplest ways to derive the nonlinear Schrdinger equation is to start with the nonlinear dispersion relation (cf., eq. (1.2)) of the electron plasma wave
;~,
to 2 =
2 3k 22 Vte + w~0(1
32
kUm)~
(3.8a)
Anticipating that relativistic nonlinearity introduces an envelope of waves which vary on a time scale much shorter than the ion plasma period, one can follow the Karpman and Krushkal [14] method to derive the evolution equation. Accordingly, we let to = to0 + ic91(t9~ w~)and k = k0 i~ in eq. (3.8a) and find in one-space dimension an envelope equation
~
(2ito0t~~ + 6ik0v~9~ + 3v~9~)E + ~ w~0~u~E = 0,
(3.8b)
where to = 3 k~v ~e + ~ ~ has been used. For the multidimensional case, Freund et al. [34]have used a multiple time-scale expansion method on the relativistic fluid equations to describe the evolution of the nonlinear electron plasma waves:
2E + E~ EE*) = 0,
(3.9)
2io~E + 3VV~ E + 8m~ e 2 (21E1 0c w~0 where the Langmuir pump is assumed to be of infinite wavelength, and the time and the space variables are in units of to and ADe, respectively. The nonlinear terms arise from purely relativistic effects and cannot be recovered in the nonrelativistic limit. When the 2w gradients of the phase and the amplitude E are 2 I El 2~ 8m ~ orthogonal, the investigations nonlinear terms become 3e the nonlinear 0c All of these [3134] assume effect of the relativistic mass variation to become important on a much shorter time scale than that of the ponderomotive force, and accordingly ion dynamics has been ignored in the early stages of the interaction. However, when the ponderomotiveforce driven density change and the external pump E 0 sin w0t are included, the one-dimensional nonlinear Schrdinger equation becomes [55]
~.
P.K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
15
e 2iw~0~~u+3v~ ~
WE
(3.10)
where u = eEIm~0cw~0 and = eEoImeoc. The low-frequency (o~ ~ ~e~x) electron density fluctuations are obtained by averaging the electron momentum equation, namely,
2meodx(veh)
e~t~ Tex~fl~Iflo
where the left-hand side represents the ponderomotive force which involves the high-frequency electron fluid velocity veh = ieEIwpomeo in the Langmuir fields. The angular bracket denotes the averaging over the high-frequency fields. The slow ions, which are coupled with the electrons via the ambipolar potential 4, obey the usual hydrodynamic equations n~+n0d5v~=0, m1o~vr=eo14~m~o5(v~,),
111h = ieElm where 1w~0,the last term in the ion momentum equation is the ion ponderomotive force, and we have assumed cold ions. Combining the last three equations, and using the quasineutrality condition (~n~ = ~ one finds [52]
(~
-
c~) ~
c2rneo
~2luI2
(3.11)
112 is the ion sound speed. In eq. (3.11) the contribution of the ion ponderomotive where = (Telmi) force isc~ smaller by a factor of meo/mj ~ 1. Equation (3.11) shows that the low-frequency ponderomotive potential (meoc2 JuJ 2~ 4e) acting on the electrons can be the source of the nonthermal ion-acoustic fluctuations [52,58] whose linear phase velocity lies between the electron and ion thermal velocities. If the relativistic effects are neglected (third term on the left-hand side of eq. (3.10)) and if the pump is absent (that is, the right-hand side of eq. (3.10) is zero), then the coupled system reduces exactly to the well-known Zakharov equations [52]. The unperturbed, oscillating solution of eqs. (3.10) and (3.11) is independent of space, that is,
=
a 0 exp[i(w~0
w0)t],
(3.12)
where the amplitude a0 is given by the relation
2~a0 =
WE/topO,
with
z~ =
w0lto~0.The instability of the unperturbed solution (3.12) against low-frequency, long-
wavelength perturbation can be studied by letting u =(a0+ a1)exp[i~ +i(w~0 w0)t],
(3.13)
where a1 ~ a0 and ~ <% are supposed to vary as exp(iQt + iKx). With the help of standard techniques [52], one can derive the following dispersion relation from eqs. (3.10)(3.13):
16
P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
K2c~)[I22
~0
-~
~W~o(3K2A~e + 2Li
~a~)(3K2A~e + 2Li
w~oK2c2(3K2A~e + 2Li
(3.14)
Several comments are in order: (i) When there are no ion number density modulations (~n~ = 0) and in the region ~ a~ <Li < ~ a~,we find unstable solutions with the maximum growth rate [23] (Im ~max
=
i~~a~w~ 0
(3.15)
for Li = ~a~ (ii) When the pump is absent (E0 = 0, or Li = 3a~/l6),eq. (3.14) is identical to that of Berezhiani et al. [56];(iii) Tsintsadze et al. [55]found new solutions where both relativistic electron-mass 2A~eao, one obtains variation and pump wave effects are important. For WE > 3wpoK Kc~ (Im I2)max = w~ 0W~I6, (3.16) 2A~e<<W~ = E~I16~noTe<<\/T~KADe(meoImj)2. In the opposite case where 1>>Kc~ and where Li ~ K one finds
~
Im 11
(3me 0132m1)
4(Kcwpo)112a
0 2.Finally, assuming that requiring that W~ ~(Kc/wpo)(meo/mj)~ Im (1 \/~Kvte(WemeoImj)4 for W 1 meolmj
(3.17)
WE
~topoK2A~eao, one gets (3.18)
When the finite wavenumber k0 of the pump is included (but assuming the external pump to be absent such that Li = ~ a~),eq. (3.14) is replaced by 2 K2c~)[(i1 3WpoA~ekoK)2 ~to2poK2A~e(K2A~e 2FW~)]

(Q
=
~2 to~o(KA~~W~
(3.19)
where F = 2v~e Ic2 21/3. For (.1 WpokoKA~e the contribution of the relativistic effects (the term FW~) is small, and Zakharovs growth rate is recovered. However, if, 11 = 3WpoA~ekoK + ~Q, ~Q ~ top~A~ek~K, kOADe (meo/mj)L~2, and 2FW 2A~ 2 then, the Langmuir wave is always K 5 > (~~e meolmj) unstable against low-frequency 1 modulations. The growth rate is
~
Im ~fl
2W~ m
~0 Dc
~,j 50\~ KVte.
m~
(3.20)
Thus, the present relativistic instability occurs at long wavelength k 0 ADC

kOADe<(kOADe)~
(meol m1 ~1/ 2 and for (3.21)
17
The dynamical evolution of the instability discussed above is governed by ip4E + ~~E = (RJEJ2 (9~ 8~)n = 9~JEl2,
~
n)E = 0,
(3.22) (3.23)
where JEJ2
JEJ2Il61Tn
.~
0T~,n = ~n~In0,R = 3F14, and js = meQlmj. The time and space variables are in units of to and A~e~ respectively; w~,1is the ion plasma frequency. Three conserved integrals of motion for the eqs. (3.22) and (3.23) are [53] N=fJEJ2dx, (3.24)
P=
2 + nJEl2 ~ R~E~J + ~(n2 + u~)] dx, H= [3J8~EJ where d~n = ~u, and the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate.

f J
[3i(E~E*
E*o~E)+ n~u] dx,
(3.25) (3.26)
Let us now look for stationary localized solutions of eqs. (3.22) and (3.23) in the form E = G(~)exp[iO(t)
+
i4(~)],
(3.27) (3.28)
where ~ = x n
=
Mt, and M is the Mach number. Then, eq. (3.13) gives
JEI2I(M2 1).
(3.29)
For M2>1, we find compressional solitons [58,59]. In our terminology, the latter denote self-consistent localized density perturbations together with an envelope of high-frequency electrostatic (or electromagnetic) waves. Substituting eq. (3.29) into eq. (3.22), we get in the stationary state P~G2AG+QJGJ2G=0, where P = 3, A = + P(~43Ic9~)2, and integrating once, we get, P(9kG)2
(3.30)
Q=R
(M2
1). Multiplying eq. (3.30) by d~G and
2AG2
QG4
0,
(3.31)
where we have assumed the plasma to be unperturbed at infinity and have accordingly imposed the boundary conditions E~ 0, 9~E. 0 at j = The solution of eq. (3.31) satisfying the above boundary conditions is given by G = Gm sech(K 0~), (3.32)
18
where the maximum soliton amplitude is Gm = (2AIQ)2. The inverse soliton width
Ko = l(~and
(3.33) the nonlinear frequency shift A are given by (3.34)
(A/P)2 [R
(M2
1)~]G~.
(3.35)
Clearly, for R > (M2 1)~envelope solitions exist. For M2 ~ 1 the relativistic effects are insignificant and rarefaction density perturbations are obtained. On the other hand, for M2 > /3, the relativistic as well as the ponderomotive force nonlinearities are equally important. In this case, one finds compressional density perturbations together with the localized Langmuir wave electric fields. The appearance of compressional solitons may be explained as follows: the forces of the high-frequency pressure and the hydrodynamic pressure acting on the ion component of the plasma have opposite directions. When M2 /3, the high-frequency pressure force exceeds that of the hydrodynamic pressure, so that the total force is directed away from the region of the high-frequency field localization. Within the forefront region (with respect to the direction of the solitary wave motion), the plasma particles acquire a velocity which is directed towards the wave propagation, and the so-called plasma raking-up by the high-frequency field
~
pressure occurs. Since the velocity of the solitary wave exceeds those of the particles (ions), the wave leaves the particles behind. In the rear region, the particles are retarded. It follows that there is
unperturbed plasma behind the wave. Thus, the effect of the plasma raking-up by the high-frequency pressure leads to the increase of the plasma velocity within the perturbed spatial region. 3.2. Electromagnetic waves In his important work, Tsintsadze [23]pointed out that in the presence of a dipole oscillating electric field, E 0 cos w0t, the electron-mass modulation can also cause the growth of the high-frequency electromagnetic perturbations. When the wavenumber k of the latter is perpendicular to E0, one then
obtains two equations, one of them is a purely transverse component,

2c2+ w~~(1v~Ic2)112]u = 0, (3.36a) [k where u = v 2)2, V 1(1 v~ 1c 1 = ~vE0 X k/E0k, and ~v is a small deviation from v0, while the second equation is a longitudinaltransverse component of fourth order:
22c kc

221/2
{~1[(a~E~)(1v0Ic ) 2)312] + [c1~ + w~~(1v~ Ic
] + w~0(1
-~-
v0Ic )E~} {c9~[(~~E~)(1 v~Ic2)~2] + w~
0E~} = 0.
(3.36b)
When kc ~ to0 and to~0, eq. (3.36b) becomes structurally similar to the equation for the longitudinal oscillations (namely, E~k~)and has the form, 2 w 312X=0, (3.36c) ~9~X+w~0(1 +v~cos 0ty
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
19
where, X=
C
{o9~[(9~E~)(1v0Ic
21/2
]+
w~0E~}
In the weakly relativistic limit, eq. (3.36c) reduces to the Mathieu equation. When the real part of
the frequency is .w~0+ O(~~), then, the maximum growth rate is found to be [11]
4 4 4 1/2
(3.37)
2 w~(xi~ + 8k2c2lw~ where 32k~c 0).Clearly, the latter puts a severe restriction on the validity of the dipole approximation. A consistent treatment could, therefore, require the spatial dependence of the equilibrium driving wave to be retained. Thus, in what follows, we consider the nonlinear development of a propagating electromagnetic wave in a dispersive medium including the effects of weak relativistic electron-mass variation and the Lorentz force [32]. Both of these effects can lead to nonlinearity, the study of which is of importance with regard to the question of whether absorption is due to the linear mode conversion [93], or due to the nonlinear excitation of localized waves. Consider the propagation of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave in the form
~
IE(z, t) cos ~
where ~ = w~t kz is the phase, and to0 and k satisfy approximately the linear dispersion relation 2c2. = to~ + k Here, Wpe (41Te21le/me)12 is the electron plasma frequency. The nonlinear propagation characteristics of the electromagnetic radiation are governed by an inhomogeneous wave equation which includes nonlinear corrections. The latter can be attributed to two sources. First, the nonrelativistic Lorentz force on the electrons produces low-frequency density fluctuations which can beat the high-frequency velocity perturbations, leading to nonlinear currents. The density fluctuation ~ is obtained as follows. From the linearized electron continuity, momentum and Poisson equations, we have + neOoz~ve = 0,
=
~_
(~
+
(3.38) 0 x B) f, (3.39) (3.40)
~Z6EZ = ~41Te~ne,
where m~0is the electron rest mass. We note that the inclusion of the relativistic mass correction 2)~2 here would lead to higher nonlinearities proportional to E4 which are neglected. From Faradays = (1 v~lc law, one gets
B=~9Ecos~,.
(3.41)
20
The velocity v0 of an electron in the wave field is v0 =
eE x sin q~. meowo
(3.42)
The ion response is neglected because the modulation frequency is assumed to be larger than the ion plasma frequency. Combining eqs. (3.38) and (3.39), substituting for B and v0, and using eq. (3.40), we obtain 2(to~ to~e)cos(2~)/(4w~ w~ = neoa 0), (3.43)

where a = eEImeotooC. the resulting nonlinear high-frequency current act ~e~nevo, being propor3 cos hasClearly, a component in phase with E. It can, therefore, as a source for the tional to E electromagnetic wave. On the other hand, the weak relativistic electron-mass variation produces a high-frequency change
1 ~ ~
~,
~Ve
in the velocity v 0, where (3.44)
~Ve
x sin 3
~,
which also has a component in phase with E. Substituting these two sources of nonlinear current density into Amperes law, we obtain the wave equation for the self-modulation,
2V2 + w~
0)E= 41T,J,
(3.45)
where the total current density J is given by 3(w~ w~ eneoca 0) 3 = 2 2 sln cx ~ecn~0a sln ipx. 2(4w~ w~0)

(3.46)
3 ~ = 3 sin ~ and we have made use of the the trigonometric identity, index 4 sin [3] approximation, eq. (3.45) yields nonlinear refractive ~222 k Ito where
3
sin 3q. In the harmonic
22
w~0Iw0 + a w~0qI2w0,
(3.47)
3
.
q= (to0 w~0)I(4w0 w~0) = (3.48) The last term in eq. (3.47) arises from the relativistic mass correction and the radiation pressure due to the Lorentz force. Let us now consider the nonlinear evolution of the one-dimensional wave packet. The differential equation describing weakly nonlinear low-frequency modulation of the large amplitude wave can be derived from eq. (3.45) by applying a WKB-like approximation. Using 2 cos c = e~ + e~ and 2 sin c = e~ e~, and collecting terms with equal phases, we obtain for the slowly varying complex amplitude the following equation:
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
21
E=0, (3.49) 4w0 2Iw where ~ = Z Vgt and Vg = kc 0 is the group velocity of the wave. A detailed derivation of the above equation by an alternative method is given in appendix A. We now study the stability of a constant envelope wave with respect to the low-frequency modulation [15]. In this case, the electric 2 field E has finite amplitude E0, 2, frequency to0 and wavevector k0 as should be a replaced by aJ2Ja where ao=eEolmeowoc. Equation I(3.49) ~J-_~.oo. Thus, in eq. (3.49), a 0J becomes
~
i~E+d~E+ 2w0
w2 0qa
i~E +
f
to 0
~E
0q (I El 4w0m~0c
E 2)E = 0. 0
(3.50)
To consider the stability of the wave, we linearize the nonlinear SchrOdinger equationwith respect to the constant pump amplitude. Making the ansatz E
=
\/p(~,t) exp[io-(~,t)],
(3.51)
we obtain from eq. (3.50)
~
2 2 to 0qe 4w~m~
f(pfo)=O,
2
~
(3.52)
+ 4tooP
2tv~ ~
0c Linearizing in the form
8w 2 (~i)2 = 0. 0p
(3.53)
(3.54) (3.55) with p 1, o~ exp(iK~ iQt) we obtain the determinant

~
-ill 2 w~0qe 4w 0m~0c
c2k2 4w0p0
toO
=0.
(3.56)
The low-frequency dispersion relation for to0 to~,0 is then given by 4K4l4w~ c2K2qa~w~ ~2 + c /4to~ 0 = 0.

(3.57)
It follows that the modulation is unstable if
22
2to~ E~>K2c4m~0w~ Ie 0q. This condition differs from that of Max et a!. [30] who considered the case k0c growth rate is
Yrnax
=
~
(3.58) w~,0. The maximum
w~0qa~/4w0.
(3.59)
Possible final states of the modulationally unstable relativistic electromagnetic wave are given by the stationary solutions of the nonlinear Schrdinger equation. The most general solution is the periodic wave train [16] 112(e) exp[i4 E(~,t) = p 0(~, t)], (3.60) where p d140 = M0, and 2{[w~ 2]H2~ K). p(~) = C2 + (C1 C2)cn 0q(C, C3)I12C Here, K2 = (C 3 2C2 + P 1 C2)(C1 C3), and C, C2 C3 are solutions of C 0C + 4M0 = 0, where P0 and M0 are arbitrary constants. A particularly simple solution, which follows from (3.60) is the envelope soliton [15, 16]

E(z, t) where
Em sech[K0(z
Vgt)]
exp(iWt),
(3.61)
2
Ko =
EmtopoqeI2meowoC
W= ~R2c21w 0
~
2/m~ (w~0qe 0w~c
2)E~
Here, R is an arbitrary constant given by the initial condition and Em is the maximum amplitude. The nonlinearity arising from relativistic electron mass variation as well as the Lorentz force is balanced by the group dispersion of the high-frequency wave, allowing for localized envelope solutions. Max, Arons and Langdon [30]have investigated self-modulation and self-focusing of electromagnetic waves due to weak relativistic effects in unmagnetized plasmas. When the modulation frequency (2 and the wavenumber K satisfy Qa~ to~ 2 k~, then, the dispersion relation governing the and relativistic modulational instability is0Ito0 given by K [30]
~
2)2 + qa~to~ 2 K2c2) = 0. (3.62) 0 K k0c 0(Q For the self-modulation problem, we take KJJk 21to 0 and set 12 = KVg + z~fI, where Vg = k0c 0 is the group
((22

K2C2)2
4(Qw
velocity of the pump wave. With the ordering z~fl a~w0,Ka0w0IC, one gets from eq. (3.62) 2[(Kclw 2 qa~], (3.63) ~Kc(w~0Iw0) 0) where w~ ~ w~ 112, eq. (3.62) admits an instability. The maximum 0 has for been For K < (w0/C)a0q growth rate occurs K assumed. = (w 0Ic)a0(qI2)~,and is given by

23
Ymax =
(w~0l4w0)a0q.
(3.64)
The maximum spatial growth rate is given by Ymax/tg For self-focusing, we take, K k0 = 0 and assume (2= to0a~,Kc to0a0. Then, eq. (3.62) yields, 2 qa 2. (3.65) .0 )iKc[(KcIw0) 0to~0Ito~]L~ The first term in square brackets represents diffraction, and is stabilizing. The maximum wavenumber for the instability is given by K < (w~oIc)qV2ao,which is smaller by a factor w~ 0Ito0 than the analogous K for self-modulation. The maximum growth rate is the same as in ofthat self-modulation. For Nd-glass 2, the onecase finds the fastest growth time is laser (c/to0 = 1.06 p.m), with to0 = 1.7w~0, 1 =5 X 1016 W/cm 6 x i03 s for both modulational and self-focusing instabilities. The exponential length for these processes is 140 p.m. For self-modulation, the modulating wavelength is 14 p.m, and the modulating frequency is a tenth of the laser frequency. For self-focusing, the filament width for fastest growth is 23 p.m. The assumptions JOJ ~ w~ 2 ~ k~, and K2 ~k w~ 2 are necessary for the above results to hold. 0lw0, K Furthermore, for an under-dense plasma we must have a0/c 2. Near critical density surface, on 0 ~ (to~0/to0) the other hand, k 0c> a0w0 must be satisfied.
3.3. Stimulated Raman scattering In the stimulated Raman scattering [58],electromagnetic waves are scattered off the electron plasma oscillations. Bodner and Eddleman [57]have shown that the intense laser light (E0 sin to0t) with frequency to0 near excites transverse waves with real frequencies 0 and 2w0(these waves can be thought of as analogous to the Stokes and the anti-Stokes lines [16] of the stimulated Raman scattering process), and the longitudinal plasma oscillations at to0. The resonant coupling is due to the Lorentz force and the relativistic mass correction. Assuming that the wavelength of the excited mode is much less than that of the incident wave (k> k0), one obtains a coupled set of equations
2 w0cE ~n +k 1= p- ~ sin w0t, Ye to0 n0 2k2A [t9t(Yet9t) + topk]~e = sin w 2 e2 0t, meowocye 2v A where to~k = to perturbation + 3k 1in is the (E = number density the transverse laboratoryvector framepotential of reference. Expanding A 1 and bne in harmonics of to0, namely,
2c2
2 + ~-)A to0\
(3.66) (3.67) Ic
~,
1oA 1),
-
and 6~2~ is the electron
ane_[nUe~0t+
n e~0)0t]e~0t+ . .. 2~ e21~b0t + A~2~ e_2~~~~0t] eIwot
A1 = [A~~ + A~ and substituting eqs. (3.68) and (3.69) into eqs. (3.66) and (3.67), the following dispersion relation is
(368) (3.69)
24
obtained [57]:
to2 =
(to~k
to~v~I256c4, w~ 3to~v~I4c2)2/4w~

(3.70)
topk,
where v 2v~ w~v~Ic2. For to~(1 + 3v~/4c2) 0 = eEo/meowo, and k found from eq. (3.70) is 1 v~2
Yrnax~~toQ~
the maximum growth rate
(3.71)
Due to the present parametric instability, energy can be deposited in both the transverse electromagnetic wave E~ and in the longitudinal electrostatic wave E~.The ratio of the two is given by (3.72) 0to0 Thus, most of the energy shall be deposited in the plasma oscillations. Kotetishvili, Kaw and Tsintsadze [94] have examined the scattering of high-frequency (to0 to~0) electromagnetic wave off electron plasma waves. Using the multiple time-scale method, they obtainedfor the linearly polarized wave, a pair of coupled nonlinear equations
~
E~ v
i(9~ + vgz)E
2 2 to~0
~v~9~E+
2 2
(~ .- ~
~
0,
(3.73)
(~+
3vtedz)
,
2Iw
=
(3.74) k0c k 2 0JEJ 0, v~ = dvgIk0,

to0
2 = e2JEJ2Im~ where V 0w~, vg = to0Iilk0 ponderomotive force given by F~ = 4meowo 2 2 o2JE1

2+
k0c
w~0I2k0c, and F~is the
2m
50to0 w0
4toome 22
(Ea~E*_E*9~E).
(3.75)
Here, v is the electron collision frequency. The light wave frequency is taken to be much larger than so that the scheme of two-time scales can be applied. Writing the radiation electric field amplitude E as E = (a0 + a1) exp[ic(4, t)], (3.76)
where c = co(t) + ~c(~),~ = Kz lit, l~cJ ~ leol, and a1J 4a0, it follows from eqs. (3.73) and (3.74) that a0 = const., 0 = to~0w~tI2to~, with toE = eaolmeoc. Inserting eq. (3.76) into eqs. (3.73) and (3.74) and linearizing, one finds the following dispersion relation
25
(Q2
to~ +
iliv)[(Q kvg)2
4w 0
(K2C2
(5)Q)] =
__~
(1
T~) ~
to~..
to0
to0
Kc
8w0 (3.77)
2A~e).
where = w~0(l 3K in two regimes. First, for i=O, ~ We w~ analyze eq. + (3.77) wavelength perturbations, eq. (3.77) yields 12
=
K2c23qto~ 0w~/4to~, and long
Kc(1
iCKWE/2\r2W~).
(3.78)
Since tot> cKWE, an oscillatory instability arises due to the mass modulation. Secondly, we consider the collisionless limit with to0=k0c+Af2,
QtoB+i~(I.
In this case the growth rate becomes quite large and eq. (3.71) gives
1iV~ /w~0to~\U3
=
2V~
~ 2to~ ) ~
(3.79)
Thirdly, we consider the modulation instability due to the electron-mass variation only. Thus, eq. (3.77) ~akesthe form 2c2 / K
4to 0 to0
3n w~
(3.80)
I follows that the instability occurs if 2c2/w~ ~qw~Iw~> K 0. Next, we analyze eq. (3.77) for the case in which collisions dominate. Assuming 1 to,,0 Kc, i. 4 11, < 4, one finds from eq. (3.77) ~ I v Kc 4t--~i 4 \to0 to0 ~ 2c2, then K2c2 I w~0> (1~ K lKc ImQ= i-(00 2 2 1/2 =
(3.81)
hr +
ill1,
Kc. 3qto~ 0w~/4to~, and the growth rate turns out to be
(3.82)
(_)
ii
toe.
(3.83)
Let us now discuss the steady-state solutions of the system of equations (3.73) and (3.74) in the limit 0, and ~ 9~.We then find from eq. (3.74)
26
on
e2
=
n0
4meotootopo 2 2 2
oZJEI
(3.84)
Substituting the last expression into eq. (3.73), one finds the nonlinear Schrdinger equation with a nonlocal nonlinearity, 2 = 0, 1Ed~JEf where r = w 2w~ 2m~ 0t, ~ = z Vgt~ a1 = 3qe 0/16w,~c and 0, /3, following integrals of motion [95]:
+
i~~E + ~E
2E 13
(3.85) 2/4m~
=
1JEI
2. Equation (3.85) has the 0w~c
ii
2 =
=f f
dx El2,
(3.86)
dx [J~EJ2
~a 1JEJ
4 ~/3
1(~JEJ
2)2],
(3.87)
which allow a study of the dynamics of arbitrary initial distribution. From eqs. (3.86) and (3.87), without taking into account the local (a 1 = 0) nonlinear term, we obtain [951, d~ x
2JEJ2 dx
812
2/3~ dx (a~IEl2)2.
(3.88)
From this equation, it easily follows that the evolution of any distribution with 2 <0 leads to the appearance of a singularity connected with the aggravation of the profile E(x), that is, a nonlocal nonlinearity leading to a one-dimensional collapse. We now present the stationary solution of eq. (3.85). Accordingly, we let E = G(~)exp(iA~r) in eq. (3.85), and find the stationary solution of the form [95] ~A~=1ln 0 2 where X = (1 a 1G field profile [96] X+ Y X y
Al-il 0\ a
1
/8/3
\1/2
ln
(/3~1
2G2)112
1
2/3 1G
(4G2a~_2G2)v2 2Ia,J2 14G

+
389
2!2A 1~2and V = (1 0)
2)2. If a
1
.
0, then eq. (3.89) yields the spiky electric (3.90)
A0~=arccosh(1/G\J~)(J3~ 2G
3.4. Stimulated Brillouin scattering
2)2
In the discussion of the nonlinear propagation of the electromagnetic waves, we have so far assumed the ions to be immobile. Inclusion of the ponderomotive force nonlinearity may allow us to consider the Brillouin scattering [58]in which case the electromagnetic waves are scattered off the low-frequency ion fluctuations. Hence, in the following, we shall present the Zakharov-like equations which govern the nonlinear coupling of the transverse electromagnetic waves with ion fluctuations [56]:
27
2iw0c9~E+ 2ik0c25E
2 2 2 2
29~E + w~
+
2JEJ2/m~ 0(le
2 2 2
2 ~nelno)E = 0,
(3.91)
0w~c
22
(c~ +v
11)c9~](~n~ln0)= ,u.5e E 1m50to0 2 + where v~1= a.T1/m1, a1 = 1(3) for isothermal (adiabatic) response of the ions, w~ = k~c
w~,
(3.92) and
[~ for circularly polarized waves, q for linearly polarized waves,
with = ~ (1) for linearly (circularly) polarized electromagnetic waves. Let us now investigate the instability of a constant pump wave E 0 with respect to excitation of low-frequency ion modulations (Ii, K). The linear dispersion relation for this case is found to be [56]
(.02
K2v~)[(12
Kvg)2
42
4 ~ (i
oW = ito K2C2)]
K4C4We~
(3.93)
where We
e2lE 2lm~ 2, vg = w 2Iw 0J 0w~c 0It~k0 = k0c 0, and v~ = v~, + c~. For K4 k0, .0 (Ui 4 Kvg), the instability growth rate is 2 to2 K 0 1/2 ImU1=~vg~~ -~(iX)Wel~
=
Kvg + ~Q
(3.94)
2I(v~ v~). The maximum growth rate occurs at K = km~where where X = qtc
2
k2m=~_!~(i_X)We and the value of the maximum growth rate is given by

Im(SQ)max
= ~-~
(3.95)
k~.
(3.96)
On the other hand, with large wavelengths (k 0 4c4 ~ K one obtains, K2c2 ito2 Im~if2= ~-~W 1 2w0 Kc e In the stationary frame, ~ = z 2, 6nelno=XU
K), and with
(3.97)
vgt, eq. (3.92) gives (3.98)
28
where U = eEImeowoc. On using eq. (3.98), one can write eq. (3.91) as
+ to~o(l M2 ~ 2iw0~U+c2~U
=
0,
(3.99)
where M = VgIVs~and /3 = C2IV~e.It follows from eq. (3.99) that subsonic (M <1) rarefactional (~n <0) as well as supersonic (M> 1) compressional (~n > 0) solitons are possible. Note that the latter do not appear in a nonrelativistic situation. Such a situation can occur because the relativistic mass increase dominates over the density increase associated with the density hump, the combined effect still being a net reduction of the local plasma frequency. Qualitatively, one can understand the above discussion as follows: The local plasma frequency in the presence of nonlinear interaction is to~e = to~ 0[1 (I 2 1))]. Modulational instability and soliton formation are possible if the nonlinear frequency /3 / (M shift W~e~W~<0~ or 1 f3I(M2 1)>0. This clearly allows the appearance of M2
~
(3.100) 1 solitons so long as /3 < FJM2
1J.
3.5. Finite amplitude electromagnetic solitons In the foregoing, we have discussed various kinds of parametric interactions involving the relativistic nonlinear effects. It has also been shown that possible final states of the parametrically unstable modulations can lead to small amplitude periodic or localized wave trains. However, for large amplitude waves, the previous analyses have to be revised so as to include finite amplitude ion and electron number density fluctuations, as well as the Poisson equation. As a specific example, we consider circularly polarized electromagnetic waves and show that its nonlinear interaction with the background plasma can give rise to some interesting results which are not yet covered in our analyses. The simplicity of circular polarization arises due to the fact that unlike the linearly polarized waves, electromagnetic waves with circular polarization do not lead to higher harmonics, resulting in closed-form expressions for the various field quantities. The existence of finite amplitude solitons of circularly polarized electromagnetic waves have been considered by several authors in recent years [5967]. Using the quasi-neutrality assumption for the low-frequency response of the plasma, Tsintsadze and Tskhakaya [59]and Yu, Shukla and Spatschek 1591 showed the existence of rarefaction and compressional electromagnetic solitons. On the other hand, Kozlov, Litvak and Suvorov [60]have given a numerical treatment of the problem including departures from the quasi-neutrality condition. Their results indicate that in addition to the symmetric solutions for the high-frequency field amplitude, there exist also anti-symmetric electromagnetic solitons. More recently, Rao et al. [64] have given a general analytical treatment of the problem accounting simultaneously for the nonlinearities due to the relativistic ponderomotive force as well as the electron-mass variation, and including full ion dynamics together with the Poisson equation. These authors have obtained analytically the symmetric compression and rarefaction solitons found in quasi-neutral case [59],and also the anti-symmetric solution numerically obtained in the nonneutral limit [60]. Parameter space analysis of symmetric and anti-symmetric solutions has been considered by Rao and Varma [97]. On the other hand, for quasi-stationary density modulations, only symmetric solitons have been obtained [981.
P. K. Shukla et at., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
29
3.5.1. Derivation of the governing equations In the modulational representation, the plasma response is of two time scales: (i) the high-frequency response of the electrons induced directly by the incident wave, and (ii) the low-frequency response of electrons and ions due to the ponderomotive force arising from the spatial modulation of the high-frequency field. The large difference between the particle masses leads to the creation of the ambipolar field.
(A) Electron response. The equations describing the high- as well as the low-frequency responses of the electrons can be obtained from eq. (2.2). Substituting forE and B for eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) into eq. (2.2), we obtain
~tpe
+ ~
meo
(~ +
meoc
2
2)
(Pc
V)Pe
meoc
meoc
peX(S~4)+(eTe~1~ie),
(3.101)
where the isothermal equation of state for the electrons has been used. For circularly polarized waves propagating along the ~ direction, that is, A = A(z, t)(I
i9) exp[i(k0z
to0t)] +
c.c.
(3.102)
Yu, Shukla and Spatschek [59] have shown that eq. (3.101) is satisfied by
4, Pe~
(3.103)
and 2(1 + p~Im~ 2)2 Te ln ne] = 0. (3.104) 50c 0c Note that eq. (3.103) describes the response of the electrons with the same frequency to~as that of the incident waves, while eq. (3.104) governs the electron low-frequency response (neglecting the electron inertia for the slow motion). The second term on the left-hand side is the usual expression for the relativistic ponderomotive force, namely [59,68],
2V(1 + p~lm~ 2)112 (3.105) 50c 0c The propagation of the electromagnetic waves in the plasma is governed by the wave equation (2.10). Since the ions are massive, we neglect their contribution to the current density J and write J = n ~ Substituting this expression for I in eq. (2.10) and using eq. (3.103), we get
=
.
F,,
2i&~A + 2iv~d~A~ + 13~A = 4A + (1
A2)U2 A,
(3.106)
30
P.K.
Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
2ITe,Li = (to~ k~c2)Iw~ 2Imeo, Vg = 2kOC2/to~OADe~ where = (m50/m1)2w0Ito~0, /3 = me~C 0, w~0 = 4lrnoe and the quantitiesp, A, 12e z and tare normalized with respect to meoc, meoC2le, n 1. We 0, ADe~and to~ now look for stationary solutions
A(z,
t)
A(~)expi[c(z)
0(t)],
(3.107)
where ~ = z
C~ =
Mt and M is the soliton velocity normalized with respect to the ion acoustic speed,
(T~Im 112.Substitution of eq. (3.107) into eq. (3.106) yields 1) 13 d~A = AA + (1 + A2)~2A,
(3.108)
where A = Li(26
1) +
(2M
Vg)
(2M
Vg)2,
(3.109)
to 0).
and ~represents the nonlinear shift in the wave frequency (normalized with respect to stationary solutions, eq. (3.104) can be integrated to obtain
Note that for
2)~2 + 13], (3.110) exp[4 /3(1 + A where we have evaluated the constant of integration to satisfy the boundary conditions for localized solutions. Here, 4 is normalized with respect to TeIe.
=
(B) Ion response. The ion slow response is nonrelativistic. Firstly, when the nonlinear interaction occurs on the time scale of the electron plasma period to~ (the Raman interaction), the ions, due to their large mass, do not find time to respond to the wave. In this case, the ions are immobile and, therefore, there is no ion density perturbation, that is,
=
n 0. (3.111)
Secondly, when the phase velocity of the ion fluctuations is much smaller than the ion thermal velocity, the quasi-static ion number density follows from a balance of the ion thermal pressure and the slow electric field. Since the quasi-static interaction arises on very slow time scale (typically larger than the ion plasma period to ~1) one may assume an isothermal equation of state for the ions, and obtain the ion number density expression
=
n0exp(u4),
(3.112)
where U = Tel T~is the ratio of the electron to ion temperature. Thirdly, when the nonlinear interaction occurs on the time scale of the ion plasma period (the Brillouin interaction), ion inertia must be included. For cold ions (Te T1 = 0), the basic equations governing the dynamics of the ion fluid are obtained from eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) as
~
+ +
a~(n~v1) = 0,
v~9~v1 = o~4,
(3.113) (3.114)
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
31
where the ion number density (n1) and the ion fluid velocity (v1) are normalized by the average plasma number density (n0) and the ion sound speed (C,), respectively. Note that the ion ponderomotive force is generally much smaller than that on the electrons and is, therefore, neglected. Furthermore, the slow dynamics is to be coupled with the Poisson equation,
=
ne
n1,
(3.115)
where eqs. (3.113)(3.115) have been nondimensionalized in the standard manner. We now look for the stationary solutions in the form n1 = n~( ~)and v1 = v1( ~)where ~ = z Mt and M is the Mach number (velocity of the soliton/c,). In the stationary frame, eqs. (3.113) and (3.114) yield [63] M+n1(v1M)=0, Mv1
+
(3.116)
(3.117)
~,
where the plasma is assumed to be unperturbed at infinity and we have, accordingly, imposed the boundary conditions, n1 = 1, t~= qS =0 at J~J=~. Combining eqs. (3.116) and (3.117), we get 2 24)1/2. (3.118) = M(M Since the ion number density must be real everywhere, we require M2 > 24 when 4 is positive. Thus, eqs. (3.310) and (3.315) together with the appropriate ion number density expressions (eqs. (3.311), (3.312) and (3.118)) complete the description of the low-frequency response of the plasma.
On the other hand, when the phase velocity of low-frequency oscillations is larger than the electron thermal velocity, then the electron number density is obtained from
+ t9z(hieLe) +
=
0,
(3.119) (3.120)
vezve
~~(4) + 41.,,),
=
where
41,, /3 /3(1 + A2)~2,~s

=
m 1lm~0, and the normalizations are as above. In the stationary frame,
one gets 2 2(41 + 41,,)]~ (3.121) M~[~sM where v~ = 0, 2e = 1, A = 0 at J ~J = The case of cold electron response (eq. (3.121)) was used in the numerical study of the circularly polarized electromagnetic solitons by Kozlov et al. [60]. Substituting the expressions for ne and n 1 obtained above into eqs. (3.108) and (3.115), we obtain [64, 66] 2)2 exp[41 /3(1 + A2)~2+ /3], (3.122) /3 d~A = )tA + A(1 + A d~41 = n 2)~2+ /3], (3.123) 1(41) + exp[41 /3(1 + A where n 1(41) is given by
=
~.
32
n.(41) =
11
~
I exp( a-41)
M(M2
241) 1/2
for interaction; for Raman Brillouin interaction; for quasi-static interaction.
Equations (3.122) and (3.123) constitute a coupled set of equations governing the propagation characteristics of circularly polarized electromagnetic solitons for three types of low-frequency responses. Note that under the quasi-neutrality assumption, they reduce exactly to the system of equations obtained by Yu, Shukla and Spatschek [59]. Before discussing the localized solutions of the governing equations, it is interesting to note some of the symmetry properties apparent in them. Firstly, both equations are invariant with respect to the transformation fs Secondly, while A A leaves the equations unchanged, no such property exists with respect to the transformation 41 ~ 41. This implies [97]that the solutions for A( ~)have both symmetric as well as the anti-symmetric structures, whereas 41(e) is always symmetric. Clearly, the symmetric (anti-symmetric) solutions will have an anti-node (node) with respect to ~ at the place of the symmetry axis. The number of maxima and minima at other places will depend on the relative magnitudes of the free parameters. In the next section, we discuss the Brillouin case. The case of quasi-static interaction is considered in section 3.5.4.
~.
3.5.2. Localized solutions for Brillouin interaction While exact analytical solutions of the governing equations (3.122) and (3.123) do not seem to exist, numerical solutions may be obtained by solving them as an eigenvalue problem with appropriate boundary conditions. However, it is interesting to note that they are structurally similar to the governing equations for modulated nonlinear Langmuir waves derived by Varma and Rao [99, 100]. In the following, we obtain approximate solutions by using the method of solution developed by these authors. We note that the governing equations can be derived (for the Brillouin interaction case) from a variational principle through a Lagrangian L(A, 41, A~,41~)given by L
=
~/32(d~A)2 ~(dk41)2 + ~A/3A2
M(M2
241)1/2
+
exp[41
13(1 +
A2)2
/3],
(3.124)
yielding the constant of motion ~/32(d~A)2 ~(d~41)2 ~A/3A2 + M(M2 _241)1/2

exp[41
/3(1 + A2)112 + /3]
M2,
(3.125)
where localization boundary conditions have been used to evaluate the constant on the right-hand side. Equations (3.122)(3.125) can be combined to eliminate the independent variable ~ resulting in the following equations for ~I A2 in terms of 41 [641: 8f3~IH d~1+ 133F(d 4 ~P) 3 213(2H
+
/3G)(d~ ~[,)2
4/3~PF(d
4 ~t)+ 8~IG= 0,
(3.126)
where the quantities F, G and H are given by 2 241)~/2 + exp[41 /3(1 + 1J/)U2 +
/31,
/3],
/3] + (1 + M2).
(3.127)
F= M(M
G = MI
~P(1 +
1P)2
exp[41
/3(1
+ ~J1)1/2 +
H = ~A/31P M(M2
241)1/2
exp[41
/3(1
+ .jf)1/2 +
33
Equation (3.126) can be solved by looking for a solution of the form (3.128) where the coefficients a~ are functions of free parameters, and are to be determined self-consistently. Note that eq. (3.128) preserves the symmetry properties mentioned above. The coefficient a0 is zero by virtue of the boundary conditions. The to eq. find(3.128) the restbecomes of a~ is straightforward: For reasons of 2, inprocedure which case convenience, one defines 0 = 41/M (3.129) where b~ = M2~a,,. Equations (3.127) and (3.129) are substituted into eq. (3.126) and the various quantities expanded in terms of powers of 0. The coefficient b~(for any n) can then be explicitly (and uniquely!) determined by equating the coefficient of 0~to zero. Some of these coefficients are listed in appendix B. Equation (3.129) provides an implicit solution of eqs. (3.122) and (3.123) for any degree of nonlinearity in 0. The explicit solutions for 0( ~)and, therefore, for 1P( ~)can be obtained by numerically integrating eqs. (3.123) and (3.129) after retaining terms up to the desired order in 0. However, analytic solutions are indeed possible if terms up to third order in 0 are retained. The equations for 0( ~) is obtained from eqs. (3.123) and (3.129) as M (d~0) = a 10
2 2 2 3 4
a20
a30
(3.130)
where as are given by a1y11, a2~(y2)y~~), (3.131) and the quantities [99, 100]
0(e)
= =
71,
y~ and 73 are given in appendix B. The localized solution of eq. (3.130) is given by 2[K(~
~o)]I{$1(2)
/31(2/32(1
sech
/32(1) tanh2[K(~ ~)]},
(3.132)
where
(1
A)1f3, and f3~and [a 2~ (a~
/~2are
defined by (3.133)
/31(2) =
12]. 4a1 a3)
In the above equation, ~ is defined with the upper sign and $2 with the lower sign of the radical. In eq. (3.132), ~ denotes the initial phase of the soliton which can be taken, without any loss of generality, to be equal to zero. The choice of coefficients (/3k and /32) in eq. (3.132) is discussed below. Note that the solutions have four independent parameters, namely, M, ~,Li and /3 which determine them completely. In order to simplify the discussion of the explicit solutions, we consider a specific case where terms up
34
to quadratic in 0 are retained in eq. (3.129), that is
I= b10+ b202,
(3.134)
K
where 0( ~)is still being given by eq. (3.132) except that y~ = 0 in eq. (3.131). For localized solutions should be real which implies that 1 + A >0, or,
~ >
[/3(Li 1)
2M2].
(3.135)
This inequality sets a limit on the compatible values of the free parameters for physically acceptable solutions. In the small amplitude case, that is, I = b 1 0, we have
~P=~(M2_1)41. (3.136)
Clearly, since ~I 0 by physical requirement, it follows that subsonic (M < 1) solitons have potential dips whereas supersonic (M> 1) solitons are associated with potential humps. Similar features were also observed by Yu, Shukla and Spatschek [59] for finite amplitude, quasi-neutral solutions. Consider the behaviour of 0(e) as given by eq. (3.132) (with ~ = 0). One immediately finds that 2(K~), 0(~0)=/32(l)sech 0(~~)= /3,(2~2(1) sech2(K~).
/31(2) /32(1)
(3.137)
The sign of 0( ~)thus depends on the choice of the subscripts and also on the relative magnitudes of ~ and /32. By explicit evaluation of these quantities for typical parameter values, Rao et al. [64]find that /3~>0 and /32 <0. When the first subscripts are used, eq. (3.137) becomes
=
/~I/32sech2(K~)/[/3,
/32 tanh2(K~)].
~.
(3.138)
Since ~ >0 and /~2<0, we note that 0~(~) is negative for all values of Thus, the solutions (3.134) and (3.138) describe the circularly polarized electromagnetic solitons with a dip structure in the low-frequency potential. On the other hand, the use of the second subscripts yields 2(,~)], (3.139) 2 ~ tanh from which it follows that 0 fl( ~) is always positive. Equations (3.134) and (3.139) represent solitons with a hump structure in the low-frequency potential. While the low-frequency potential shows only a single-hump or single-dip structure, the shape of the high-frequency envelope depends on the specific values of the parameters. To see this, consider first the potential-dip solutions. Even though 0~(~) is real for real values of K, proper solutions for ~P(fl, that is, with 1P(~) 0 exist (after using eq. (3.134)) only for subsonic Mach numbers. Typical plots of the high- and low-frequency fields are shown in figs. 2 and 3. The Mach numbers are deliberately chosen quite close to unity so as to emphasize the variation in the structure of the field envelope. For M 4 1, one finds a single-hump solution for ilt( As M is increased towards unity, the solution tends to be shorter and
/32/31
~).
~)(~)=
sech2(K~)I[/3

I
I I
35
__~~2!0~1l0~:0~(~~~~~2I0~0
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
Fig. 2. Structure of the high-frequency field intensity (V) for the subsonic potential-dip electromagnetic solitons; /3 = 100, 8 = 0.2 and = 0.8. The corresponding critical and cut-off Mach numbers are M~= 0.821 and M~= 0.904. [641
Fig. 3. Structure of the low-frequency potential corresponding to the solutions given in fig. 1. [64J
narrower. For a given set of values of Li, ~ and /3, the solution starts developing a dip at the centre when the Mach number is greater than a certain critical Mach number, M~. The critical Mach number at which the transition from single-hump solutions to double-hump solutions takes place can be obtained from the equation b1+2b2/32=0, (3.140)
which follows from eqs. (3.134) and (3.138) after imposing the condition that d~P = 0 at ~ = 0. For M> M~, the dip at the centre increases, reaching a maximum for certain cutoff Mach number (Mu) when ~P( ~ =0) =0. The equation determining the cutoff Mach number is obtainedfrom eqs. (3.134) and (3.138) as b1+b2f32=0. (3.141)
Clearly, we note that M~ <Mu. It is easy to verify that while ~P( ~) at the cutoff Mach number is symmetric, the structure of A(~) is anti-symmetric with respect to ~ = 0 [64,99, 100]. They are analytically given by 2(K~)]. (3.142) A(~)= [b2/3,/3~(/32 /32)]h/2 sech(K~) tanh(K~)I[/31 1~2tanh It may be noted that Kozlov et al. [60]have numerically obtained anti-symmetric solutions similar to the above ones. The variation of the structure of W( ~) for the potential-hump solutions is, on the other hand, complementary to that of the potential-dip solutions. While the transition from single-hump to double-hump solutions takes place still at the corresponding critical Mach number M~ and the anti-symmetric solitons exist at M = M~, one finds for these solutions, M~ > ~ The equations
36
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Re!ativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
determining the critical and cutoff Mach numbers are given in this case by b1+2b2/31=0, b1+b2/3,=0.
(3.143)
The anti-symmetric solitons are obtained explicitly as 12sech(Kfltanh(K~)/[/3 2(K4)]. (3.144) A(~)=[b2f3~/32(/3,/32)] 2/31tanh In contrast to the potential-dip solitons which exist for M < 1, the potential-hump solutions are possible only for M> 1. Furthermore, the symmetric solutions in both cases have four independent parameters, whereas the corresponding anti-symmetric solutions have only three parameters. The fourth parameter is fixed by the condition that A = 0 at ~ = 0. Finally, the finite amplitude, quasi-neutral solutions can be recovered exactly by imposing the quasi-neutrality assumption on eqs. (3.122), (3.123) and (3.125). The details can be found in ref. [64]. Physically, the existence of potential-dip as well as the potential-hump solitons can be understood as follows. In both cases, the basic mechanism is due to a reduction in the local plasma frequency resulting in trapping of the high-frequency waves. In the former case, the reduction arises because of the relativistic electron-mass increase and the density depletion. On the other hand, for the potential-hump solitons, the effect of the relativistic electron-mass increase on the local plasma frequency dominates over the effect due to the associated density increase [64], and the net result being a decrease in the plasma frequency. 3.5.3. Parameter space analysis As discussed above, the symmetric and the anti-symmetric solutions for A( ~)exist for complementary regions of the parameters, say, M and 8. Specifically, for the potential-dip case, the symmetric (anti-symmetric) solutions of A (~)occur for M < M~ (M = M ~) whereas solitons with potential-hump have symmetric (anti-symmetric) structures when M> ~ (M = Mw). Furthermore, no solutions were found in the region M~<M < ~ Thus, the anti-symmetric solutions for A( ~) exist only for limited ranges of values of the parameters. However, as is obvious from eqs. (3.122) and (3.123), the symmetry properties of the governing equations are independent of the parameter values and it is, therefore, important to examine if the governing equations can admit the solutions for other parameter values. It was suggested earlier [64]that inclusion of higher-order terms in eq. (3.134) mayyield solutions with many humps and also extend the existence regions of the parameter values. Recently, Rao and Varma [97] analyzed the Hamiltonian (eq. (3.125)) and showed that the exact governing equations (3.122) and (3.123) indeed allow (for the Brillouin interaction case) an extension of the parameter space for the existence of symmetric and anti-symmetric solutions for A( 4). In particular, the anti-symmetric solutions can exist for all values of the Mach number. Since 41(~) is always symmetric and we are looking for smooth solutions, it follows that df 41 = 0 at = 0. Typically, /3 1, and eq. (3.109) can be approximated by A = Li(26 1). Substituting this value of A and evaluating the integral of motion (eq. (3.125)) at ~ = 0, we obtain
~
M2 where,
(F 2/2(F 0 1) 0
410
1),
(3.145)
2+ /3], (3.146) F0 = /32~ ~ A/3A~ + exp[410 /3(1 + A~ and p~ = ~(dfA)~. In eqs. (3.145) and (3.146), the subscript 0 denotes the value at ~ = 0. Equation (3.145) determines the allowed Mach numbers in terms of the other free parameters. First, we consider
37
the anti-symmetric solitons which obey A0 = 0 and ~ 0. Equations (3.145) and (3.146) then yield 212[/32,4 + exp(41 M~A)= [/32,4 1 + exp(410)] 0) 410 1], (3.147)
where subscript (A) denotes the anti-symmetric solutions. Equation (3.147) indicates that M(A) can have the complete range, and not restricted to M(A) = M~~(M(A) = M~) corresponding to the potentialhump (dip) solutions as in the previous section. In the limit ~ 0, the anti-symmetric solutions collapse to the null solutions, namely, A(~)=0for all Next, we consider the symmetric solutions for which A0 0 and ~ = 0. Denoting the corresponding M with the subscript (S), we obtain
~.
M~ 2
2+/3]1}2 2{ ~ ~A$A~+exp[410/3(1+A~) A/3A~ + exp[41 12 +13] 41~ {~ 0 /3(1+ A~)
(3.148)
Explicit evaluation of M(s) shows that potential-dip and potential-hump electromagnetic solitons with a symmetric structure for the high-frequency field envelope can exist for subsonic as well as supersonic velocities. Furthermore, one can easily obtain the exact critical Mach number (Merit) at which the transition from solutions with an odd number of maxima to an even number of maxima for A (~)can take place. Since (d~A) 0 = 0 and A0 ~ 0 when M = Mcrit~eq. (3.122) gives 112 exp[41 2 + /3] A = (1 + A~) 0 /3(1 + A~) Combining eqs. (3.145) and (3.146) with eq. (3.149), we get,
.
(3.149)
M~rit = (~j~ 1)2/2(no
41~_ 1) ,
(3.150)
with ~ 0 defined by, 2] exp[41 2 + /3] (3.151) no = [1+ ~/3A~(1+ A~)~ 0 13(1 + A~) It is then easy to verify [97]that (d~A) 0 as given by the right-hand side of eq. (3.122) satisfies the following conditions:
.
(d~A)0~0for M~MCrIt and (d~A)0 ~0 for M ~ Merit and
AQ>0, A0 <0.
(3.152) (3.153)
2( ~) can, in general, have odd number of Since we are A(~), followsfor that A Mcrit~ The single- and the double-hump humps for Mconsidering < Merit andsymmetric even number ofithumps M> solutions discussed in section 3.5.2 are thus special cases of the more general class of solutions admissible to the governing equations. We close this section by remarking that, like in the anti-symmetric case, symmetric solutions for A(~)collapse to the null solutions in the limit A 0*0. 3.5.4. Localized solutions for quasi-static interaction As pointed out in section 3.5.1, quasi-static interaction occurs for time scales much larger than the ion plasma period when the ions establish a thermal equilibrium at a temperature T. The relevant
38
governing equations are
/3 d~A
where
AA
A(1
A)~2exp[41 /3(1
A2)2
/3],
(3.154) (3.155)
d~41=exp(U41)+exp[41f3(1+A2)2+/3],
U=
Tel T 1. The corresponding integral of motion is, 2 ~A$A2 + (1/u) exp(u41) + exp[41 /3(1 ~(df41)
A2)12
/3]
(1 + 1/u), (3.156)
where the constant of integration on the right-hand side has been evaluated at = The method of solution outlined in section 3.5.2 can be easily extended for the above equations. However, it is instructive to attempt a complementary expansion in the form
(3.157)
where 1J = A2. Note that, like in the earlier case, the above equation preserves the symmetry properties of the governing equations. The coefficients c, are functions of the free parameters. To determine c,,, we combine eqs. (3.154)(4.156) to obtain [98] 8/3~PH(d~ 1,41) + 8G~P(d,,,41) where F=exp[41 /3(1
G
=
3 4/3~IF(d~,,41)2 + 2/3(2H $G)(d~,,q5) + /33F = 0,
(3.158)
+ ~f,)1/2 +
~f,)~112
/3]exp(u41),
+
MI
~I(1 +
exp[41 /3(1
~P)112 +
~],
(3.159)
H= ~A/3~1(1+1/u)+(1lcr)exp(u41)+exp[41/3(1+~P)2+/3].
Equation (3.158) is structurally similar to eq. (3.126) except that the roles of ~I and 41 are interchanged. The coefficients c,, are easily obtained as described in section 3.5.2. The first coefficient c 0 = 0 because of the localized boundary conditions whereas c1 and c2 are given by c 1~/3 2[/3(1+u)4(1+A)]~, c 2 2(1+/3) ac~+bc,~/3 $(1+)16(1+A) ,
(3.160)
2) and b = ~(/32 3/3 3). Similarly all the other c,~can be explicitly and where a= 3 ~/3(1 u uniquely calculated. Explicit solutions for lI~(~) and, hence, for 41(4) can be obtained by using eq. (3.157) in eq. (3.154). This yields f3(d~W)2 =
a,
~~P2 + a 2 ~j,3 + a3
~
(3.161)
P.K. Shukla et at., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
39
where, a, =4(1+ A),

a22[c12(1+/3)], a3=3[c2+2c12(1+13)c1+8$+8(1+/3)].
(3.162)
The localized solution of eq. (3.161) is given by (ref. [98], or eq. (3.132)) (3.163) sech2(K~)/[f32 /3, tanh2(K~)], where K =(1 + A)2 and the initial phase ~ is taken to be zero. Since /3~>0 and /32<0 for u> 1, the choice of the subscripts in eq. (3.163) is dictated by the physical requirement that 1~ A2 must be positive. The solution for 41(e) is then given by
= /32/~1 =
c, ~i+ c 2
.~2
(3.164)
By explicit evaluation, it turns out that [98] W( ~)has always a single-hump structure whereas q5( ~)has both the single- and double-hump structures, the transition occurring at a certain critical value of /3 to be evaluated by the equation c, +2c2/32=0. (3.165)
While the electron number density perturbation has the usual inverted bell-shaped structure, the ion number density perturbation has a density-dip structure. The fine structure of the latter is identical with the mirror image of 41( fl. A comparison between the two complementary expansions, namely, eqs. (3.129) and (3.157), together with eqs. (3.154) and (3.155), reveals that eq. (3.157) leads always to symmetric localized A(~),while eq. (3.129) gives both the symmetric and anti-symmetric localized solutions for A( ~) which is consistent with the requirement of the governing equations based on their symmetry properties. Equation (3.161) does possess an anti-symmetric solution which is not localized and, hence, does not satisfy the boundary conditions incorporated in the analysis. On the other hand, 41( ~)has, in both the cases, only a symmetric structure consistent with eq. (3.123). Finally, we mention that the existence of localized solutions for the Raman interaction can also be investigated using the method of solution described earlier. It is expected that the results may be qualitatively similar to those obtained for the Brillouin as well as the quasi-steady interactions. 3.6. Weakly relativistic self-trapped laser beams Let us now introduce the multidimensional effects in the study of nonlinear electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas. In multispace dimension, the electromagnetic waves undergo self-focusing [37,38]. Specifically, when an intense electromagnetic beam propagates through a plasma, the ponderomotive force as well as the relativistic electron-mass increase can reduce the plasma frequency near the beam axis. Consequently, there appears a stationary rarefied density channel that acts as wave guide for the laser beam. The lower plasma density on the beam axis shows the phase velocity of the wave
40
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasrnas
on axis, imparting to the phase fronts a curvature that counters diffraction. However, if the laser beam is strong, nonlinear self-focusing effects balance diffraction preventing the beam from diffracting out. Then, the beam can propagate in a self-trapped manner [48]. Chiao et al. [37] were the first to show that in a nonlinear optical medium in which the index of refraction is a function of the field intensity, an electromagnetic wave can produce its own dielectricwave guide that can overcome the diffraction of the beam and cause the beam to self-focus. Accounting for the ponderomotive force nonlinearity only, Akhmanov et al. [38]and others [395 1] have used the paraxial ray approximation, moment methods, or the variational principles in order to investigate self-focusing of cylindrical laser beams. Note that the paraxial ray approximation puts heavy emphasis on the central parts of the beam. While the paraxial ray theory gives a qualitatively correct picture of the variation of the beam width with laser intensity, the predictions for the nonlinear frequency seems to be incorrect [46]. According to Anderson [46], the paraxial ray theory overestimates the waveguide effect associated with the finite transverse beam width, even to the point of making the nonlinear wavenumber decrease with increasing wave amplitude. Use of the moment [44]and the variational methods [47, 50] shows that the wavenumber should decrease. If this is the case, a high-power laser beam can penetrate farther into an overdense region. For waves with infinite transverse dimension, this is a well-known result [6]. In what follows, we briefly present the derivation of the nonlinear wavenumber shift of a circularly polarized self-trapped cylindrical laser beam propagating in a nonlinear medium. The analyses are from Anderson et al. [47]. Note that the complex scalar wave equation for a circularly polarized wave in the weak relativistic limit is
(V2
~)~~i=
~T~
(3.166)
where ~P= eAlmeoc2, and A is the vector potential. Assuming cylindrical symmetry and self-trapped propagation, one can write W(r, z, t) = 1I(r) cos(kz w 0t), where z is the coordinate in the direction of the wave propagation. After averaging over time and defining ~P*= (w,,0l\/~c)1P, eq. (3.166) reduces to d 2~* + r d
=
~[~
F2~ +
0,
(3.167)
where p2
k2
k~,and k
0 = w0lc is the linear wavenumber. Anderson et al. [47] have investigated eq. (3.167), using a variational technique involving trial functions. According to them, eq. (3.167) is equivalent to
L(~, dr ~*) dr = 0,
(3.168)
where the Lagrangian is given by 2 + ~rV1*4. (3.169) L = ~r(d~~i~*)2 ~rF1P* Following the variational Ritz procedure, we can minimize the variational integral within a set of certain trial functions. On choosing
=
B sech(r/a),
(3.170)
41
as a trial function, one can show that (L)

J
0
=
sech(r/a) dr
0F where a 2 x tanh2 x~ = ~ + ~ln 2, ~ = (x sech2 x) = ln 2, and ~ = (sech4 x) = ~ In 2 = (x sech The 0 variational equations of (L) with respect to a and B yield aF= (a 112 ~s0.76, BIF 01/30) 2.17. Thus, the radial intensity profile
~.
~a0B
2 ~/3
2a2B2 +
(3.171)
1~1i*(r).217Fsech(rF/076)
(3.172)
turns out to be in good agreement with the numerical solutions of eq. (3.167). Secondly, we take the conventional Gaussian trial function, i.e., 1I*(r) = B exp(r2/2a2). For (L) one finds then (L)
=
(3.173)
~B2 ~F2a2B2+ ~B4a2.

= 4p2
(3.174) and a212

=
The variational equations now give B2 ~Ir*(r) = 21 exp(12r2/2)
1. It emerges that the resulting Gaussian (3.175)
is indeed an approximate solution of eq. (3.167). 3.7. Three-dimensional relativistic solitons [36] In this section, we shall consider the multidimensional propagation of arbitrarily large amplitude electromagnetic waves. Here, the circularly polarized waves satisfy the complex scalar equation A (3.176) (1 + e2A2Im~ 2)112 0c Let us now look for the steady propagation of the wave in the frame z vgt. Then, eq. (3.176) becomes
(V2_~~~ o2)A_toPO
~ d~W+ and
T~Y (1+~I2)112
(3.177)
(3.178) where b 2 =[1(k 0clw0)

2 1
42
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
21w From eq. (3.178), one observes that v~ = k 0c 0, as it should be. Introducing a new variable z = bz, we can rewrite eq. (3.177) as 2 (V where V2
=
Q2)~I = V~ +
(1+11)
Q
2 1/2
(3.179)
0/bc. Equation (3.179) is of the form of a nonlinear Schrdinger equation. The solution of the latter can be found by noting that ~I is a solution of the usual Schrdinger problem with a potential 2)(1+ ~I2(r))2] , (3.180) V(r) = ~[(to~0/c satisfying
[~V2+ V(r)]~P
~Q211I
.
a ~, and
(3.181)
Pulse-like solutions will exist, corresponding to the bound-state solutions of eq. (3.181). Hence, the bound-state regime is given by Q2> 0 which implies that the group velocity of the wave packet is smaller than the velocity of light. For S-states, V(r) remains spherically symmetric and the equation may be simplified to
2 2 2 (~10
d~,U0+QU02 where U
U 2)2 , 0 (1+U~lr
(3.182)
0(r) = rI, with U0(0) = 0 = U0(oo). The wave energy is given by

w~Q (t~)2
J ~2
dr.
(3.183)
4irk0
Equation (3.182) has been numerically solved by Gersten and Tzoar [36]. According to them, three-dimensional localized solutions can propagate for 2)12 , (3.184) k0c ~ to0 ~ (w~0 + k~c and beyond a critical energy which is given approximately by
~cr60meoc5~2to~o.
(3.185)
to,, 0 -~ 101651,
As an illustration, we take
and find ~cr
525 erg.
3.8. Relativistic self-focusing
In this section, we consider the stationary self-focusing of an axially symmetric high-frequency circularly polarized electromagnetic Gaussian beam in a collisionless electron gas. The distribution of the
P.K. Shukla
et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
43
beam intensity is taken to be 2), (3.186) E . E*15,0 = E~ exp(r~ Ia where r~= + y2, and a is the initial effective beam width. The wave equation for the complex amplitude of the electric field is given by V2E+~[1_~!
~
~~~_. 1]E=0, (3.187)
2E E* Im~ In 2. an electron gas, the ponderomotive force driven electron number density where I = e 0to~c ~eis given by [61]
=
no[1
+ ~2
V2(1 + 1)1/2]
(3.188)
where the ions are assumed to be immobile and the radiation pressure is assumed to dominate over the electron thermal pressure. Inserting eq. (3.188) into eq. (3.187), we find [51]
(v2+~)E=~0~+~v2vi-:c1.
(3.189)
We now seek a solution of eq. (3.189) in the form E= E 0(z, r1)[~ cos ~(z, r~) + ~ sin ~(z, r1)] 2f2(z)j,
=
J
(3.190)
k~(z) dz + ~r~O(z), I = I~(z) exp[r~Ia
and study the relativistic self-focusing under the geometrical optics approximation (r~ 4 a2f2). Here, f(z) is a dimensionaless beam width. Substituting eq. (3.190) into eq. (3.189) one finds for the axial region [51]
2 2 2
to 0
ki(z)=j2
2
~
~+j,,
w,,0 1 20 ~ \/1+I~~ =d~ln(ki1I0), a4f4 + j)2 1~ (1 4+I~ a4f4 1
k11 d50
2c
2 a2f2 j)3/2 1 (1 + I~ [0 k
0,
(3.191)
d~f + (d~0) d~(ln 1~)
11 d~(ln f)]
0.
The boundary conditions are as follows: 10(z = 0) = 100,f(z = 0) = 1, w~0(z = 0) = w~0,and 0(z = 0) = 00. 2a2f2(1 + Io)3!2 is caused by the relativistic In the second equation of the set (3.191) the term w~010I2c mass variation while the term I~(4 + 1~) 1a4f4(1 + J~)2 represents the nonlinear electron striction. For
44
narrow beams (a -= 10 to bOA), these terms are of the same order. The strictional term becomes dominant in the focal region. On the other hand, for sufficiently broad beams (a 2~100A) the strictional nonlinearity is insignificant as compared to the relativistic mass variation nonlinearity. The latter plays an essential role in determining the minimum dimensions of the channels. In this case, one [43]observes that in the ultra-relativistic limit (1~ ~ 1), one has k(z)~k0 and the focal length is found to be ~a(V0/c)2(w0l w~0) ~1 a, demonstrating that of the beam undergoes quasi-channeling with f~ /2( A la)23 and the length thegeometrical channel is (V,,a/cA)23L 3 L; L a is the characteristic scale length 2(101c) of the inhomogeneity. The absorption of the beam energy in the channeling region (to,, 0 4 to0) is [43]
I I ,..L \i av0 \ exp[_l,~__)(\j)
~i
,,
2/3
(3.192)
where ~ is the collision frequency. Clearly, the relativistic nonlinearity may be responsible for the enhanced absorption [101]. Garuchava et al. [51] have numerically investigated the set of equations (3.191). In what follows, we briefly summarize their results. Reference [51]imposed the following restrictions in order to preserve the accuracy of the numerical calculations: k11(z)a10,
neIrO
=
f0.1, 2
z<vg/wpi,
F no(z)Ll
I~
+
2c 2f2 ~I to~
0a
1
0,
(3.193)
~j
where Vg is the group velocity and fle!r =~is the electron concentration at the beam axis. In case of the beam self-focusing down to the dimension of b = afmin, where
fmin
2c topoa
Vi + ,
___
(3.194)
a self-trapping channel is formed which supports the propagation of the beam into the overdense plasma. For a linear density profile to = to~(1 + z IL), Garuchava et al. found that the self-focusing length first decreases with decreasing L, and then starts to grow. For a certain L, the beam is focused down to certain dimensions, and then broadens rapidly. This takes place because the terms corresponding to the nonlinear refraction decrease with increasing 1 0(z) and become smaller than the diffraction term. With the further increase of the inhomogeneity length, the beam defocusing begins at once. When the concentration and the beam width grow, rapid broadening occurs at larger L. Furthermore, the normalized self-focusing length is found to decrease beam width, while the focal point dimensions increase. For further information, we refer the reader to ref. [51]. 3.9. Intense self-trapped laser beams In this section, we include the ion motion and consider the combined effects of the relativistic ponderomotive force as well as the electron-mass variation nonlinearities on an intense self-trapped circularly polarized radiation in a warm plasma. Following Anderson [50], we now calculate the width and wavenumber of the self-trapped strong stationary radiation. For a circularly polarized electro-
P.K. Shuk!a a a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
45
magnetic wave, the dielectric constant of the nonlinear medium is of the form [59]
22 2
=
N = ~-~-to
2 2 exp[/3/2(1 ~Vi+w
Vi + ~P2)]
(3.195)
The structure of a cylindrical laser beam in the presence of nonlinear dielectric constant (eq. (3.195)) is given by [50] d~(~d~ ~P) F2~P + F(~P2)~t = 0, where
2
(3.196)
F(~2) = ~
{i
exp[$/2(1
Vi + ~2)j}
(3.197)
Note that eq. (3.196) can be formulated in terms of the variational principle ~fdrL=o, For the present problem, the Lagrangian L is given by L~r(dr~)2 ~rF2~2+ ~r JF(x)dx. (3.199) (3.198)
As discussed in section 3.6, one may use the variational Ritz optimization procedure to minimize the variational integral within a set of trial functions. On using eq. (3.197) into eq. (3.199) one finds (L) where G(y) = y
~ A2 ~ A2a2F2 +
~ a2 12 G(y) dy,
(3.200)
F(x) dx.
(3.201)
The variation of (L) with respect to A and a yields (3.202)
A212
A2
G(y) dy.
(3.203)
46
From the last two equations one then finds a2

=
G(A2) A2
G(y) dy.
(3.204)
For our purposes, the function G( y) is given by [50] G(y)=~w~
1- exp[(/3/2)(i ~/4)
\/Th~)] 1
j.
(3.205)
11 For large /3 values
12 G(y)dy=to~0A2(1Y)/c2,
where Y = 4E{/3[(1 Hence, p2 and a2 ~ w~ 2 0(1 Y)1c A2)2 1] /2} //3A2, E(x; /3) J1
+
=
(3.206)
ex~~)
dy.
(3.207)
[{E[(/3l2)Vi+ A2
/3/2] +
exp[_(/3/2)Vi~A2 + /3/2]} 1]($A2/4).
(3.208)
In the nonrelativistic limit, the last two equations reduce to those obtained in ref. [47]. 3.10. Stability of supersonic solitary waves Tsintsadze and Hojo [54] have investigated the multidimensinal stability of the supersonic Langmuir solitary waves. Their analysis is based on the assumption that the perturbation changes slowly both in space and time compared with the change of the basic solution. To study the stability of the supersonic solitons, we start with the following set of equations: i8,E + ~V2E
+
alE~2E ~nE
0,
(3.209) (3.210)
(a~ V2) ~n =V2~El2,

where,
P. K. Shukla a a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
47
E 1 /2 (l6irnoTe)
ADeV~V~
__ -~
1 ~ E
~ ~ n
*
&n,
to
0
=
0t* t,
12 , a = ~Telmeoc2. (meolmi) We note that the set of equations (3.209) and (3.210) admits one-dimensional stationary soliton solution, namely, E
=
V~A[2a
1/2 _~] sech[A(x
x
0
2 + ~V2)t+ i~V(x x Vt)] exp[i(~A Vt)],

0
Vt) + i00],
(3.211)
2[2a(V2 6A
1)
1] sech2[A(x
x 0
(3.212)
where A 2 is>the is the initial position, 00 is the initialin phase. It is seen from eq. exist. (3.211) 1 +amplitude, 1 I2cx, the x0 compressional (~n >0) and envelope solitons the supersonic regime that if V We now discuss the two-dimensional stability of the supersonic soliton solution given by eqs. (3.211) and (3.212). Since we are restricted by the consideration of those perturbations that are slowly varying in both space and time variables, we can use the method in ref. [54].We then assume the perturbed soliton solution in the form E=V~A[2a(V21)1]2g(~)exp[i0+i~V(xx
=
2[2a(V2 6A
1) 1]1f(~),
0)],
(3.213)
(3.214)
with
=
~A2 + ~V2,
a,x 0
=
V,
~ = A(x
x0).
(3.215)
We consider the perturbations oblique to the propagation direction, that is, x-axis. By introducing new variables n and 41 = arctan( y Ix), we consider only those solutions with fixed 41 being functions of n and time. For example, the perturbation of 41 = i~are perpendicular as has been discussed previously by Wardrop [54] and Hojo [54]. Dividing A, V, g and f into the unperturbed and perturbed parts as A=A0+a(n,t), V=V0+0(-q,t),
f(~)=f0(~)+f,(~),
(3216
)
g(~)=g0(~)+R(~)+iI(~),
2(~), and substituting eqs. (3.213)(3.216) into eqs. (3.209) and (3.210), with g0 = sech(~) andf0 = equations sech we obtain three linearized with respect to the perturbed quantities a, 0, R, I and f,. Following the analysis of Hojo [54],we consequently obtain the coupled equations for the perturbed amplitude a and the perturbed velocity 0 as a~a+V 0cos41a~a+qA~o~a ~ ~ (1 ~8)V0cos41a,~,,0=0, (3.217)
48
2
i
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Re!ativistic non!inear effects in p!asmas
6~
Al
6A0V0(1
~)a~o + [.~1o 24
A0
6Ao]v cos 4th~,,0 = 0,
(3.218)
where 8 = 2aV~ 1 (>0) and it is assumed that V~ ~ 1 and a 4 1. For the perturbations in the form exp(ik~ itot), we obtain the algebraic equation of fourth-order with respect to Q(= w/A0k):
AQ
with A
=
4+Ei~13+d2+bQ+E=o,
(3.219)
8/A + 12Al6
+
18A,
B = 2v(61A C D
=
12AI6
12A),
27A) +
6(8/A
1/A
36A18
,2(61A + 12A15 6A
9A6),
6v(6/A1IA9A36A/6),
E=54(1+ ~6)lA. Here, A = A 0/V0 and i. = V0 cos 41/A0. For the perpendicular perturbations (41 = ir/2), eq. (3.219) can easily be solved since B = D = 0, and simple expressions of growth rates in several limiting cases can be obtained. For highly supersonic case (i.e., 6 ~ 1), the growth rate is given by
-
Im
to
3A0k,
(3.220a)
in which case the amplitude perturbation dominates in driving the instability. For low supersonic case (i.e., 8 0), the growth rate is proportional to the wave amplitude A0 (for small A0), and saturates at 2V Im to ~8 0k (3.220b) at large A0, where the velocity perturbation dominates. These features are in good agreement with numerical results of eq. (3.219) for 41 = ir/2 shown in figs. 4 and 5. On the other hand, the numerical results for the case of stability of oblique perturbation for fixed 41 are exhibited in fig. 6. It is seen that the growth rate for these perturbations is reduced as compared with the perpendicular one. In conclusion, the supersonic Langmuir solitary wave is unstable against the slowly varying perturbations oblique to the propagation direction. The growth rate has a maximum for the perpendicular perturbation (41 = uI 2). For this case, the growth rate increases with the wave amplitude in highly supersonic case (8 1), and saturates for large wave amplitude in low supersonic case (6 0).
~
3.11. Wave breaking In the present section, our approach differs to some extent from the preceding discussions of the
49
102
icr2
io2
ic.f4
102
Fig. 4. The growth rate vs. S (=2aV~ 1) for the perpendicular perturbations (~ = ir/2). (a) a =0.02,A0 = 0.1; (b) a = 0.002,A0 = 1; (c) a=0.02,A0=1.
Fig. 5. The growth rate vs. A0 for the perpendicular perturbations. (a) a = 0.02, 5 = 10; (b) a = 0.002, 8 = 0.01; (c) a = 0.02, 5 = 0.01.
relativistic modulational instability, soliton formation, etc. Here, we present a summaryof what is known as the relativistic wave breaking [25] which takes place before the parametric processes develop significantly. In particular, the spatial variation of the local frequency of the wave causes the wave breaking of both the free and mode-converted waves. The phase of the wave advances more rapidly in the high-frequency region so the electron fluid in this region overtakes the fluid in the low-frequency region, causing the wave to break. The increase of the electron mass in the high-intensity region of the wave produces the frequency variation in the free wave while a combination of these effects and the spatial dependence of the plasma frequency in a density gradient causes the frequency variation of the mode converted wave. It appears that one cannot analytically follow the evolution of the wave after it has broken. However,
hflWiIi~N\\\\~~
0
Fig.
V0cost~/A0
6. The growth rate vs. i<~cos~/A, for a=0.02. (a) 51, A00.1; (b) 81, A01; (c) 8=0.01, A00.1.
50
wave-breaking phenomenon has been observed in computer simulations and it has been suggested that wave breaking can cause strong plasma heating. Accordingly, this mechanism may have an important influence on the absorption of large amplitude waves in plasmas. We begin with the cold fluid equations for the electrons and assume that the ions form a uniform neutralizing background: d0p
=
E(x,
t),
(3.221a) (3.221b)
a~(nv) = 0,
(3.221c) 2)2, and we have normalized the time, velocity, momentum and where d0 = a, variables + var, v(x, t) to~, = p/(i + p the distance by c, meoc, and clw~ 0,respectively. The magnetic induction has been neglected for an electromagnetic wave near cutoff or for an electrostatic wave. Operating on eq. (3.221a) with d0, we find 2)2 = 0. (3.222) d~p + p(l + p The factor (1 + p2 ) t/2 represents a local decrease of the plasma frequency due to the relativistic mass increase of the electrons. We now transform to the frame x 0 moving with the fluid, defined by x0 = x j~ v(x0, t) dt, where x is the location of fluid in the laboratory frame. In the moving frame, we have
a~E=1n,
2 1/2
a1p(x0,t)+p(1+p ) =0, which is a generalization of the equation describing the oscillation of a large amplitude plasma wave. Using eq. (3.223), we find x0(x, t) = x + a0p(x0, t), where we have chosen a1p(x0, t = 0) = 0 for simplicity. The first integral of eq. (3.223) yields 2)2 = H(x 2. (3.224) + (1 + p 0) = [1 + p~(x0)] The first and the second terms on the left-hand side of eq. (3.224) are the wave energy and particle energy, respectively. Thus, eq. (3.224) expresses energy conservation, Pm being the maximum momentum. The time evolution of p is analogous to that of a particle moving in a potential (1 + p2)2. The motion is periodic with frequency [1] to(H)=
= =
I
1
H_(i+p2)1/2]~
(3.225a) (3.225b)
~~
for
Pm
1;
.
lTl(8Pm)2,
for Pm ~ 1
(3.225c)
Since H is an arbitraryfunction of x 0, each particle oscillatesindependently in this frame at its appropriate

frequency.
P. K. Shukla et
a!.,
Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
51
We now consider a wave which is initially spatially uniform (H is independent of x0) and perturb it at t = 0 by modulating its amplitude (H is now a weak function of x0). The particles initially oscillate in phase, but since their periods are slightly different, the relative phase of the individual particles increases secularly. Because of the phase shift, some of the particles begin to catch up with their neighbours, thus increasing the local density. This process is illustrated in fig. 7 where we show the results of a numerical calculation of the particle displacement x as function of time for p(x, 0) = 3 + 0.6 sin(ux/5). The motion of each individual particle is periodic but the electron density (line density for a given t) evolves rapidly as the relative phase of the particles increases. In fig. 8 the electron density is shown as a function of x at several times around t -~14. The crucial difference between the evolution of the wave in figs 7 and 8, and that of the nonrelativistic large-amplitude plasma wave is that the plasma wave is periodic over the interval 2u/to~0 while in the present calculation the phase shift of the particle is secular and hence the peak of the density profile increases with each period until the wave breaks. A half period after the curves shown in fig. 8 the wave breaking occurs. The electron density in the laboratory frame is given by (axlax0) so we calculated the time t~ when the wave breaks by requiring that 2p(x, t)Iax ax/ax0 =0 = 1 a 0at. (3.226) We can conveniently represent p0(x, t) as h(H(x0), tp(x0, t)), where ~(x0, t) = to(H(x0))t. h(H, ~) is periodic in ~ over the internal 2 ir and the p-dependence of x0 enters only through the energy H(x0). Equation (3.226) takes the form
1 =
(wh
tsWH
+ toHh
toh~H)HX,
(3.227)
where the subscripts ~,H and x0 represent partial derivatives with respect to that variable. The last two terms on the right-hand side of eq. (3.227) are periodic and, therefore, if t~ ~ 2 u/to, they can be neglected. On using eq. (3.223), one then finds from the last expression
Fig. 7. The particle displacement x(x0, t) is shown as a function of time. The particles are initially distributed uniformally, but have momentum p(x,0) =3 +0.6sin(irxI5) with dp(x, t0)ISt=0. [25]
52
n/no
X/Wp Fig. 8. The spatial dependence of the electron number density is shown at ~0t
0C
= 12.4, 13.2, 14.0, 14.8, 15.6, and 16.4. [25]
p(x0,t,) (l+p)
a ln
to
(3.228)
ax0
The wave will first break when p(x0, t5) is a maximum, so p(x0, t5) can be replaced by Pm(X~)in eq. (3.228). The quantity t~ will be a minimum where the period has the fastest spatial variation (phase shift is greatest):
tS(i+Prn)Prn(XS)~X~~
(3.229a) (3.229b) (3.229c)
41 =~p~apm/axsL for Pm =2pm~apm/axs~for Pm~1
where a2 ln to /a4 defines x~. The shock-formationtime is a sensitive function of the wave. Since in most cases of interest the wave may have to traverse a region of underdense plasma where modulation or filamentation instabilities can break up the wave perpendicular to its direction of propagation, the wave may have a substantial modulation when it reaches cutoff, thereby significantly reducing t~.
4. Relativistic nonlinear effects in magnetized plasmas Most laboratory and astrophysical plasmas are confined by an external magnetic field. The presence of an external magnetic field B 0 can give rise to new kinds of oscillations which do not exist in an unmagnetized plasma. For example, the ordinary and extraordinary modes can propagate across B0, whereas the cyclotron waves can be along B0. Furthermore, magnetized plasmas support a great variety of electrostatic and electromagnetic oscillations involving also the ion motion. There are several ways by which electrostatic waves can be directly or indirectly excited. The extraordinary mode propagating along the density gradient can suffer mode conversion at a layer where
53
the wave frequency equals the local upper-hybrid resonance frequency [102, 103]. As a result, there appear large amplitude electrostatic upper-hybrid waves. In addition, the beating of the two highfrequency electromagnetic waves can nonlinearly excite finite amplitude high-frequency electrostatic waves which can trap the high-phase velocity electrons and accelerate them to relativistic speeds. It is, therefore, of importance to study the nonlinear propagation of finite amplitude electrostatic and electromagnetic waves in magnetized plasmas. It is shown here that the relativistic nonlinearity can set an upper limit to the speed of the nonlinear upper-hybrid and ordinary modes. On the other hand, one [7376] discovers new field-aligned nonlinear cyclotron modes when the wave amplitudes are ultrarelativistic.
4.1. Electrostatic upper-hybrid waves
In this section, we present the low-frequency plasma response to the high-frequency upper-hybrid oscillations, accounting for the relativistic electron-mass variation and the ponderomotive force nonlinearities. Consider the propagation of a finite amplitude upper-hybrid wave in the form E= ~(1E~+~E5)exp(itot+ik.r)+c.c., (4.1)
where the external magnetic field B0 is directed along the z-axis. The frequency to and wavevector k are related by (4.2) W~ where tot, = to~+ I1~,w~ = 4une2/me, 11e = eBlmec, me = meoye, Ye = (1 v~/c2)2, and Ve is the quiver velocity of the electrons in the wave field. As usual, the factor Ye incorporates the relativistic nonlinearities due to the electron-mass variation. The nonlinear interaction of the upper-hybrid wave with the slow plasma motion can give rise to an envelope of waves. The amplitude of the latter will vary on the time and space scales of the lower-frequency modulations. Within the WKB approximation (a~ 4 to), the development of the high-frequency wave envelope is governed by [89]
to =toH+ 2
~te
~2 ,-~2 ~ ~e 4Il~ ?( toH 222tope~
2itoa~E+ 6ikaa~E + aa~E where E E~ ~ E~, a~ ~
(~~0
+ 2Q~
8Z)E
+ (to~~ + 2f1~~) ~2
E = 0,
(4.3)
0&
2/m~ 4irn0e 0, ~e0 = eB0/m~0c, a = 2w~ 2to~ 3v~~/(to~0 3Q~0),E~ = ~m~0c 0/e 0. Here, ~ and ~B5 are the electron number density and the magnetic field perturbations associated with the slow plasma motion.
t~eotopoax/to~,o, to~~
0 =
to~ + I1~o, to~0=
4.1.1. Electrostatic modulations First, we consider the most general low-frequency electrostatic fluctuations [thus setting &B5 = 0 in eq. (4.3)] driven by the upper-hybrid waves. For a, 4 (leO , the electron velocity involved in the plasma slow
54
motion is given by vej=~_1xV(41meo41pile)~ ~xV~1~ ~ e eoat~~
~e0
=
a0V~[-~
~e
(4.4)
a~41 ~
vteaz
(4.5)
where 41 is the ambipolar potential, and the perpendicular (to B0) and parallel components of the ponderomotive potentials [95] are respectively given by 2meotopo, (4.6) 2 2 4 41,,~= e22 to E /
41,,~
(to~
2)41~
0/to
.1
(4.7)
Substituting (4.4) and (4.5) into the electron continuity equation, we obtain n (a~ V~~) ~
a on
e
=
0 m~0 ~pO ~e0 where p~V~ 4 1, and p~ = v,~lQ~ is 0 the electron Larmor radius. Combining the ion continuity and the momentum equations, one can readily derive a relationship between the ion number density perturbation ~n1and the ambipolar potential 41. One finds 2) I1~v~
+
(a~ + Q~0
/ 2a~V~)41 + ~
I
~2 ~ 22 + iV~) to 2 iU0 teE
2 2
(4.8)
2meotopo
v~V
1a~] ~! =
-~_
(1~a~]41,
(4.9)
where v,1 and (1. are the thermalforce velocity and eB0lm1c) of the neglected. ions, and 2 = V~ + a ~. The ponderomotive acting on the the gyrofrequency ions is smaller,(= and is, therefore, V However, the ions are coupled to the electrons by the ambipolar potential. Eliminating 41 from eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) and using the quasi-neutrality condition (~ne = ~n 1),we derive our nonlinear low-frequency equation [89] 2)
+
-
v~1V
(l~v~a~](a~ + fl~2a~V~) + mCO

4
(~2 - v~ea~)(a~V2 + Q~a~)} ~
(a~V2 + (l~a~)(a~ +4
V~) e2~Ej2 2meowpo
(4.10)
1 ~ ~ Equations (4.3) and (4.10) constitute a pair of coupled nonlinear equations which describe the nonlinear interaction of the upper-hybrid waves with low-frequency potential fluctuations in magnetized plasmas. This set could be considered as the Zakharov equations [52]for magnetized plasmas. Note that the above system generalizes an earlier work [104] by including the relativistic nonlinearity and arbitrary frequencies (a 0 ~ (l~) of the slow electrostatic modulations.
P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic non!inear effecls in p!asmas
55
In what follows, we consider some limiting cases [105]. First, we consider the driven lower-hybrid modulations. Here a~fl~, (v~~a~), and ~ For ~ eq. (4.10) reduces to
2 2 22 (~, + toLH v 11a~)
Ofl~
22 eto
=
n0
2meomjtopo 2
(4.11)
In this case, the slow ions follow a straight-line orbit and the slow electrons are highly magnetized. Here, to~H=Qe0f1j. Second, for a~4v~a~, Q~4a~, a~4v~, (l~,2a~V~4a~, and (w/to~ 2(l~2a~V~ 4a~, 0) eq. (4.10) yields (a~_c2a2)~= S X fl
0
e a2IE~2. 2m~0m1to~0X
(4.12)
Here, the slow electrons establish a Boltzmann equilibrium along B0L We have defined c~ = (Te + a,T~)/m1. Note that eq. (4.12) describes the driven fast ion-acoustic wave. Third, we let a, Q~, but impose other frequency and wavenumber restrictions similar to the fast ion-acoustic waves described above. In this case, eq. (4.10) gives the driven ion-cyclotron waves
(a~ - c~a~ + (l~) ~

no
e~ 2 a~JE~ 2m~m 1w,,0
2.
(4.13)
Finally, in the adiabatic limit (a~~0), eq. (4.10) simplifies to 2I8un ~n~/n0=N= IE~ 0(T~ + T,), (4.14) where we have set a, = 1 corresponding to isothermal ions. We now look for stationary solutions of our coupled system [eq. (4.3) with 6B5 =0 and eqs. (4.11)(4.14)]. Introducing ~ = x vet, one finds the stationary density perturbations for the lowerhybrid (vg vi,) and ion-cyclotron (vg v~) modulations, respectively N=
____
a~ 81T?20T
(4.15)
(4.16)
Np~a~8~T
where p~ = c5/I1~and T = Te + T1. On the other hand, for the fast ion-acoustic modulations, one finds 1 8irn N= M El where M
=
,
0T
(4.17)
vg/cs is the Mach number. (4.18)
Inserting eqs. (4.14)(4.17) into eq. (4.3), one gets in the moving frame 2 = 0, 2ito0c~E+ aa~E + EQJIEI
56
where the electric field is normalized by (8 un0 T)2 The coefficients Q. of the nonlinear term of the static and fast ion-acoustic modulations are, respectively, given by
Qa =
to~ 0(1 + X),

(4.19)
2y + X], (4.20) w~0[(1 M where X = (v ~/2c2 )( 1 + (l~ /to ~ 1 + 2(1 ~ /to ~) is the contribution of relativistic nonlinearity. On the other hand, for the lower-hybrid and the ion-cyclotron modulations, one finds
QFIA =
0[X ~ (4.21) 2m~ where ~ = 1 (to 0/m1w~0) for the ion-cyclotron (lower-hybrid) modulations. Stationary localized solutions of the cubic Schrdinger equation (4.18) are given in section 3. For completeness, we briefly summarize the main results. For the adiabatic modulations, the relativistic nonlinearity is added to the ponderomotive force nonlinearity. The combined effects then lead to the standing bright (dark) solitons [15]for positive (negative) group dispersive upper-hybrid waves. 2< 1, the properties of the solitons are Inclusion similar to of ion inertia gives rise to moving perturbations. For M those of the standing solitons. However, for M2 > 1, eq. (4.20) becomes 2). 0(X M Note that for a(X M2) >0 (<0) bright (dark) solitons are encountered.
QFIA =
QLHICW =
w~
to~
(4.22)
Combining eqs. (4.3) and (4.21), one can easily obtain the nonlinear Schradinger equation 2ito 2 = 0. (4.23) 0a0E + aa~E + to~0E[X ~p~a~]~Ej Equation (4.23) has been extensively studied by Litvak and Sergeev [95]and the important properties of the nonlinear solutions are summarized in section 3. For pp ~a ~ > X and a >0, eq. (4.23) predicts spatial collapse in one space dimension. 4.1.2. Magnetohydrodynamic modulations Let us now introduce the magnetohydrodynamic response [95]to the upper-hybrid waves. Assuming cold ions (T 1 4 Te) and plasmas with to~, Q, one finds for the low-frequency (~1 4 (1k) driven MHD perturbations [87]
~
(a~ v~a~)
~
~-~
v~a~
(4.24)
n0 where
2
Va
B()
=
3E~
I
425
VA +
2 ~ c~, ~~e = ~n1 = ~n, and p;a~ 4 1 has been assumed.
57
In the stationary frame ~ = x

top0_[El
2 2
Vgt~eqs.
(4.24) and (4.25) become
B0
(4.26)
v~3E~
to~o
V~ V~ ~
El
2
+
~2
El2
C
i- a~ i
(4.27)
Inserting eqs. (4.26) and (4.27) into eq. (4.3), we get

2
2ito
0a~E+ aa~E + (to~0+ 2(l~~)[3 m,(v~v~)1 m~0c ~ 3E~E
11~o3E~ ~ cE a~j El
2 = 0.
(4.28)
Equation (4.28) is a nonlinear Schrodinger equation. For 3O~~ ~ w~ 0,eq. (4.28) becomes 211e0 I m~ 2 1 El 2ia~E ~ ~pO PeE 2 2 ~ i3 2 0c 2 I E=0. eO L m.(vgva)J E~
~-
(4.29)
This equation has soliton solutions provided that

~ 2
Va)
<meoc2/mj.
(4.30)
Thus, the relativistic effect sets an upper limit on the super Alfvnic compressional solitons of Kaufman and Stenflo [106]. 2 On the other hand, for to,, 0 > ~ eq. (4.28) is
to,, a 2ia0E+ ~ 0 ~
2E+ ~ [~,_ m~ 22 ] El2 E ~- ~ a~lEl2=0. 0c 3 m1(v~ Va) E~ f1~~ 3~
(4.31)
2/mj, the relativistic nonlinearity dominates over the ponderomotive nonlinearity, If 3(v~ v~)> meoc and we find a compressional (~n >0) cusp-shaped soliton (a~lEl2 >0). Furthermore, for 3v~ 3v ~+ meoc2/mj, the relativistic and ponderomotive nonlinearities cancel each other. We find then
2 2
2ia
0E +
=
to~, ~-
a~E
~-
2 eO ~ (12 3E
2lEl2 0. ak
=
(4.32)
Letting E P
g(x) exp[iq(~) + iO(t)] in eq. (4.32), and assuming stationarity, one finds
0a~gB0gq0ga~g=0, where P0
=
(4.33) 2],and q
2If1~ 0
=
3v~/2to~0, B0
[0~ + P0(a~)
w~0c
0E~.
58
P.K. Shuk!a et al.. Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
Equation (4.33) can be integrated once, and the result is

+ IP(B (a~g)2 0,
g, P0, q0)
0,
(4.34)
where 21(P 2). (4.35) 1= B0g 02q0g In deriving eq. (4.34), we used the boundary conditionsg, a~g-+0 at l~l~~*ca. A solution of eq. (4.34) is [95,96] g2
=
g~ sech2[(B 0/P0)
12l~l
(1 g2Ig~)2],
(4.36)
where g~ = P 2 ~ g~.Thus, there occur super-magnetoacoustic compressional envelope and 0 ~ g solitons with 01 a 2q0, cusp-shaped electric field profile. Berezhiani and Paverman [87]have presented some examples for the width and the amplitude of the solitons when the upper-hybrid waves are modulated by the magnetohydrodynamic perturbations. They have chosen some typical low-density (n 3 cm3), high magnetic field and high temperature 0 = iO (B 0 = 3050 kG, and Te -= 100 eV1 keV) plasma and have found that the narrow wave packets (cusp solitons) would have the filling wavelength Am 4 x i0~cm, the width L 2 x 10-2 cm, and the characteristic upper-hybrid wave electric field E - 10 V/cm. On the other hand, for the broader wave packet (L4~V. to~0c/Q~0), the wavelength Am is in the interval 1 cm> Am >0.1 cm, and one finds that (LE) -~ i0 In order to investigate one dimensional collapse, we write eq. (4.32) in the familiar form
-~
iarE + a~E p
0Ea~lEl
0,
(4.37)
where r = P 0t, and /3o = q0/P0. Equation (4.37) is exactly of the same form as eq. (3.85) with a = 0. Thus, the results of section 3 are applicable here. 4.2. Nonlinear ordinary mode propagation The ordinary (0) mode electromagnetic waves are being utilized for electron-cyclotron resonance heating of magnetic fusion devices, as well as for the ionospheric modification experiments. At high-power levels, parametric instabilities set in. For example, recent work [107] has conclusively demonstrated the occurrence of a three-wave decay interaction during the ionospheric modification experiments. The ordinary electromagnetic wave is characterized by the alignment of the wave electric field in the direction of the equilibrium magnetic field B0~. The wave magnetic field will then be in the y-direction. For purely perpendicular propagation, the linear dispersion relation for nonrelativistic ordinary waves in a warm plasma is given by [108] 2c2/w2 = 1 to~,e/to2 W~eA/to(to (1), (4.38) k
where A = I 1(b) exp(b), b = ~ Pc

= t~teL
0eis
the electron Larmor radius,
to
is the wave frequency,
P. K. Shuk!a eI a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
59
+ k2c2 which does and k(=kI) is the wavevector. For b 4 1 and to ~ (la, eq. (4.38a) becomes to2 = not contain resonance and to the lowest order does not even involve B 0 explicitly. to,,~, According to the linear 2 ~ w~,the mode will propagate (k2 >0), whereas as to approaches the propagation of theory, for is to cut off. On the other hand, the linear propagation and absorption of electromagnetic the mode radiation near the electron-cyclotron harmonics can, even in a weakly relativistic plasma, be strongly affected by the velocity-dependent relativistic correction to the electron mass [109]. Let us now derive the nonlinear evolution equation for the ordinary mode radiation (to ~ propagating perpendicular to the external magnetic field B 01. Since the electric field of the 0-mode radiation is polarized along B0, the first-order density perturbation associated with the mode is identically zero. However, due to the v0 x B1 (B1 is the wave magnetic field, and v0 is the quiver velocity in the electromagnetic field) force, there appears a second-order density perturbation which depends on the strength of the external magnetic field. The second-order density perturbations are computed in the following manner. Let the wave electric and magnetic field be
E=fEcoso,
B1=9~Ecosw,
where
tot
kx. The lowest-order quiver velocity is given by (4.39)
meoto
eE~. z s~n~,
whereas the change 6 v ~ of the quiver velocity due to the relativistic mass variation is
3~ =
sin3
~,
(4.40)
e~to)
The second-order electron density perturbations are determined by
2~In 0(6n~ + 0)axvex = 0,

e
=
~
(4.41)
]
Ii XB
0
.~
c 2~.
6E~j (1~0v~~,
(4.42) (4.43) (4.44)
atvey
(leoVex,
= 4ue 6n~ Combining eqs. (4.41) with (4.42) and Fourier analyzing, we obtain the second-order density perturbation
(2)
cka
2
2 2
0 n0
2
cos2~,
(4.45)
4w
to~0
where a0
= eE/m~0toc and w~,0 = to~0+ (1~O. The parallel component of the nonlinear electron current density which is in phase with the wave
60

is
3 2322
electric field
.NL j.
I
3n0e ~ eE \ . n0e E c k =--t\ , sin~+ s1nq~. 2 2 8c meow / 2m~0to(4to toH~)
(4.46)
Perturbations which are out of phase shall be ignored. The wave equation then becomes
2
22
12
21
c a~ + to~0)E = 2to~OqBaOE wpone/no, (4.47) where n ~ is the low-frequency electron density fluctuations caused by the ponderomotive force, and
qB=4(to
3 2
By using the WKB approximation, E = E(x,

t)
to~0)/(4to to~0).
exp(ik0x
ito0t) + c.c.
(4.48)
where E(x, t) is the slowly varying (a0E 4 to0E) amplitude of the modulated wave, we obtain from (4.47) a nonlinear Schrodinger equation 2k 2a~E 2ito0a,E + 2ic 0a~E + c
w~ 0~
n0
E+
q~
m~0w0c
0,
(4.49)
2k~has been used. where w~ = to~0+ c 4.2.1. Slow electrostatic response [1101 (A) Quasi-static limit. When the parallel phase velocity of the low-frequency modulation is much smaller than the electron and ion thermal velocities, then, from the z-component of the particle momentum equations, we find
o~1~41pe,
(4.50)
(4.51) where P = e41/Te, E1

41pe =
V41, a-
T~/ T~, and the ponderomotive potential is given by

(4.52)
(to~oIto~)lEl2I161TfloTe.
In deriving (4.50) and (4.51), we have assumed an isothermal equation of state for both the electrons and the ions. The ponderomotive potential originates from the averaging (over one period of the 0-mode radiation) of the convective term (the z component of the nonlinear Lorentz force is identically zero) in the z component of the electron momentum equation. Here, as well as in the following, the contribution of the ion ponderomotive potential is generally small, and is, therefore, neglected. On using the quasi-neutrality condition (ne = n,1), we get
61
1E2
16un 0T
(4.53)
where T = Te + T1. Note that P is established by the wave pressure only when T1 Eliminating ~Ifrom (4.50) and (4.53), we obtain 2/16irn = (to~0/to~)lEl 0T.
0.
(4.54)
(B) Driven response. In the cold plasma, the plasma response can be driven nonlinearly. If the modulation frequency (Li) is much smaller than the electron gyrofrequency (1eo, the slow electron response is given by
a0n~ + n0a1V~~ = 0,
2
I
(4.55)
2
T ~
C
~e00
7?
~~pO 2 Pe~xt 2~2 E (/~U;~(~ 1~

to0 iolTfl0i
where the second term on the right-hand side of (4.56) comes from the nonlinear Lorentz force (V~ZB~. On the other hand, for (1~ we have
a0n~+n0a~V~ =0,
=
~
(4.57)
(4.58)
a0a~41.
From (4.57) and (4.58), we get the slow ion density perturbation n~/n0 = (c/B0I11)a~41. Inserting (4.56) into (4.55), eliminating condition, we obtain
=
(4.59)
41 with the aid of (4.59), and making
use of the quasi-neutrality (4.60)
(to~o/to~)p~a~lEl
2/16unoTe,
where m~ 0/m1 4 1 has been used. (C) Finite frequency density modulations. First, we consider the slow plasma motion on a (fast) time scale such that the ions do not find time to respond to the wave field. Thus, treating ions as an immobile fluid, we obtain
2 2
(a~ +
to~, 0
3i~ea~)
n0
to = ~0 2
Vtex
16 E T irn0
(4.61)
where the right-hand side is the contribution of the nonlinear Lorentz force.
62
P. K. Shuk!a rt a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasonas
Second, for u1~~ (1~~e0 one may introduce a slow plasma response on the time scale of the lower-hybrid oscillations. Here, the slow electrons are magnetized and move in a plane perpendicular to B0. The electron density perturbation is given by 1 (1p~a~)~ n Bfl
o
a~41+~p~a~ E T
eQ
to 0
(4.62)
uno
For (1 ~- (li, unmagnetized ions follow a straight-line orbit. Thus, combination of the ion continuity and momentum equations gives (a~
V~1a~)
I fl~
~ =
a~41.
(4.63)
Combining (4.62) and (4.63) with the Poisson equation a~41=4u(n~n~), we obtain
1
(4.64)
2
=
2
2
toLH
V~a~) ~
fl0
Vte
to0(1
~
2/m
v~a~)a~ El
+ Lieoitopo)
un0
(4.65)
where toLH = (l~~Q~/(1 + (l~0/to~0), to~ = 4urn0e 1, V~, = a1T1/m1, and p~a~ 41. Third, we consider the low-frequency electrostatic response such that the parallel (to B0) phase velocity of the modulation is much smaller than the electron thermal velocity. Thus, the electron density perturbation is given by eq. (4.50). The slow ion density perturbation is determined by means of the following equations:
a0n~ + n0V1 v~+ n0a~V~ = 0,

~
2 2 1
(4.66)
~i
T.
fl1
(4.67)
a0V~
= -~-
~.
a2
(4.68)
Combining (4.66), (4.67) and (4.68), we readily get 2)n~/n + 2~ Q~a~), (a~ + Q~)(~~ V~V = 0 c~(a~V where c~ = Telmi and V2 =V2~.+ a~. Eliminating P from (4.50) and (4.69), we finally obtain
(4.69)
[a~+ ((l~
where V~ = C~+
V~v2)a~ Li~c~a~]n~In
=
+ 2(l~a~)lEj2/16un
ac~(a~V 0
0Te,
(4.70)
V~and
a = w~0/to~.
63
a~~ a ~,we get
Two kinds of responses across the external magnetic field can be derived from (4.70). For the driven ion-cyclotron oscillations
a~ ll~, and
-
(a~ + l1~
2/16irnoTe. v~a~)n~/n = 0 ac~a~lEI
(4.71)
On the other hand, for
a~ ll~ and a~ ~ a~, eq.

~ =
(4.70) reduces to (4.72)
2/16unoTe. 0 ac~a~lEl Finally, we note that for a 0o. 0, eq. (4.70) reduces to eq. (4.54), provided that y1
(a~ t~a~)n/n
1 (isothermal ions).
4.2.2. Slow magnetosonic response

Here, we consider driven magnetosonic oscillations in the presence of the 0-mode radiation. For the magnetosonic waves, E = (0, E, 0), B = iB2 and k = 1k. The frequency of the oscillation is taken to be much smaller than the ion gyrofrequency l1~. Thus, finite density perturbations are created due to the E X B0 drift. For low-frequency (Li 4 ll~) magnetosonic modulations, one can neglect the displacement current in eq. (2.4). The y component of eq. (2.4) is then given by
aXBZ
=
4irn0e
(V~
vt).
(4.73)
~ 1
In the drift approximations

=
_____
(I a0 I ~ a
fl~), we find
2
ey
c B0lleo ~
(1
V te
lfl E I e + Ct) pe xL n0 ~ l6un0Te
(4 74
= ~
a~E~ +
aX
to
2~
~ aX l6lTfl 0Te (4.75)
From eq. (2.3) we have
a0B~= ca~E~.
Combining eqs. (4.73)(4.75) we obtain
2 2 2 2 2
VA
to0
a~ 16 E
irn0 e
(4.76)
where b = B~/B0, v~ = B~ /4irn0m1, 1~,,= v~/V~, n, = n~, and the nonlinear Lorentz force acting on the ions is smaller by a factor of meo/ m1. For p~a ~4 1, the electron density perturbation is given by 2/16irnoTe. (4.77) n~/n0 = b ap~a~IEI
64
Eliminating b from (4.76) and (4.77), we obtain 2(a~ v~2a~)]a~lEl2/16unoTe, (a~ v~,a~)n~/n,, = ac~[1 + A
(4.78)
where v~ = (1
0 is the collisionless skin depth. For short-wavelength perturbations, the dispersion as well as nonlinear terms in the dynamics of magnetosonic waves can become important Equations (4.49), (4.54), (4.60), (4.61), (4.65), (4.71), (4.72) and (4.78) are the fundamental coupled equations which describe the nonlinear interaction of the ordinary mode radiation with a great variety of low-frequency oscillations in a magnetoplasma. We note that the structure of some of the present coupled equations is similar to those found earlier in connection with the study of nonlinear effects at the upper-hybrid layer.
-
f3~)v~ and A =
c/to,,
4.2.3. Stationary localized solutions (A) Quasi-static cases. Combining (4.49), (4.54) and (4.60), we obtain it9~E+iVgaxE+Pai~E+ QIEI
2E+RIEI2E0,
+ 2RIEI2E
=
(4.79)
ia
0E + iVg a~E + P~~E q0Ea~E~
0,
2=
(4.80) c2/2w 0, 0/w0, P =

V~I
where the electric field is normalized by (16unoTe)2. We have defined Vg = c2k

Q
=
to~/2to0(1 + a-
), q0
(top0/2to0)pe, and R
topoqBVte/tooc.
(B) Propagating solitons. Introducing ~ = x Vt, we find from eqs. (4.61), (4.65), (4.71), (4.72) and
(4.78)
2 3v~e)a~ + w~.,]N = av~~a~EI2 , [(V [(V2 v~)a~ + to~~]N = 6[(V2 V~)a~ + w~~]a~lEl2 ,
(4.81) (4.82)
[(V2 V~)a~~ + Q~]N ac~a~El2, N ac~lEl2/(1 M~)v~2,
(4 83)
(4.84)
(M~ - 1)N
~-
[i
+ A2(1
Y~)a~]lEl2,
(4.85)
where Vis the soliton velocity, M~ = V/v 5, Ma = V/Vm, and 6 = V~/w~(1 + Q~0/to~0). 2 ~ v~,~ v~[(V2 3V~)/w~.,]a~ 41; [(V2 V~ 2 V~)/Q~]a~ 41, For V to (4.83) yield 1)/to~~]a~ 41; and [(V eqs. (4.81)
N=
N= B
0a~lEl
2,
(4.86) (4.87) (4.88)
N= C where A()
=
0a~lEl
0a~lEl
~ B
2,
2,
=
6to~IIw~H, and C0
ap~ with p5 = c5/u11 and p14
65
On the other hand, for (1 N
4 1, eq. (4.85) gives V2Iu~5jA2a~
a(c~/V~,)lEl2/(1 Mt).
(4.89)
Inserting (4.84) and (4.89) in eq. (4.49), we obtain
ia
where
0E + Pa~E + (R + Q)IEI
2E = 0,
(4.90)
Q 5
=
Q(T, Q(T1
0)c~/(1
M~)V~,
(4.91)
(4.92)
Qa
0)c~/(1 M~)v~
are the coefficients of nonlinear terms associated with the ion-sound and magnetosonic perturbations, respectively. Here, V= Vg~ we insert eqs. (4.86)(4.88) into eq. (4.49), we then get 2EIf q 2 = 0, (4.93) ia0E + Pa~E + RIEI 1Ea~lEl where p~q 1 = (q0A0, q0B0, q0C0) are the coefficients of nonlinear terms involving the upper-hybrid, the lower-hybrid, and the ion-cyclotron modulations, respectively. Note that eqs. (4.79), (4.80), (4.90) and (4.93) are similar in form to that of eqs. (3.49) and (3.85), respectively. Correspondingly, nonlinear solutions are given by eqs. (3.61) and (3.89). One encounters subsonic (Alfvnic) envelope solitons when the modulations are due to the ion-sound (magnetosonic) waves. The corresponding nonlinear density perturbations are rarefactional. Equations (4.80) and (4.93) admit sharply localized radiation electric fields.
4.3. Ultrarelativistic cyclotron waves The problem of supplementary heating of plasmas by electromagnetic waves in the regime of electroncyclotron resonance frequency is of much interest recently. It was pointed out some time ago that the relativistic modification of the electron motion can change the character of the cyclotron resonance. In the field of an intense circularly polarized wave, the so-called gyromagnetic autoresonance may take place [78]. It has been shown that for a sufficiently smooth increase of the external magnetic field with time, the electrons are trapped in the regime of the autoresonance and are accelerated 2). with the increasing magnetic to ultrarelativistic energies (much larger thanet the energy meoc On the other hand, it has beenfield pointed out by Kotsarenko [73]and Papuavishvili al.rest [75]that two types of circularly polarized electromagnetic waves with different refractive coefficients may propagate in such ultrarelativistic collisionless cold plasmas. The purpose of this section is to discuss the linear as well as nonlinear properties of the field-aligned ultra-relativistic cyclotron waves. We consider a homogeneous collisionless cold plasma in the presence of a circularly polarized electromagnetic wave of frequency to and wavevector k directed along the external magnetic field B 0~. Using Maxwells equations and taking into account the relativistic electron-mass increase, it is easy to obtain the following expression [7279]:
66
22
= =
P. K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic non!inear effects

2
in plasonas
Q)
(4.94)
where to~ = 4irn1e2/m10 and 11g. = q,B0Im10c. The relation between and the pump wave amplitude E0 is given by the equation of motion for the electrons and Amperes law [79]
Yl+toEJYJ/(WYJt
2 2 2
1J)2 ,
(4.95)
where toE
10c. Note that (4.94) is valid for kt~1.4 toy, l2~.in a uniform plasma. Here, signs in front of (1~correspond to the right- and left-hand circularly polarized waves E = E0(1 ij) exp(itot + ikz). The system of equations (4.94) and (4.95) describes the dependence of the wave refractive index and the particle energy ~i on E0 and B0 at fixed values of the frequency to and the plasma density. Relation (4.95) represents a fourth-order equation for ~,iand it can be solved in general numerically. However, in the ultra-relativistic limit (y1 ~ 1), it takes a simple form y1~=(~Q1 toEJ)/w~1. On the other hand, in the weak relativistic limit, y~ in (4.95) becomes
=
leEo I /m
(4.96)
+ to~1/(to (1)2
(4.97)
The corresponding dispersion relation is given by

2 = to
k2c2
~~P1Q,
(4.98)
4.3.1. Ultrarelativistic waves Consider high-frequency (u1~4 to 4 Li~) intense waves such that the electrons remain ultrarelativistic and the ions form a neutralizing background. Then, eqs. (4.94)(4.96) yield k2c2/to2 = 1 ~
to~O/totoEe~
(4.99)
to:
Equation (4.99) can be solved for

to = (to~o/4to~ +
k2c2)2
to~o/2toEC.
(4.100)
Clearly, in the ultra-relativistic limit, there exist two types of waves with different wavelengths [A 2]but with same frequency and polarization. For 2kctoEC 4 to~ 0= (2irc/to)(1 ~ to~o/totoEC) 0, eq. (4.100) gives two roots
/
~
,22
~~
to~)
toEe
to~,0
(4.lOla) (4.lOlb)
2c2w~/to~ k 0 -
67
Expression (4.lOla) was first found by Papuashvili et al. [75],whereas eq. (4.lOlb) appears in ref. [73]. There are several methods [79]to reach the state with y~ ~ 1 (the main difficulty is a compensation of the electron-mass increase and hence of cyclotron resonance detuning). One possible way is by choosing the incident waves in the form of a broad band (in to) wave packet with frequencies continuously changing from tomin to tomax = Li,,~,(at constant B0). Then, the electrons with relativistically increasing mass can find a corresponding wave from the packet with a frequency coinciding with the relativistically decreased 2. Thus, since electron-cyclotron frequency. Asreach a result, the electron energy may reach (wmax/tomin)meoc tomax> tomin~ the electrons may an ultra-relativistic state. However, this method is impractical because of the smallness of the energy gained in comparison with the energy carried by the wave packet. The method suggested by Golovanivsky [78]seems to be more effective. Here, one varies the external magnetic field strength. It may either be a variation with the coordinate (in this case it is necessary to produce plasma flow along the increasing B 0) or with the time (for example, from discharging a capacitor bank through coils). The increase of B0 is followed by a corresponding growth of y~, so that the ratio 11e0~Ye remains constant and a continuous resonance can occur. Papuashvili, Paverman, and Tsintsadze [79] studied this situation using (4.94) and (4.95) for an electron plasma. In particular, all the real solutions of (4.95) were calculated (in general, there are three real values of ye), and the corresponding n2 were obtained from (4.94). The dependence of Ye and n2 on the varying magnetic field is shown in fig. 9. If Bmin is smaller than B 1, where (4.102a) meoc ~
to
then an increase of the magnetic field gives rise to a growth of y~,and the wave ~ (1) propagates in a plasma. When B> B1, this wave is shielded (its refractive index becomes imaginary). When the magnetic field reaches the value B2, where
leB2/m~ocl
213= ii~~ = to2/3 +
(4.102b)
the second wave w2) appears. Clearly, the inequality B 1 > B2 is a necessity for the simultaneous propagation of both waves. We note that the wavelengths of the ~ and ~ waves are very different.
10a
/7
/
//
~2
b
,.-
24
5
16 0.8
:~~:
__) ~~21 mode; 2/2 = 7 x 10_2, WE/W = 5 x 10_2. [79] Fig. 9. Typical shapes of ultra-relativistic dependence of y,(a) and n
(_
2 (b) on the magnetic field:
()
nonrelativistic branch,
(.
. . )
w~~ mode,
68
P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic non!inear effects in p!asmas
~e
2~
I
W~/W
/
(.-)
Fig. 10. Typical shapes of ultra-relativistic dependence of y~(a) and n mode, ( ) w~mode; w~/w2 =7 x ~ Q~_Iw = 3. [79]
2 on the pump-wave amplitude:
nonrelativistic branch, ( .
.) ~
For example, in a plasma with n 3, Bmax = i0~ G, E 3 V/cm, and to = 2 X 1011 s~, the = iO cm = 3 X i0 wavelengths of to~ and ~ 0 modes are Aw=25cm and 0A~2~=7cm, respectively. In spite of the relatively small E 0, the magnitude of Ye was found to be quite large (Ye =9) due to the resonance interaction of the electrons with the pump wave. 2 on the pump wave amplitude E The dependence of y~ and n 0 was also investigated using (4.94) and (4.95). From fig. 10 and eq. (4.96), one sees that a wave can propagate only if E0 is limited from above by the inequality B2 < B1, or
23)312 -
(4.102c)
9 3 101
C1fl,~0 ((12/3
to
Note that in obtaining fig. 10, we have used n
0 = 10 cm , Bmax = 10 kG, and to = 2 X 10 S - It is interesting to point out that A (1) decreases with increasing E0, whereas A (2) is an increasing function of E0. This fact allows the identification of the waves. 4.3.2. Ultrarelativistic ion-cyclotron waves Stenflo and Tsintsadze [74] have demonstrated the existence of ultrarelativistic ion-cyclotron waves. For this purpose, they assumed nonrelativistic electrons and ultrarelativistic ions. For to 4 ~ Ye = 1, = (~Q~ toEI)/to, eq. (4.94) becomes 2c2/w2 = 1 + to~o/wQC() toPI/totoEl (4.103) k For E 0 4 B11 (or WEI 4 11), eq. (4.103) yields
.
2
to. 2WE
2kctoE.\ 222
to,~ 1
to. 2
2toEi
(4104)
where 2k2c2w~4
to~.
Clearly, the dispersive ion waves
P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
69
~
toE1
(i
+
to 1
WEI),
(4.105)
and the ion helicon waves

to~~~toEi,
top1
(4.106)
appear as new branches of the ion-cyclotron modes. The solutions (4.105) and (4.106) have the same form as those for the electrical helicon waves, since tEe/W~0 = to~1/to~~. In the present case, however,
to
4Li~.
The dampings of these new modes are given by [76] 2I2k2V~}. Im k = For l1~
4
(4.107)
(~)1/2
~~
exp{(y1w
Li10)
to 0
1eo
the last expression becomes

2
~
/
~
\1/2
Imk=~)
!7T1
~j~
to
exp(toEe/2k Vie).
p0
22
(4.108)
Clearly, the modes are damped only when toEc ~ kVte Similarly, one can show that the ordinary ion modes mentioned above exist when toEj k~ 1. When the particle temperature is sufficiently small the damping can be neglected. There exists an interesting difference between the usual nonrelativistic small amplitude waves and the ultra-relativistic solutions (4.lOla) and (4.105). In the nonrelativistic case, the damping is large if to l2~ < kr~1and there is no limit when to approaches 11~. In the ultrarelativistic case, the damping is large only when y1to (1~ < kv~1 as the difference between y1to and (1~ cannot be smaller than toe,. Thus, strong cyclotron resonance is absent in the relativistic limit [76].
~
4.3.3. Parallel modulation of the electron helicons Tsintsadze et al. [76]have investigated the parametric instabilities of the high-frequency extraordinary strong relativistic electron modes. They have derived a general dispersion relation which shows how the pump wave (to, k) couples to the low-frequency mode (Li, K) and with the sideband modes (to (1, k K). In the ultra-relativistic limit, where eEolmeo(toye
+
(1~) c,
(4.109)
the coupling of the pump to density fluctuations is enhanced. For stimulated forward scattering (K 4 k), one obtains [76] ~wK2V~] _(Q2 W~i)K4C2toEeV~/2(to~O + K2V~IYe), (4.110)
2
(~2
to~)[(Li
KVg)
where vg=atolak, V~=a2toIak2,and
70 toas3K 2V~
P.K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
+ K2C~/(Ye + K2A~e).
(4.111)
Note that the + or sign in eq. (4.110) is to be used when the wave (4.lOla) or (4.105) is to be studied, respectively. Considering the wave (4.102a), and assuming Kc> to,, 1, one obtains from eq. (4.110) (1=iKc.
~
(4.112)
2
On and the KV other hand, with eq. (4.lOlb) and the assumptions KADC 41 and to,~13~(1 Kr~e(meo/mj)~ 5, eq. (4.110) yields 112 (4.113) (1 =iKc(toEIIWPI) Furthermore, for toR Kvte(meo/mj)2 and 11 KVg 4 to,, 1, one gets from eq. (4.110):
(1 ~iKc[~2
m1
(~!
112
(4.114)
to
y~c
It follows from the last three equations that an instability occurs in each case. 4.3.4. Parallel modulation of the ion helicons Stenflo and Tsintsadze [74] have found equations describing the nonlinear interaction of ultrarelativistic ion-cyclotron modes with low-frequency plasma motions along B0~.The evolution of the slowly varying wave envelope E is governed by
2 IIEIE0 6n\ i(a0+V5a2)E+~V~a2Eto~ E0 _)E=0,
(4.115)
where the plus and the minus signs correspond to (4.105) and (4.106), respectively, and El E0 4 E0 has been used. Here, 6n is the density perturbation associated with the electrostatic plasma slow motion. On using a linearized hydrodynamic description for the ions, one obtains an equation for 6n in quasi-neutral limit:
(a~ V~a~)
~
= ~-
~ a~ (IEIE0) ,
(4.116)
where the right-hand side of eq. (4.116) comes from the averaging of the nonlinear Lorentz force in the momentum equations. Writing E = (E0 + 6E) exp(i~),where 6E(4E0) and p(4l) have space and time variation exp(iKz illt), we find from the linearized versions of eqs. (4.115) and (4.116) the dispersion relation which describes modulational instabilities: 2 [(Li KVg) Considering first the wave in eq. (4.105) and assuming Li/K 2- V
5
K2V~](l12 K2V~)=
toKC
~!
V~.
(4.117)
and Vg~one gets from eq. (4.117):
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects
in p!asmas
71
(1
iKc(1 + toEI/41l1),
(4.118)
whereas for the ion helicon wave (eq. (4.106)) one finds, for Li/K ~- v5 and vg: 2c2\ 1/4 Li~iKc( / ito~ k
.
(4.119)
~2Li~
to~
and, for LiIK~Vg, Li~Kc(V,/c

2 2
toEl/Lil)
1/2
-
(4.120)
From the last equation it follows that an instability occurs when toEl/(ll > 2V ~/ c2. For the Crab Nebula, taking some typical parameter values to 200 s~ (close to the rotation frequency of the Crab pulsar), n 3, one finds from eq. (4.106) the amplitude E 0 iO~cm 0 of the wave as E0 cn0e/4irw 30 V/cm, which agrees with the electric field values used by Sweeney and Stewart [111] where eEo/meowc 100. Supposing that the ion helicon wave exists in the Crab Nebula, we find that the wavelengths of the radiation would be of the order of 10 m. 4.3.5. MHD modulations of electron helicons Nishikawa, Tsintsadze and Watanabe [77] have considered the nonlinear interaction of the fieldaligned ultrarelativistic electron helicon and high-frequency waves with the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) perturbations [112]. This interaction gives rise to a high-frequency wave envelope which has a structure across the magnetic field. In the present section, we discuss the multidimensional modulational instability, as well as the formation of three-dimensional solitons. When the modulation frequency is much smaller than the ion gyrofrequency ll~, one may use the magnetohydrodynamic equations to describe slow plasma motion [1121 d~v+V-(nv)=0, (a0+vV)v~-~Vn 1 Bx(VxB)+_L_, n 4irnm~ nm1
,B=Vx(vxB),
(4.121)
wheref is the ponderomotive force, which incorporates the relativistic motion of the electrons. In fact,fis given by,
f~ = ~-~ f~ = .~
where
J~
[i
{w(~
1)}]a~lEI2,
.~ ~_{w2(1
(4.122) 1)}o,1E12]
[(~
1)a5IEI
2+
(4.123)
=1 to~ 0/to(to\/1+p
2(1)
72 P
P.K. Shuk!a et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas

2=(p~+p~)/m~Oc2=toEC(1+ v2)/(toVT~~2~~e).
We consider a plane electromagnetic wave E = E(x, z, t) exp[i(kz tot)] propagating along the external magnetic field B 01. Let the characteristic dimensions for changes in the field amplitude and plasma density in the longitudinal and transverse directions, L~ and L2, respectively, be large as compared to the wavelength, i.e., kL~ ~ 1 and kL~ 1. It follows from the last inequalities that the longitudinal field component E2 is small in comparison with the transverse components (E2 4 E~, Er), and it may be found from the Maxwell equation:
~
E2 =
to
Eli
where
E11=1_to~0/to2\/1+
2 Furthermore, have two values: we will consider the ultra-relativistic case (v n2 c2k2/to2 = 1 ~ to~O/totoEe~
1). Then, the refraction index n may
(4.124)
Here, the minus sign refers to spectrum (4.lOla), and the plus sign to the helicon wave (4.lOlb). Taking into account that the electromagnetic waves are circularly polarized, i.e., E 1 = E~ in the case of longitudinal propagation, we obtain from the Maxwells equation the following expression for the slowly varying envelope of the electric field component E = E~ iE~ of the high-frequency spectrum (4. lOla):
i(a0 + ~a2)E + ~v~a~E

where
T1a~E ~
l~HE0]E
=0,
(4.125)
Vg=aw/ak,
V=aVg/ak,
g
2 2\ k 1=~~i+$---),
2
~
(0]
=
and E0 is the initial electromagnetic wave amplitude, before the modulation. Here, 6n/n0 n0)/n041, and (lEl E0)/E041 have been assumed. The equation for the amplitude of the helicon wave (4. lOib) is of the form
(n
lIE HE i(a0 + Vgaz)E_ + ~V~a~E + T2a~E toL E0
-,~---]E_= 0,
6n1
(4.126)
where
/
22
toi
kc
to11
73
The system (4.121), (4.125) and (4.126) is the basic equations describing both the modulational instabilities and wave self-focusing. To study the instability, it is generally assumed that the low-frequency modulation caused by the ponderomotive force is small, and that the system of equations (4.121), (4.125) and (4.126) can be linearized. We also assume that all quantities describing the magnetohydrodynamic motions depend on the coordinate through ~(=x~x + x~x [it), and write the electric field amplitude E as E
=
a(~)exp[ip(~)].
Taking into account the above, we obtain from eqs. (4.125) and (4.126) and the system of MHD equations (4.121) a dispersion relation for the wave (4.lOla): [(Xztg)2 mc 4
~(V~,y~+
T 1~~)+ ~to(V~+ T1X~)]D kLi

+
)(Q2
)(11to toEO{ ((1+ ~E0)
222
X~(l
X2v~i}(v~ +
Ti~~),
(4.l27a)
where 2f1~)(Li2Q~), D=(Li 2 ~ 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 1/2 }.
Q=~X{VA+cS[(VA+cS)4vAcScosO]
On the other hand, for the electron helicon (4.lOlb), one finds
[(11
p2
XzLg)
4(VgXz +
,2
2x~)
2 222
~to(VgXz+
T2x~)]D
-
to~o{ (Q+
~o)2
X~(1 k
~)(Q2
22)}(P2
T2~~).
(4.l27b)
Let us analyze the dispersion relation (4.l27a). For the wave (4.lOla), we have 2/to >0
c
and Vg 4 V~= to/k, c. Thus, one may easily show now that the second term in the dispersion equation is much smaller than the third one; and, therefore, it is omitted hereinafter. For the longitudinal modulational instability (x~ = 0), the dispersion relation (4.127a) becomes
2
(11
x c )(Li
22
22
c,)
meo ~ m 1
44toE0
c i-topO
(4.128)
2c~and an
where x x~. Equation meoto~o42mjto~o, and (4.128) has two complex solutions at (12 ~ x Im 11
=
increment Im (1 = xc if
(meo/2m 1)
4(toEo/wpo)Xc, if meo ~2mIto~O/toEO -
74
P. K. Shukla et a!.,
Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
In case of transverse modulations, (i.e. x2 rate: ImLi=~[1+~ ~ m1 (Li~ + ~E0)
0), we find from eq. (4.127a) an expression for the growth
].
One can easily show from the general dispersion relation (4. 127a) that there is no self-focusing of the wave (4.lOla). We now consider both the modulational instability and the self-focusing of the helicon wave (4.lOlb). In this case, we have Vg >0 and Vg = 2v~,and T2 may change sign: 2/to if to~ c 0 4 to1Li~ ~EOI 2Qeo/to~ if WpQ tolOeO ~E0I 1. ~C To study the self-focusing (Li = 0) of the electron helicon, we consider two cases: m 1 ~ and finite m1. In the first case (m1 so) self-focusing takes place if T2 <0 and
~ *
s(T2x~)+ sx T2to, 2 <2topo/Lieo. or In under the condition x~/k the second case (m
(xzVg)
=
22
1 ~ so), self-focusing is observed if T2 >0 and x~~ < totoEO. The longitudinal modulational instability (i.e., x~ = 0), of the electron helicon is governed by ((1
3
~ Xtg)~ 0
x2C
5)
meoc x 2m1 WEO k
Letting (2
~ xv~ +
Ymax and
(1 = xc5
+ Ymax
one finds from the last expression the increment
14(toEo/kVte)Xc Im Ymax = ~ (meo/mj) In the case Li ~> 3Xu)g/2~xc~, one finds

\/~ /meo toEO\ Im[i=~) xc. 2 2m 1 kc
We inequalities now consider various limiting cases with x5 equation 0 and x~ ~ 0. Let us suppose that 114 x2 Vg~X these are fulfilled, then the dispersion (4.127b) takes the form:
(2LixzVg
t~A
If
g)(Li2
x~c) =
~S~I
x~c2toEOT 2x~, (4.129)
where 2 T g=(x2V5) 2x~to/2.
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic
nonlinear effects in p!asrnas
75
Equation (4.129) has two interesting solutions for

=
I gI ~ 2Lixzvg:
x~c~ +
x~c2T 2x~.
Here, the first term is smaller than the second one, and the instability is insured provided that T2/g <0. The case I~I 42Li~c5is more intresting. Here, eq. (4.129) yields
rr
il/3
if1
Vg
x~ topo
xc.
4.3.6. Nonlinear solutions Let us now discuss the possibility of obtaining a three-dimensional Schrdinger equation with a square-law nonlinearity. Suppose that the electric field amplitude E_ is essentially dependent on the variable ~ = z Vgt~and slightly dependent on r1 and t. Besides, we assume, for the sake of simplicity, that the ions are not magnetized. Then one can easily show by means of the linearization of the equation describing the ion motion, that under such assumptions we obtain for the electron helicon: 2 toE0 meo IE_I c nov2 to 0 m~ E0
-
Substituting the expression of ~n/n0 into eq. (4.126), we obtain the Schrdinger equation with a square-law nonlinearity:
ia,E
where
~toW[j~l
2 ~ V~a1E +
~ T2V1E
IEI-E
E0
0,
(4.130)
I~
WEO
-
Considering the stationary solution and introducing the new dimensionless variables 12~, PL = rI~[i~J, EJE = (2~wI /V~) 0 = a, we may write (4.130) as follows: 2=0. a~a+~V~aa+a Assuming a = a(p), where ,~ = (~2 + 2p~)12,we obtain from eq. (4.131):
-~
(4.131)
a~(p2a~a)a+a2=0.
(4.132)
Equation (4.132) describes a three-dimensional soliton with the longitudinal (vI2lz~tol)12and
76
P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic non!inear effects in p!asmas
transverse ~2I scales. A similar equation has been obtained in ref. [113] demonstrating the possibility of the existence of three-dimensional nonrelativistic ion-acoustic solitons in magnetized plasmas. One important feature in the two-dimensional self-focusing of the waves under consideration is the absence of collapse, in contrast to the case of the self-focusing of the ordinary electromagnetic wave. Indeed, from the conservation law, f drIEl2 = const., we have the focus radius inversely proportional to the amplitude R 1ar( rarE), becomes proportional to R~ which has 0, so on thatR the diffraction term, r stronger dependence 0 than the nonlinear term R~:Therefore, as the focusing proceeds the diffraction term eventually takes over the nonlinear term and stops the self-focusing. Thus, with quadratic nonlinearity we have no collapse and can have stable two-dimensional solitary waves. Finally, in one space dimension, eq. (4.130) reduces to
ia,E+Pa~E+q(~EIE0)E=0,
where
~=z~Vgt,
(4.133)
2Pv~,
and
to
/m~~ C
toEe
q=~-~----~--1. We write the field variable E

(4.133) then becomes
as
E = R exp(iO), where E is the amplitude and 0 the phase. Equation
2P0R = 0, 2R+qR2qR OR+PRPO 0R=0,

+ +
POR
(4.134)
(4.135)
=
where R0 = E0. We look for stationary solutions, i.e., R = 0 2 = M = const. OR Substitution of eq. (4.136) into eq. (4.135) then yields R
=
0, then from eq. (4.134) we have (4.136)
H2/R3 a(R R 0)R
aR[V(R)],
(4.137)
where a = q/p and V(R) is the Sagdeev potential given by 2/2R3 + ~aR3 ~aR 2. (4.138) V(R) = H 0R The solution of eq. (4.137) can be analyzed by investigating the shape of the potential V(R) which is shown in fig. 11. As seen from these figures, solitary wave solutions (i.e., solutions for which R and R vanish at I ~I~ so) can be obtained either when a >0 and M = 0 or when a <0 and M2 = M~, where M~ is the critical value of M2 at which the solutions of the two equations, aRV= 0 and ~~V= 0 coincide, i.e., = O.08l9IaIR~.
P. K. Shukla
et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
77
AR)
V(R)
a>O
Fig. ii. Sagdeev potential V(R). Dotted lines: M0, and solid lines: M0. R
=
1.5R,.
Multiplying eq. (4.137) by a~R = R, and integrating once, we get

+
V(R) = H.
=
(4.139) 0, we can immediately find the analytical solution. Noting that at (4.140)
For the case in which a >0 and M

~
iso,
R
=
0 and R = 0 or V= 0 and hence H = 0, we find from eq. (4.139) ~R0 sech2(~\/~~),

=
where we chose ~ = 0 as the instantaneous location of the solitary wave. For the case in which a 0, R remains nonzero at is. sowhere R vanishes. Analytical solutions can then be obtained when M2 41. In this case, R(~s so)can be approximated by R 0, and we can calculate 2/2R~ to obtain H by neglecting the term M H~aR~. (4.141) Equation (4.139) can then be put in a dimensionless form as (dsr)2 + m2/r2 ~r3 + r2
=
(4.142)
where r = R/R 2 = M2/IaIR~,S = VIaIR 2(m~= 0, m 0~, a nd the critical value of m 0.08192. For m2 41, the solution in the region r2 ~ m2 can be written as r=[1 ~sech2(SI2)]
-
M~/IaIR~) equals
Obviously, this solution is valid only in the region IS I > S 0 and 2IS I m2, not we very close S0, where S0 is 2(S can nowto ignore the terms determined by the relation sech 0/2) = or S0 = 1.303. For r 2r2/3 + r2 in eq. (4.142), in which case the solution is written as r = (3m2
+
S2/3)~2,
78
~~>v,hh,__
Fig. 12. Numerical solution of eq. (4.142) for the case m = i0~.
Fig. i3. Numerical solution of eq. (4.142) for the case m = 10. The dashed line denotes the approximate solution (4.143) valid in the region 29 m.
or r=ISI/V~ in the region 9m24S24S~. Thus, near the origin, i.e., ISI=0, the solitary wave has a form of triangular dip with the minimum value r = \/~mat S = 0. Numerical solutions for m2 = 10 and 102 are shown in figs. 12 and 13. The triangular dip structure is clearly seen in the case m2 = ~ With varying m2, the value of r at S = 0 is plotted in fig. 14, which shows a linear dependence with the slope ~, i.e., r (S = 0) = m, except in the extreme vicinity of the critical point, m = Summarizing, we have discussed a new type of nonlinear Schrodinger equation which is characterized by a quadratic nonlinearity IEl E, in contrast to the usual cubic nonlinearity I El 2E. Although the plasma response is ultrarelativistic, the required field intensity is not necessarily extremely intense because of the collisionless cyclotron resonance of the electron motion. We have then shown some analytical solutions which describe solitary waves. For the modulationally unstable case where Pq >0, the solution for the
5-~-~-2
LOG m2
Fig. 14. The value of r at S
=
vs. m2. The slope of the line is ], indicating that r, = r (S = 0) is proportional to m.
79
amplitude is of a form similar to the KdV solution, whereas for the case where Pq <0 (i.e., modulationally stable case), a new type of solitary wave solution is obtained which has a form of a triangular dip. 4.4. Circularly polarized waves of small relativistic amplitude We now consider the nonlinear propagation of the field-aligned cyclotron waves in the weak relativistic limit so that eqs. (4.97) and (4.98) apply. For simplicity, we shall consider the right-handed circularly polarized electromagnetic wave. The nonlinear interaction of the latter with field-aligned slow electrostatic plasma motions can give rise to a slowly varying wave electric field E which may be localized. Within the WKB approximation, the evolution of the circularly polarized wave is governed by the equation [81] laTE
+
iVgazE + ~V~a~E 4E
0,
(4.143)
where the nonlinear frequency shift 4 is given by [81]

V~~
~)J
to +
1N
kv
2kc2 where
=
Li~L 1
to(to +
15[11
Lii)
wq~ IE1 c2 m~(to + (1~)~i
(4144)
~n
1In0 is the relative density variation, and ~n1 and are the density and velocity perturbations associated with the plasma slow motion. The two latter quantities are related to each other by the continuity equations. We shall now discuss the response of the plasma slow motion to the electromagnetic wave. When the parallel phase velocity of the former is much smaller than the electron thermal velocity, then, from the parallel component of the electron momentum equation, one finds
1~Ne = Te
~
meoto(to+
e)
(1+ Ne)~
[a~+
to(W+Qe)
a~] ~I2
(4.145)
where Te is the electron temperature, and the last term on the right-hand side of eq. (4.145) is the ponderomotive force acting on the electrons. The latter are coupled to the ions by the ambipolar potential 4. The ion momentum equation,
a 1V1~+ v1~a~V1~ =
-
a~
2a (1 + N1)a_ 5N1
to(to +
Lie)
[a~+
to(w+Li1)
~]IEI2,
(4.146)
together with the ion continuity equation, the Poisson equation, as well as eq. (4.145) complete the description of the slow plasma motion. The last term on the right-hand side of eq. (4.146) represents the ion ponderomotive force, and the constant a1 in the temperature term is 3(1) for adiabatic (isothermal) ions. Note that the time-derivative components of the ponderomotive force terms in eqs. (4.145) and (4.146) appear when the amplitude of the high-frequency field depends on a slow time scale in
80
P.K. Shukkz et a!.,
Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
nonstationary nonlinear process. In fact, the time-derivative ponderomotive forces are significant in the study of moving localized nonlinear waves in magnetized plasmas. From eqs. (4.145) and (4.146), the ion continuity and the Poisson equations, we can obtain the low-frequency equation for each species [81],
2a 2 S 2 N a1Nv
Z
[T e
1 m (a./2)(3
1 1 a.)T.]
~/ ~T
1 ~E2
\2 12
aN
1 a m
q2 1w(to
+
I Lii)
a
I
Z
ku.
to(to +
4147
Lii)
~]
where v~ = (Te + aT1)/m1. The nonlinear term on the right-hand side of eq. (4.147) originates from the sum of the ponderomotive force terms in eqs. (4.145) and (4.146), whereas the nonlinear term on the left-hand side of (4.147) originates from a combination of the pressure terms in (4.145) and (4.146), as well as the v1~a~v~~ term in (4.146) and the nonlinearities in the ion continuity equation. For high-frequency (to ~ fI~) electromagnetic waves, one finds 1N+ kVezLieo ~ IE12 4148
2(to
(leo) kc2
~-
to(to
~eo)
c2 m~ 0(to
The electron velocity perturbation is given by

Vez =
a,aN.
to
(4.149)
~
Lii,
On the other hand, for
eq. (4.147) becomes
a~N - v~a~N 6c~a~N

-
2A~ec~a~N = (Q)
=
[a~
a~~]w,
(4.150)
where W= IEI2/4iinoT~,and 6
a~T
1(3 aj)/2Te. Let us now look for solutions in a coordinate system moving with a velocity V, where V is sufficiently far away from2v5, and introduce the coordinate ~ =eqs. z (4.149) Vt. In eq. (4.150), wewe then replace by(4.148) Vat and and A~ea~N terms. By means of and (4.150), can write a~ eq. as neglect the N = QIEI2, where Q is defined as 1 e2
Vg
2 to~, 0 (to
2 m~
kc
f
(to
to
meo
2 C V
Li +
kV[Ieo to(to
1 1.
(4.15
~1eo)2
12eo)2
1~hi
11eo)j
and then write eq. (4.143) in the form
2E = 0. (4.152) V)af]E + ~ V~a~E + QIEI Equation (4.152), together with (4.151), represent the main result. Berezhiani and Tskhakaya [80] have previously derived an equation for the amplitude of a transverse
i[a,
(Vg
81
electron-cyclotron wave propagating along an external magnetic field. In order to compare eq. (4.152) Our expression for Q then with their equation (4.151), we put V= Vg~ v5 and to ~eo w~0Li~0/k2c2. reduces to
2
k74
~oto~o ~ ~
22 ~!o
Q~=
(4.153)
Inspecting the factor 1 (meoI4mj) k2c21[l ~ in (4.153), we note the interesting fact that the nonlinearity due to the relativistic electron-mass variation is more important than the nonlinearity from the radiation pressure if me 4mj < ~ ~ / k2c2. Furthermore, Qc becomes negative if the inequality is reversed. When 0I Berezhiani and Tskhakaya [80], we note that these authors have, instead, studied the comparing with factor 1 + (meo/8mj)k2c2/[.1~o which is always positive. The reason for this discrepancy is that in Berezhiani and Tskhakaya [80] the kVez[Ieo/to(is) Q~)term in our eq. (4.148) is missing. Finally, we present the stationary soliton solution of eq. (4.152). It is given by
IEI = Em sech[Em(Q/v~)2~],
which is valid when
=
(4.154)
Q and
~eo)~)]
[1 (v~/c2)(l to~oLieo/(to
Vg/k
(4.155)
have the same sign. Here, Em is the soliton amplitude, and = 2kc2[2to + to~~Lie~/(to When V is close to v~, all the nonlinear and dispersive terms in eq. (4.150) must be kept. In this case, eq. (4.150) reduces to
a,N+ 6c,Na~N+ A~~N=

~
(to
~~eo)
(~~f
2)]afW.
(4.156)
Equations (4.143) and (4.156) are for this case the coupled set whose solution can be found by standard techniques [114]. In addition, we ought to mention that in strongly magnetized tenuous cold plasmas, nonlinear processes may occur on the time scale of the electron plasma period. Neglecting ion motion as well as the electron thermal pressure term, one finds from eqs. (2.5) and (4.145) that the ambipolar potential is balanced by the radiation pressure, which means that evg 11+ kVfI eO \2 Ia wto0E 1 2m~ 2(to (leo)2 to(to ~eo) c2(to Lieo)2j 0kc The solution of eq. (4.143), with (4.157), is well known [95].
1/ L\
2lEl2
22
(4.157)
4.5. Finite amplitude envelope solitons Let us finally consider the nonlinear propagation of a large amplitude, circularly polarized electromagnetic wave of frequency to 0 and wavenumber k0 in a two-component plasma embedded in an
82
P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
external magnetic field B0z. Substituting for E and B from eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) into the electron momentum equation (2.2), we obtain atpe +
Yemeo
Pe Vp~ =
a~A + eVq~ +
e [(P .VA) meocye
Pe (VA)]
~eOPe x
TeV In
~e
(4.158)
2)2. It is physically clear that the perpendicular momentum of the electrons is where + p~Im~0c response in the wave fields, whereas the parallel momentum originates due to Ye the (1 high-frequency essentially from the ponderomotive force. However, in most cases, the parallel electron momentum can be neglected in the low-frequency dynamics of the plasma. Within a modulational representation, we separate the high- and the low-frequency components of A, and write for the left-hand circularly polarized wave [cf., eq. (3.102)] A
=
A(z, t)(1
i~)
exp(ik 0z
iw0t)
c.c.
(4.159)
where to,~a2A(z, t) 4 A will be assumed. Inserting eq. (4.159) into eq. (4.158), Rao et al. [66] have shown that eq. (4.158) is satisfied by A(1+a/ye)p, together with the low-frequency electron [V(cPI~1,)Vlnn~].z=0, omentum balance equation (4.161) (4.160)
where the exact relativistic ponderomotive potential due to the circularly polarized electromagnetic waves in a magnetized plasma is given by a/2y~), (4.162) 2/v~.~, .1 = e4/Te; ne, A and Pe are normalized by n 2/e and meoc, where a = Li~/to0, /3 = c the terms proportional to a in eqs. (4.160) and (4.162) 0, meoc respectively. We note that are caused by the external magnetic field, and thus have generalized eqs. (3.103) and (3.105) for the magnetized case. In the small amplitude limit, we have the well-known result [110]
=
13(Ye
A(1+a)p,
=
(4.163)
a)p2
=
/3(1
f3A2/2(1
+ a).
(4.164)
Integrating eq. (4.161), one finds cP lnne

=
/3[(1
+ p2)112
ap2/2(1 +p2)],
(4.165)
where the plasma is assumed to be unperturbed at infinity and, accordingly, we have used the localized boundary conditions, ~e = 1, ~ p*O at IzI~so.
83
Nonlinear interaction of the radiation with the background plasma would generate a slowly varying wave envelope which is governed by [66]
2i~iarA + iv 5a~A + /3~~A = 4A + (1
+j32)1/2~
(4.166)
2(too/wpo), 4 (tot k~c2)/to~ 2/to~OADe, and the time is measured in where p~, a s (meo/mj) 0, Vg = 2kOC units of to~. We look for the stationary solutions of A and p in the form (ref. eq. (3.107))
A(z, t)
A(.~) exp[i~(z) + iO(t)],
(4.167) (4.168)
p(z, t) =p(~)exp[iq,(z) + iO(t)],
where ~ = z Mt. Substituting eqs. (4.167) and (4.168) into eq. (4.166), and separating the resulting equation into real and imaginary parts, we find from the imaginary part, o(z) = (2~ 1M v5)/2f3, whereas the real part yields 2)2, (4.169) /3 d~A = AA + nep/(1 + p where
A = 2p~a 5O4 + V5(p(z) + is a nonlinear frequency shift to be determined later. In the following, we investigate finite amplitude solitary waves in two limiting cases. 4.5.1. Quasi-neutral limit (A) Adiabatic particle motion. First, we consider the adiabatic particle motion in the electromagnetic field. Thus, from eqs. (3.112) and (4.165), one finds, after using ne = (4.170)
cP= ~
where T= Te
[(1 +p
+
2)2 1
1~2]~
(4.171)
T 1. Eliminating P from eqs. (4.165) and (4.171), we get 2)12 1

+ ~
+~2]}
expf 4(1
(4.172)
where
/31(1 + a). From eq. (4.160), we note that

+
d(A = [1 + aI(1
p2)312] dfp.
(4.173)
Multiplying both sides of eq. (4.169) by d~A, using eqs. (4.160), (4.172) and (4.173), and imposing the appropriate boundary conditions at infinity, one finds the energy integral (d(p)2 + V(p, 13, a, A) = 0,
(4.174)
84
P. K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
where the potential is given by V

132[1 +
a(1+ ~2)3/2]2
1 +
{2K~[exp(KQ)
1]
Ap2[1
a(1
+ p2)~112]2}
(4.175)
Here, Q(p) = (1 + p2)~2 ap2/2(1 + p2) The nonlinear frequency shift A is determined by letting V= at the centre where dfA
0
0. The result
is
A 2(l+ff) /3p2
[1
[1exp(KQm)] a(1 + 2)~1/2]2~

+ >0
4176
where Qm = Q(P Pm) and Pm is the maximum value of p (at the centre). Since Qm (for a >0), A is always negative. Localized solutions are ensured provided that the potential V is negative between the two points (say, p = and p = Pm)- Furthermore, near p = Pm one requires aV/ap (for Pm ~ 0), which yields
0 ~ ~ 0
2 [(H~Pm)
1/2
2 +a(1+pm)
]exp(KQm)
A~
[1 +
a(1
2)1/2][l +
0,
a(1 + p~,)~32]
.
4 ~
(4.177)
On the other hand, near p V
one can Taylor expand V(p) taking p2

+
/3~1+~)2 {(i +
a)[1
A(1 + a)]p2
~4[
1 4a
3a(l
A + Aa)]}.
(4.148)
It follows that V <0, provided (1+a)[1+A(l+a)]>0. The maximum electron density perturbation is N = exp( K Qm). (B) Hydrodynamic response. Next, we consider the hydrodynamic response to the radiation. In this case, eq. (3.118) gives
~=
(4.179)
~M2(1n~),
Ji
(4.180) from eqs. (4.165) and (4.180), one finds (4.181)
where n~ = ne is used. Eliminating ln tie

=
~M2(1
n2)
f3Q
Note that eq. (4.181) represents the conservation of total energy, and gives a relationship between ne and p. From eqs. (4.173) and (4.181), one obtains
(1
+ p2)1/2
dfA
(~
i)
~_
dfn,
(4.182)
85
where n = tie One can now multiply eq. (4.169) by d~A, use eqs. (4.160) and (4.182), to write the energy integral + V(n, p, M; A; a) = 0, (d~n)2 where V= i+p2 (M2 ti2)2 M2
+ ni
(4.183)
~A13p2[l+ a(1
+p2)h/2]2}.
(4.184)
In eq. (4.184), we need to use eq. (4.181) in order to relate p in terms of n. We have again assumed the plasma to be unperturbed at infinity. The nonlinear frequency shift is obtained by setting V= 0. The result is A
2
2
(N1)(lM2/N)
2
1/22
I3Pm [1+ a(1 +Pm)
4185
-
where N is the maximum density perturbation at the centre. From eq. (4.181), the maximum density perturbation is found to be ~lnN_~(l_N2)=1_(l+p~)1I2_~ The maximum potential is then
=
1)m2.
(4.186)
~M2(1
N2).
(4.187)
The condition that a VlanIfl,N ~ 0 yields N2 <M2, together with A~NI[a

+
(1
+p~,)2],
(4.188)
=
for N ~ 1, respectively. Near p A+(1+a)~>0.
0, the potential V is negative, provided that (4.189a)
On the other hand, p2 remains positive when (N1)(M2i)I(1+a)>O.
(4.189b)
It follows that for a >0, localized solutions with ~n = N 1 <O(>0) arise with M2 <1 (>1). The existence regions for the finite amplitude solitons are given in the (N, Pm) parameter space shown in fig. 15. Clearly, for stronger magnetic fields, the corresponding density perturbations are smaller. On the other hand, as is clear from fig. 15, compressional as well as rarefaction solutions for the low-frequency density perturbations appear. Such solutions were also obtained for unmagnetized plasmas when the thermal effects were accounted for [31, 64].
86

I I I
3.
>~v7
0
Fig. 15. Existence regions in (N, p the corresponding line;
m
(=
13
m) parameter space for moving solitons. For a given a 100. [67]
(l,,Iw,), the localized solutions exist in the region below
4.5.2. Relativistic radiation-pressure dominated limit [66] Here, we consider the limit when the incident waves are so strong that the ponderomotive pressure dominates the electron thermal pressure. Thus, the ambipolar potential is directly generated by the radiation pressure. In fact, from eq. (4.161), one finds 2)2 1 + ~ap2/(1 + (4.190)
/3[(i
+p
Since the ponderomotive force is balanced by the ambipolar field alone, the Poisson equation is essential for the establishment of finite density perturbation. Thus, for the forced Raman (FR), forced Brillouin (FB) and the force quasi-static (FQS) cases, the electron density perturbation is given respectively by n~=i+d~P,
tie =
(4.191)
+
M/(M2
2P)2
+
d~I,
(4.192) (4.193)
exp(a4)
d~,
where a = Te/ T 1 and cP is given by eq. (4.190). In the following, we find conditions for the existence of localized solutions when the plasma low-frequency response is of FR, FB, and FQS type [66]. The latter are driven electrostatic fluctuations which are not the normal modes of the system when the radiation is turned off. From eq. (4.190), one
87
finds d~cP= /3J 1/2d(A, (4.194)
(i+p)
where d(A is given by eq. (4.173). Multiplying eq. (4.169) by dkA and using eq. (4.194), we get 2 ~AI3d~A2 = tie d~P. (4.195) 1f32 dt(d(A)
On the other hand, eqs. (4.i91)(4.i93) yield, after multiplication by d~I,

=
~e
5 dkI ,
(4.196)
where, 11 2 _2~)1/2 ~1exp(o~) M(M for FB, FR, for FQS. (4.197)
Subtracting eq. (4.196) from eq. (4.195), and integrating with respect to ~once, one obtains eq. (4.174) but with the effective potential V now being given by V(p)
=
2B[D
X(cP)],
(4.198)
with
D = Af3p2[a and for FR, for FB, for FOS.
+
(1
p2)2]212(1 +
B = /32(1
p2)4[a
(1
+ p2)3t2]2
X(4)
= {
I.
M2[1 (1 2P1M2)2] o~[1 exp(crk)]
Here, cPis given in terms of p by eq. (4.190). Furthermore, we note that for a = 0, the expression (4.198) for V(p) reduces to that of previous works [65]. Localized solutions for p( ~) exist provided that the conditions given before eq. (4.177) hold. We therefore analyze V( p) near p = 0. Taylor expanding V(p), we get V=ap +bp where a b
=
=
(4.199)
A(l
a)1f3(l
+ +
a), ~
f3~(l + a)2{K
[1 + A(i
a)](1
3a)}
88
K~ f3(1+cr)/2M2 for FB, (~of3(i+ a)2/4 for FQS. Hence for V(p) to be negative near p 1+A(1+a)>0. Also, using the condition V(pm)
2(1
+
= =
10
for FR,
0, we require (4.200)
0 in eq. (4.198), one obtains

(4.201)
p~)X(b =
2
~m) 1122
A=
13Pm[~(l+Pm)
which relates A and Pm In eq. (4.201), we have defined

=
f3[(i +p~)21 + ~ap~(1 +p1].
(4.202)
In order that p( ~)has appropriate profile at P = Pm we require V~( Pm) ~ 0 for Pm ~ 0. These conditions are satisfied provided that Z+1<0 Z + (1
for FR,
2P~/M2y~2 <0 for FB,
(4.203) (4.204)
(4.205)
Z+Y~exp(o~m)<0 for FQS,
where Z = A[a + (1 +p,~,)112]and Y= /3(1 +p~32[a + (1 + p2)3/2] Conditions (4.200) and (4.203)(4.205) together with the expression for A given by eq. (4.201) determine the range of parameters (M, Pm) for the existence of localized solutions. Figure 16 depicts the existence regions in the (M, Pm) space for different values of a for the FB case. For a given a, the region above the corresponding line gives the values of the parameters M and Pm for which localized solutions exist. We note that there are minima in the M vs Pm curves, and that the threshold Mach number for a given soliton amplitude (Pm) increases with the magnitude of the external magnetic field. Furthermore, as the strength of the magnetic field is increased, one encounters solitons with larger velocities for the same value of the field intensity.The case a = 0 corresponds to that of the unmagnetized plasma investigated by Shukla et al. [65]. The maximum ion number density for forced Brillouin and forced quasi-static cases are, respectively,
Nim
2
M2
M2 2~m= M2
2/3[(i
M2 p~)112 1
ap~/(i+
~2)]ll2~
(4.206)
Nim
exp[o-/3(~i + p~
ap~,/(i+ p~,))],
(4.207)
In order that the ion number density be real everywhere, one requires M2 >2 ~mfor the FB case. Explicit solutions for p( ~)can be obtainedin the small amplitude limit. Substituting the expression for
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects
in
p!asmas
89
ao~
Fig. 16. Existence regions in the (M, Pm) parameter space for left polarized electromagnetic waves. For a given a, the region above the corresponding line yields the parameter values for the localized solutions. 13 = 100. [66]
V(p) given by eq. (4.199) into eq. (4.174) and integrating with respect to 2(v~). = (a/b) sech
~,we obtain
(4.208)
Obviously, for real and localized solutions forp(~),one requires a >0 and b >0. It is easy to verify that these inequalities are consistent with the existence regions shown in fig. 16. Also, the value of A in the small amplitude limit is given by A= where
Q={ I.
fi _P~[4(l +
a)
Q]J~
(4.209)
fO FR, 2 for for FB, /3(1+a)/2M aj3(1+a)14 for FQS.
It follows from eq. (4.209) that eq. (4.200) is satisfied provided that
1>4(1
a)Q.
(4.210)
The expression for the electron density is obtained from eqs. (4.191) to (4.193) as
tie =
til
R,
(4.211)
90
where
= f3{2(1 +
a)ap2
[2a(1+ 4a) + 3b(1 + a)]p4}
and
1
2
for FR,
i+f~T(i+a)_~-~-~(i+4a_3/3M2)p4 for FB,

i_~p2(i+a)_~[1+4a_/3r2(i+a)2]p4 for
FQS.
It is clear that for all the three cases the solution for p2( 4~) has single-hump structures. While for the last two cases (FB and FQS), the ambipolar field ~P( ~) has a similar single-hump structure, the electron density profile has a density excess with a small depression at the centre. On the other hand, for the FR interaction, like in the unmagnetized case [61], the electron density profile consists of a depression at the centre and shoulders on the sides. Furthermore, the ion density perturbation has a hump (dip) for the FB
(FQS) case.
The corresponding results for the right-handed circularly polarized waves can be obtained by letting a to be negative. However, because of the possibilityof gyroresonance, the fluid equations may not be valid everywhere. In fact, for a given a, there exists a lower limit for the field amplitude Pm (fig. 17) below which localized solutions for p( ~)do not exist. In contrast to the left circularly polarized waves, here the
5C
I
10
I
0 2 4 6 m
I
8 10
Fig. 17. Existence regions in the (M, p~)parameter space for right polarized electromagnetic waves. For a the region above the corresponding line yields the parameter values for the localizedsolutions. Thedotted line represents a cutoff in Pm below which solitons do not exist. 13 = 100. 1661
given a,
91
ambipolar potential can have negative values and the velocity of a soliton of fixed amplitude decreases with an increase in the magnitude of the external magnetic field. These differences can be understood in terms of the ponderomotive potential given in eq. (4.162). For the left circularly polarized waves, the ponderomotive force is enhanced by the external magnetic field, whereas the opposite occurs for the right circularly polarized waves. This causes the differences in the Mach number dependence of the solitons on the strength of the external magnetic field for the two cases.
4.5.3. General formulation The existence of localized solutions for intense electromagnetic waves with circular polarization in a magnetized plasma has been considered in the above sections for two limiting cases: (i) The quasi-neutral limit (section 4.5.1), and (ii) The radiation pressure dominated limit (sections 4.5.2). Both the cases can be justified with appropriate orderings on the parameters corresponding to the field amplitude and the Mach number. The results of section 4.5.1 can be generalized to incorporate the charge separation effects which can become substantial for near-sonic solitons. Hence, there is a need of a formulation of the problem to account simultaneously for the thermal as well as the ponderomotive effects in a magnetized plasma. Such a formulation and solution of the problem in the case of unmagnetized plasma is discussed in section 3.5.1. In order to bring out the salient features of the derivation of the relevant governing equations, we consider the field modulation to be along the direction of the external magnetic field, together with cold ions. The following derivation is carried out for the case when the ion slow response is of the Brillouin type. Since the derivations for the Raman and the quasi-static responses are very similar, we do not present them here. The equationfor the stationary amplitude of the modulated waves is given by eq. (4.169), where A and p are related by (cf. eq. (4.160)) A p + apl(1
+
p2)1t2,
(4.212)
and a(= (le~/W~) is positive for the left circularly polarized waves and is negative for the right circular polarization. The electron number density tie is calculated from the electron low-frequency momentum balance equation (5.165) which yields,
~e =exp{~
/3[(1
p2)2 1
ap2/2(i +p2)]}
(4.213)
where all the notations and normalizations are the same as in section 4.5. The low-frequency electric potential is determined by the Poisson equation (3.115). For the Brillouin interaction, n 1 is given by eq. (3.118). Substituting for ~e and ti from these equations into eqs. (4.169) and (3.115), we get
/3 ~=AA+p(i+p2yh/2exp(x),
2
=
(4.214)
exp(x), (4.215)
2~)1l2 +
M(M
92
P. K.
Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
where
/3[(1
+ ~2)1I2
ap212(i
p2)],
and A is to be substituted in terms of p using the algebraic relation (4.212). Equations (4.214) and (4.215) (together with eq. (4.212)) constitute a coupled set of governing equations for intense electromagnetic waves modulated along the direction of the external magnetic field. Within the fluid model, they are quite general except for the fact that the electron inertia in the low-frequency response is neglected, which is well justified for time scales ~to~1 (ref. section 3.5.1). The various limiting cases discussed earlier can be easily recovered from the present formulation. For example, the unmagnetized case [64] discussed in section 3.5.1 is simply obtained by letting a 0. It is interesting to note that, like in the unmagnetized case, the governing equations allow a Hamiltonian description given by ~f32(d~A)2 ~(d~I)2

~Af3A2+ M(M2
_2~)Il2
+exp(~).
(4.216)
However, the only (but, important!) difference from the classical dynamical description is that the kinetic energy part is not positive definite. This may lead to the existence of unbounded or chaotic solutions for A and I, in addition to the regular localized or periodic solutions. However, at the present time, a thorough analytic or computational attempt to obtain the nonregular solutions of these equations
does not exist.

On the other hand, for regular (localized or periodic) solutions, the analytic method of solution [99, 100] described in section 3.5.2 can easily be employed. Following this procedure, we eliminate the variables A and ~in eqs. (4.214) and (4.215) using eqs. (4.212) and (4.216). Defining ~P = p2, we obtain the following equation for ~1 in terms of cP:
8/3PS~1(1 + ~P)3~
+
/33S3R(~)
2/3(1
~P)312[2PS(1 + ~f,)3/2
~[~)9f2 =
6aP~1(i + (4.217)
/3Q5211t](Z)
4/3RS~P(1+ ~P)3
8Q~P2(1 +
0,
where the following notations are introduced: P = H + ~Af31P[a + (1 +

Q
= tP)1/2]U2(i + W)~
M(M2
2~)h/2
exp(~), (4.218)
A[a
(1
+ ~~)2](1
~~y2+ (1 + ~[r)_1l2 exp(~),

5
=
R = M(M2
2b)~2+ exp(~),
a +
(1
+ ~[,)3/2
For localized solutions of ~Pand Ji, the constant of motion (H) is given by H = 1 + M2. Equation (4.217) can be solved for any degree of nonlinearity in 1 using an ansatz of the type given by eq. (3.128). The remaining procedure to calculate the coefficients in eq. (3.128) and also the explicit solutions for ~P(~) and P( ~)is very straightforward and similar to that given in section 3.5.2.
P. K.
93
5. Profile modifications, shock structures, and magnetic field generation In the last two sections, we have presented rigorous investigations of the modulational instability of finite amplitude electrostatic and electromagnetic waves with respect to low-frequency fluctuations in unmagnetized as well as magnetized plasmas. Possible final states of the modulationally unstable waves can lead to localized solitary pulses which can be associated with the nonlinear entities frequently observed in laser produced [115,116] or some astrophysical [111]plasmas. The acceleration of particles in the large amplitude envelope pulses remains to be investigated. The nonlinear solutions described so far do not account for the equilibrium plasma flow. However, in laser irradiated plasmas, the flow is finite. Therefore, it is useful to enquire the role of an expanding plasma on the nonlinear interaction of large amplitude electromagnetic waves with slow plasma motion. As we shall see in this section, this interaction can modify self-consistently the particle number density, the plasma flow, as well as the radiation field. In the equilibrium state, the structure of the density profiles is found to be quite dramatic and completely different from what one would expect from the linear theories. Thus, the absorption and the scattering of incident waves depend sensitively on the detailed structure of density profiles induced by the incident laser light. 5.1. A survey of nonrelativistic results In the last decade, there has been an explosive number of theoretical and computational papers [115128] on the above problem. Experimental observations [129134] indicate the important role played by the radiation pressure in the formation of locally overdense regions near the critical surface. The problem was first analyzed by Kidder [115] who assumed the plasma flow below the critical density surface to be sonic. For density profiles, his analysis predicted a jump from critical density to above critical density. For weak laser intensities, the jump scaled as square root of the incident power. However, as argued by Lee et al. [116], his analysis was not self-consistent and did not include the effects of enhanced resonant absorption [134].A self-consistent analysis of the problem was first given by Lee et al. [116] who considered the long-time absorption and scattering of light obliquely incident of an inhomogeneous expanding plasma, allowing differential flow for the ions. The analysis was based on simulations with particle ions and fluid electrons using the particle-in-cell method. The ponderomotive force was taken into account in the electron equationof state which was assumed to be isothermal. Unlike Kidder [115], their results showed the existence of a subcritical density shelf in the incident region. Typically, the density structure seen in simulations consists of a subcriticial rarefaction wave in the incident region, attached to a super-critical constant density shelf in the other region where the field is evanescent. The electric field has a standing wave pattern and a monotonically decreasing structure in the two regions, respectively. In addition, they observed a transition in the plasma flow velocity from subsonic to supersonic values via the sonic point where the flow is equal to the local sound velocity. An analytic theory to explain the various profile structures seen in simulations has been given by Lee et al. [116]. Using a two-fluid model together with quasi-neutrality assumption, they obtain solutions in the incident as well as evanescent regions which are then smoothly connected at sonic point. The detailed structures of the profiles for the electric field, number density, and flow velocity are in good agreement with the simulation results. Extensions of this analysis to include the more realistic case of spherical geometry has been considered in [117,121]. In particular, Mulser and van Kessel [117] showed that, except for very large laser intensities, there exists a new class of solutions where the flow is always supersonic. However, such solutions are unstable for perturbations in the density plateau [121, 135].
94
P. K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic non!inear effects in p!asmas
More recently, Jones et al. [136]have made a systematic study and classification of the possible density structures near the critical surface region as a function of the incident wave intensity. In addition to the usual plateau-like structure attached to a rarefaction wave [116], they discuss another structure which they call a compressionrarefaction shock. Furthermore, for much larger field intensities, the incident laser acts as a piston reflecting all the particles ahead of it and, thereby, creating a very steep shock [136]. The latter two structures can exist in a locally underdense plasma and inhibit the deposition of the incident energy onto the pellet. Additional improvements of these calculations to include general (nonisothermal) equations of state for the electrons show that the above structures are essentially unchanged [137]. 5.2. Relativistic profile modifications Most of the above analyses have been carried out under the assumption of moderately powered lasers when the quiver velocity of electrons in the high-frequency field remains nonrelativistic. However, for most of the present generation lasers, the electrons attain relativistic velocities and the relativistic corrections in such cases are no longer small. For example, as is clear from eq. (1.1), the directed velocity of electrons in the wave fields can approach the velocity of light for laser intensities beyond 1016 W/cm2. Since one might require much stronger lasers for successful realization of laser-plasma fusion processes, relativistic effects ought to be accounted for in the study of profile modifications as well. The relativistic nonlinear modification of plasma profiles and the consequent formation of shock structures near the critical surface has been considered recently [68, 69, 138, 139]. Stroscio et al. [68] were the first to explicitly consider the effects of relativistic corrections on rarefaction wave-plateau shocks [116]. Their analysis showed that the structure remains qualitatively the same as in the nonrelativistic analysis. However, quantitatively, there are significant contributions when the incident laser field is quite strong. For example, the flow velocity in the wave incident region can decrease by as much as 50%. Similar changes are observed for the density modulations also. Rao et al. [69]investigated the effect of an external magnetic field on the shock structure taking into account the relativistic modifications. For left-handed circularly polarized light, it was found that the shelf density in the evanescent region was always supercritical as in the unmagnetized case. On the other hand, for the right-handed polarization, the shelf density could be either subcritical or supercritical depending on the relative magnitudes of the laser field and the imposed magnetic field. This implies that by a suitable choice of the field strengths, the critical surface can be made more transparent to incident laser light and thus help heating of the pellet. In the next section, we consider the relativistic modification of plasma profiles in the compression rarefaction shocks. Rarefaction wave-plateau shocks are discussed in section 5.4. 5.3. Compression rarefaction shocks The typical structure of the compressionrarefaction (CR) shocks seen in hybrid code simulations [136]is shown in fig. 18. The laser is incident from left whereas the flow is from right to left. The dominant structure of the CR shocks is the existence of a local supercritical density hump in the otherwise underdense plasma near the critical surface. Such overdense bumps have also been discussed by Sanmartin and Montans [123], and are qualitatively similar to the R plus D structures discussed in [118]. Density profiles similar to those associated with the CR shocks have been observed in the C0 2-laser irradiated microballoon experiments of Fedosejevs et al. [133]. Some of the salient features of the CR shocks are as follows. There are four regions which can be easily
95
2-
Fig. 18. Structure of the density profile in compression-rarefaction (CR) shocks near the critical surface region as obtained from simulations (particle ions and fluid electrons).
identified: (i) wave incident region (ab), (ii) a rarefaction shock (bc), (iii) a plateau region superimposed with a standing wave structure (cd), and (iv) the inner quiescent region with a compression shock. Both the inner (de) and the outer (ab) regions are subcritical whereas the plateau region (cd) is supercritical. The density fluctuations in the plateau seem to be fairly coherent. Analysis of simulation results shows [118,136] that the compression and the rarefaction shocks are essentially two distinct features having relative speeds with respect to each other. These features are in sharp contrast with the rarefaction wave-plateau shocks where the inner region has a supercritical density plateau, and there are no locally supercritical density bumps. A few of the above features can be understood in terms of a model invoking the existence of reflected ions from the shock front [136,137]. This provides the necessary effective dissipation mechanism, often used to explain collisionless shocks [140].However, such a mechanism is not appropriate for weak shocks when the number of reflected particles is not sufficient but ion Landau damping becomes more important [136]. Recently, Rao et al. [139] have attempted to explain the compression part of the CR shocks together with the plateau region superimposed with the density fluctuations without invoking reflected particle dissipation mechanism. The results were found to be in good qualitative agreement even for weak shocks. Derivation of the governing equations The starting equations are the two-fluid conservation equations for the number density and momentum together with the Maxwell equations, namely, eqs. (2.1)(2.6). For simplicity, we assume circular polarization for the incident waves propagating along the z-direction and an isothermal equation of state for the electrons. The electron momentum eq. (2.2) (with B0 = 0) yields eq. (3.103) which describes the
5.3.1.
high-frequency response of electrons in wave fields, together with the low-frequency electron-momentum balance equation, namely, eq. (3.104). On the other hand, the ions are nonrelativistic and respond to the ponderomotive force through the low-frequency electron dynamics given by eq. (3.104). For the steady state in a frame moving with the density jump, the relevant ion fluid equations are
a5(nv)=0,
(5.1)
96
va~v =
-~-
a~,
(5.2)
(5.3)
a~ = 4ire(n~
e)
where, for simplicity, the ions are assumed to be cold and the ponderomotive force on ions is neglected. The propagation of the electromagnetic waves in the plasma is governed by the wave equation (2.10). Since the ions are massive, the total current density can be approximated byf n~ev~. Substituting this expression in (2.10), and using eq. (3.103), one obtains a~p + [1 tie/(1
p2)2]p
0,
(5.4)
where p(z) is the spatial part of p~and the high-frequency dependence exp(iw 0t) of Pe has been eliminated. In eq. (5.4), p, z and n~ are in units of meoc, c/to0 and ~ where n~ is the number density at the critical point (w~0 = to0). Integrating eqs. (3.104), (5.1) and (5.2) and using the boundary conditions in the wave-evanescent region, namely, p, 4~0and n~,fle~N at z*~,one gets Nexp[q~ + /3 n~v~=NV,
=
/3(1 +p
2)112],
(5.5)
(5.6)
2 2b)2 , (5.7) 1 = (V where V is the ion fluid velocity in the evanescent region, ~3= meoc2/Te, and ~, v 1, n1 are normalized with 2, n~, respectively. Substituting for n respect to Te/e, (Te/mj) 1 and tie in eqs. (5.3) and (5.4) from eqs. (5.5)(5.7), one gets [139], v
a~p = p a~ =
+ (i+p) Np 112
exp[~ + /3
2)2],
/3(1+
(5.8)
p /3(1+ p2)2], (5.9)
(V2~~)1l2
/3N exp[~ +
/3
where all the quantities are made dimensionless as mentioned above. Equations (5.8) and (5.9) constitute a coupled system of governing equations describing steady-state relativistic modification of plasma profiles in laserpellet interactions. These equations have been derived by taking into account (i) the relativistic ponderomotive force, (ii) the relativistic electron-mass variation, and (iii) full nonlinearity in the low-frequency ion dynamics together with the Poisson equations, and, therefore, generalize the equations of earlier models [68, 116]. Even though the isothermal equation of state has been used for the electrons, the derivation can easily be extended to include other equations of state. However, such modifications do not seem to change the results much, both qualitatively and quantitatively [137]. 5.3.2. Solutiotis of the governing equations The detailed structures of the various profiles can be obtained by solving the boundary-value problem
97
associated with the governing equations (5.8) and (5.9). While exact analytic solutions of these equations are not known, they are, however, similar to the governing equations for nonlinear Langmuir waves obtained by Varma and Rao [99, 100]. The method of solution developed by these authors can be used to obtain approximate solutions of eqs. (5.8) and (5.9) explicitly (cf., section 3.5.2). The governing equations (5.8) and (5.9) possess certain symmetry properties. Both are invariant under the transformation z~ z. Furthermore, while they are invariant under p~ p, they do not have any such property with respect to 4 /. This implies [97]that the solutions for p(z) have both symmetric and asymmetric structures with respect to z, whereas 4(z) is always symmetric (cf., eqs. (3.122) and (3.123)). However, only the symmetric solutions for p(z) are admissible because of the requirement of continuity of the solutions at the sonic point (see below). An integral of motion for eqs. (5.8) and (5.9) can be easily derived as
~
f3
2(a~p)2
(a~~)2 + ,32p2 +2(3NV(V2 _2~)tl2 +2/3Nexp[q~ + [3/3(1 +p2)2]
2/3N(1 + V2), (5.10)
where the constant of integration on the right-hand side has been evaluated in the evanescent region. Equation (5.10) can then be combined with eqs. (5.8) and (5.9) to eliminate the independent variable z, resulting in an equation forp in terms of t/ [139]which can be solved by looking for solutions of the form,
=
~ ~
(5.11)
where ~ = ~2 and the coefficients a~ are functions of free parameters. Note that eq. (5.11) preserves the symmetry properties mentioned above. The procedure to calculate a~ is standard [99, 100] and has been described in section 3.5.2. The coefficient a 0 is zero due to the boundary conditions in the evanescent region, whereas the next two coefficients (a1 and a2) are given in appendix C. The solutions for 4(z) and, therefore, forp(z) can be easily obtained from eqs. (5.9) and (5.11) by numerical integration. However, when ~Pis given by
(5.12)
analytical solutions are possible. The equation for c/(z) is obtained as (cf., eq. (3.130)) 2, = c14 + c2~ where c, and c 2 are given by c1=4[N ~(1+iI/3)],
2 =
(5.13)
/3N[~(1 f3a2)
4],
+
~
(5.14)
2 + i~/f3) 3/2V
and,
98
P. K. Shukla
et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
Equation (5.13) has the periodic solution [141] 2(Az, k), (5.15) 2sn where cn and sn are, respectively, the elliptic-cosine and the elliptic-sine functions of Jacobi, k is the modulus, and the subscript s denotes the sonic point (v = 1) which we assume to be located at z = 0. The quantities A and k are given by
=
k) 4~cn2(Az,
13
A2
6c2(p,
4~);
/~2 are
k2 =
(/32
~~)/([3,b)
(5.16)
In eq. (5.16), /3, and

=
defined by
H,~~
(2
4~)1l2]
3c112c2.
(5.17)
Equation (5.15) represents the potential profile in the incident region where one expects a >0. standing 2 >0 and k2 The wave pattern [116]. Clearly, for physically acceptable solutions, one requires A solutions in the incident region are obtained by imposing the boundary condition that the fields vanish as z This yields
* ~.
b(z) =
where 8
=
4~ sech2(6z),
(5.18)
245/6. Equation (5.18) represents a monotonically decreasing profile with a hump at the centre. The solutions in the two regions can be smoothly connected at the sonic point z = 0. The corresponding solutions forp, v, n1 and ne are obtained by using eqs. (5.15) and (5.18) in eqs. (5.5)(5.7) and (5.12). The two sets of solutions obtainedabove contain three free parameters, namely, N, V, and /~ while /3 is known in terms of electron temperature. However, evaluating eqs. (5.7) and (5.10) at the sonic point, one obtains two independent equations relating these parameters: 2 V + 1 exp[~(V21) + /313(1 + p~)112]}, (5.19)
N=
~[3p~{V
and
=
~(V2
1).
(5.20)
On the other hand, it is more convenient to take p~ as the free parameter which can, in turn, be related to the incident field amplitude [116,137]. Evaluating (5.12) at the sonic point, one gets p~ = a 1~+ a2~.
(5.21)
Equations (5.19)(5.21) can be combined to yield a single equation for Vin terms of /3 andp5. The root of this equationgives the flow velocity in the evanescent region. We have thus determined all the parameters in terms of p~ and /3. With these predetermined values of the parameters, one can immediately obtain the structures of all the plasma profiles.
99
5.3.3. Structures of the plasma profiles Typical profiles of the laser field (p), the particle number densities (m1 and tie), the low-frequency electric potential (q5), and the ion flow velocity (v) in the incident as well as the evanescent regions are given in figs. 1922 for /3 = 50. These profiles correspond to the compression part of the CR shocks together with the plateau-like structure superimposed with a compression wave (the region between (c) and (e) in fig. 18). Clearly, the structure of the density profile resembles closely with that seen in simulations [136].In particular, the existence of a subcriticalplateau structure in the upstream region and a supercritical wave-like structure in the downstream region are well represented by the present analysis. The flow speed is supersonic everywhere except at the sonic point. The difference in the number densities is small indicating that the charge separation effects are small. However, for stronger shocks the low-frequency potential mayplay a significant role. The electric field has a standing wave-like structure in the outer region and is evanescent in the inner region. While the laser field, ambipolar field, and the particle number densities are in phase with each other, the flow velocity is out of phase with the other quantities. This follows from the flux conservation condition. It is interesting to note that the structure of the density profiles in the CR shocks are similar to those reported by Mason [142,143] for ion-acoustic shocks in collisionless plasmas evolving from a given initial step-density profile. The exact analytic solutions obtained from the linearized VlasovMaxwell system [142]as well as the computer simulations for the full equations (using particle-in-cell method with particle ions and fluid electrons) [143]indicate that, at late times, the plasma density profiles evolve into CR-like shocks. This is to be expected since in both cases plasma expands outwards. However, there is an essential difference. In the problem treated by Mason, the plasma expands freely into vacuum whereas in the case of CR shocks the plasma flow is met by the incident laser through the ponderomotive force, leading to the establishment of a steady state between the fields and the particle densities.
5.4. Rarefaction wave-plateau shocks

The rarefaction wave-plateau (RP) shocks were the first ones to be studied in connection with laser-plasma expansion problems. The importance of such shocks stems from the fact that they always lead
1.03
81~b0~8
Fig. 19. Profile of the high-frequency field in CR shocks. /3
= 50.
Fig. 20. Number density profiles near the critical surface region in CR shocks, 1~= 50.
100
I
I
I
I
-8~0~8
-~
__
Fig. 21. Low-frequency electric potential in CR shocks. ~3~50.
Fig. 22. Ion flow velocity in CR shocks. 13=50.
to a steepening of the density profile near the critical density surface. The steepened profile has positive and negative influences on wave absorption at the critical surface. While it makes resonant absorption process efficient over a wide range of incident angles, and increases the threshold for onset of parametric instabilities [27], it can cause scattering and absorptive instabilities if the density shelf is of sufficient length. The detailed structure of the RP shocks is thus of great importance in the suitable design of the laser pellet. A sketch of the RP shock near the critical surface is shown in fig. 23 [116].The wave is incident from left and the flow is from right to left. The dominant feature is the existence of a steep gradient which connects the subcritical rarefaction wave (ab) in the incident region to the supercritical density plateau in the wave evanescent region (cd). The electric field forms a standing wave pattern in the incident region. Consistent with the density structure, the flow is supersonic (subsonic) in the outer (inner) region. These are to be contrasted with flow patterns in the CR shocks shown in fig. 18. Clearly, the major departure is the existence of a locally overdense region (cd in fig. 18). Also, the density shelves in both regions are
N/N~~
Fig. 23. Structure of the density profile in rarefaction wave-plateau (PR) shocks near the critical surface region as seen in simulations (particle ions and fluid electrons).
P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asma.s
101
always subcritical whereas for RP shocks there is a transition from subcritical to supercritical density. These features are fairly well understood in terms of the analytic model given by Lee et al. [116]. As pointed out earlier, the inclusion of relativistic effects does not qualitatively change the picture but the corrections can become quite significant for large field intensities [68]. Recently, the phenomenon of self-generated magnetic fields in pellets irradiated with intense lasers has attracted greatinterest [144158]. It is observed experimentally that strong magnetic fields of the order of a few MG are obtained for laser irradiances of 1015_lOb W/cm2 [148,150]. The existence of such strong magnetic fields has important effects on the efficiency of thermal transport, absorption processes, and the anomalous blow-off of the plasma. Theoretically, a number of plausible mechanisms has been suggested to account for the origin of the magnetic fields [148].While a consistent analysis of profile modifications in the presence of self-generated magnetic fields is more complicated, preliminary results with externally imposed magnetic fields have recently been obtained [69].The results indicate that a proper combination of the field strengths together with a choice of the light polarization can make the critical layer more transparent to the incident waves. 5.4.1. Formulation of the problem The basic formulation of the problem remains the same as that given by Lee et al. [116] for unmagnetized plasmas. For the magnetized plasmas, the starting point is to obtain an expression for the relativistic ponderomotive force in the presence of an external magnetic field (B 0 = B0~). Combining the electron momentum equation (2.2) with (2.7) and (2.8), and separating the slow and fast responses in the resulting equation, Rao, Shukla and Yu [66]have shown that, for circularly polarized waves propagating along , the electron high-frequency response satisfies the nonlinear relation between A and p given by eq. (4.160). On the other hand, the electron low-frequency response follows eq. (4.161) and, for a magnetized plasma, the wave equation is 2)2, (5.22) 9~A = A +ptiel(1 + p where A is to be substituted in terms of p from eq. (4.160) (after removing the high-frequency phase factor), that is A = p + apl(1
+ p2)12.
(5.23)
The field aligned ion response is governed by eqs. (5.6) and (5.7) which we close by assuming quasi-neutrality, til = n~.Using eqs. (5.6) and (5.7) in eq. (4.161) and integrating the resulting equation with respect to z, we obtain
ln v + /3(1 + p2)2
af312(1
+ p2)
~ + (3(1 + p~)112 af312(1
+ pt),
(5.24)
where the constant of integration on the right-hand side has been evaluated at the sonic point (v = 1). As in the case of unmagnetized plasmas [68, 116], eq. (5.24) has both supersonic and subsonic solutions for v(z), leading to the existence of oscillatory and decaying solutions for p(z) in the outer and inner regions, respectively. On the other hand, eqs. (5.6), (5.22), and (5.23) yield [1+ a(1
+
p2)312]2(~~p)2 + [1+ a(1
+ p2)112]2p2
(~+
C,
(5.25)
102
where the constant of integration C has to be determined appropriately. It follows from (5.24) that the gradient of the flow velocity at the sonic point remains finite only if (ilp/oz)5 = 0. With this condition, eq. (5.25) yields 2]2p~ + 4NV//3 (5.26) C = [1 + a(1 + p~) 5.4.2. Steady state profile modifications Equations (5.24)(5 .26) determine the nature of RP shocks in a magnetized relativistic plasma [69].In the limit of vanishing magnetic field, they reduce exactly to the corresponding equations derived by Stroscio et al. [68]. Furthermore, for moderately powered lasers, they coincide with the nonrelativistic equations of Lee et al. [116]. The procedure to calculate the terminal flow velocities and the number densities in the two regions is given in ref. [68, 69, 116]. Evaluating eq. (5.24) in the evanescent region yields
F(V) ~V2
ln V
+ /3[1 (1 +
p~)12] a/3p~/2(1+ p~)
0.
(5.27)
It is easy to verify that for any given a, /3 andp 5, F(V) = 0 has always two roots: one supersonic (V1) and the other subsonic (V2) which are identified with the flow velocities in the incident and evanescent regions, respectively. The inner self density is obtained by evaluating eq. (5.25) in the evanescent region, 2]2p~/3/2(V
N2
=
[1 + a/(1
+ p~)
2 1)2
(5.28)
On the other hand, the outer shelf density can be calculated from the flux conservation condition, namely, N1 = N2V2/V1. Thus, all the parameters are determined in terms of a, /3, and p5. The explicit profiles can easily be obtained by numerical integration of eq. (5.24) and (5.25) [116]. The two sets of solutions are joined smoothly at the sonic point. Finally, one needs to relate the incident wave amplitude at the sonic points (p5). This is done through the WKB solution of the wave equation (5.22) which yields 4, (5.29) A~ = 2A0[1 ~N2V2(1+ 1 /V1)f(p0)] where f(p 112], the subscript 0 indicates the incident field and, in the WKB 0) = [a +p~) approximation, tie + (1 ~@~es + N 1) has been used. Combining eqs. (5.23) and (5.29) we obtain
[1+
[1
~N
2p0(l+p0)
2 1/2
~~~)
(5.30)
(1+ p~ which relates ~ and p
2V2(1+ 1/V1)f(p0)]
0. Note that the normalized momentum variable is the same as the electric field variable E when the latter is normalized with respect to meotoc/e. The outer flow speed (V1) and the inner shelf density (N2) are plotted in figs. 2426 for the left (a >0) and the right (a <0) circular polarizations. Clearly, the flow in the incident region is enhanced (decreased) for the left (right) polarized waves. Similar features are also observed with respect to the strength of the magnetic field. This follows from the different dependences of the ponderomotive force on the nature of polarizations (ref., eq. (4.162)). Furthermore, for the right polarization, there exists a cutoff field amplitude (p(C)) below which real roots for eq. (5.27) do not exist. An expression for p~can be
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas I I
103
-~
In N2
Fig. 24. Flow speed in the incident region (for RP shocks) as a function of p,. The positive and negative values of a correspond, respectively, to left and right circular polarization for the incident laser light, a = 0 corresponds to the unmagnetized plasmas. /3 = 50. [691
Fig. 25. Plasma shelf density in the evanescent region (for RP shocks) as a function of p, for the left circularly polarized wave. Note that the shelf density is always supercritical. /3 = 50. [691
80 N 2 60
II
1k
-
-6
-
40
a=O
20
-4
4
PS
Fig. 26. Plasma shelf density in the evanescent region (for RP shocks) as a function ofp, for the right circularly polarized wave. The shelf density can be subcritical or supercritical depending on the relative magnitudes of a and p,. /3 50. 169]
104
easily obtained as
(c)
=
P5
2(1+p~)
2
2 1/2
[(1 +p5)
1].
(5.31)
PS
Note that the two real roots V1 and V2 degenerate into a single root V= 1 for p5 = p~. The amplitude variation of the inner shelf density has some important consequences in laser absorption by the pellet. While for left polarization, it is always supercritical, for the other polarization there exists a narrow band of p5 for which the density can be subcritical. This suggests the possibility of making the critical surface more transparent to the incident waves by a proper choice of the polarization and field strengths. The stability properties of such subcritical density shelves in the inner region are yet to be analyzed. On the other hand, the other two parameters, namely, N1 and V1 have more or less the same behaviour as in the unmagnetized plasmas [68]. 5.5. Self-generation of magnetic fields The problem of the origin of mega-Gauss d.c. magnetic fields in intensely irradiated laser pellets has been studied extensively over the last several years [148153]. Such magnetic fields can strongly influence the electron thermal conductivity resulting in a reduction of the compression and the heating of laser pellets. Several of the mechanisms suggested for this phenomenon include the baroclinic effect, hot electron ejection from the focal spot, anisotropic electron pressure, and the modulational instability of Langmuir waves [152]. There has also been some interest in explaining this phenomenon in terms of the radiation pressure effects [145, 147, 149]. 5.5.1. Itihomogeneous laser beams [154] Gradov and Stenflo [154] suggested that radial inhomogeneity of the incident laser beam can lead to the generation of strong magnetic fields. A generalization of this mechanism to include relativistic effects has been presented by Shukla and Yu [155]. On the other hand, the related problem of convective amplification as well as the field transport has been considered in terms of the Nernst effect [151, 156]. The results indicate that the magnetic field is preferentially convected towards lowtemperature, overdense regions by the electron heat flux, while the saturation of the field amplification crucially depends on the balance between the convection and the diffusion processes. On a time scale much larger than the ion plasma period the unmagnetized relativistic ponderomotive force on the electrons is balanced by the Lorentz force [155]. For circular polarization of the incident waves, we find 2V(1 + p2)2 meoc where E~is the slowly varying electric field. Neglecting the ponderomotive force in the corresponding equation for the ions and adding the two, we obtain for the radial component
e[E~ +
(Ve
x B)]
0,
(5.32)
~4~(1 p2)2,
+
(5.33)
105
where 11e
eBo/meoc is the electron gyrofrequency and B
0 is the azimuthal component of the induced magnetic field. Note that in obtaining eq. (5.32), the thermal force on the electrons is neglected. This can be justified for intense laser beams when the ponderomotive force generally dominates over the electron pressure [70]. From Amperes law, we have A~ ~
Vez
-b--
(rI2~),
(5.34)
where A0 = c/w~0 is the collisionless skin depth. For a Gaussian beam, 2(i)=p~exp(i2). p Equations (5.33) and (5.34) yield [155]
(5.35)
[-2q(F) + 2q(0)
F2q(F) -f(F)]2,
(5.36)
where F = r/r
2, and r 0, p0 = eAo/meoc 0 is the effective beam radius, and 2(F)]2 , q(F) = [1 +p f(F) = ln~[q(F) 1][q(0) + l]I[q(F) + l][q(O) 1]~
~.
(5.37) (5.38)
Figure 27 shows a plot of (IeItopO as a function of F for different values of p self-generated magnetic field increases with p 0 and peaks around r = r0.
Clearly, the strength of the
.001
I
.01
I
_1
I
2
.1
Fig. 27. Strength of the self-generated magnetic field ((1,) asa function of i for different values ofp~. [155]
106
In the nonrelativistic limit (p~ -~ 1), eq. (5.36) reduces to that derived by Gradov and Stenflo [154] F2) exp(F2)]. 0/m1c
=
[1(1
(5.39) 2 ~ 1), eq. (5.36)

is
On the other hand, in the extreme relativistic limit (p~ ~ 1, but keeping eA
p~2[2 (2 + F2) exp(F2)].
(5.40)
It follows from the last expression that Qe/Wp a p~/2whereas, in the nonrelativistic case, one finds
~e/top0
~p
0. This is in accordance with the dependence of the ponderomotive force on the field amplitude. Note that for p0 ~ 1, the strength of the self-generated magnetic field can be of the order of a few mega-Gauss, agreeing with the experimental observations [157]. 5.5.2. Parametric generation Many authors [152, 153] have suggested that low-frequency (LF) magnetic fields can be produced from the parametric instability of high-frequency (HF) plasma waves. Here, we consider the influence of the relativistic HF motion on the nonlinear dynamics of isotropic plasmas and the generation of the magnetic
fields.
To obtain the equations governing the HF and LF motions in the plasma, we use the Maxwell and hydrodynamic equations for the HF waves. For the LF oscillations, we use the kinetic equation. It is well-known that the phase velocity of the Langmuir waves exceeds the electron thermal velocity. Their linear dampings (collisional as well as Landau) are small. This means that the main body of the electrons in the Langmuir oscillations moves as a whole, allowing the quasi-hydrodynamic description. Assuming that in the present case the phase velocities of the HF waves are much higher than the electron thermal velocity (to0 ~- kVte), we may apply the hydrodynamic equations to describe the electron HF motion. For the LF motion, this approach is not sufficient and, therefore, a kinetic description should be used. Expanding the field quantities in the form A = (A) + A, where the angular bracket (...) denotes averaging over the time interval r ~ 1, we obtain the following equations describing LF motion:
(5.41) t[~e(1+ ~)
(Va) ~V~e+ ~e~(~~e)

-
~e~e
(~~)
e
melt
e m~0c
3v~
flI)
(5.42) (5.43) (5.44) (5.45)
V~ E = 4i~e~, VXEc~d~,
2-~1) associated with the In these equations, we have into account weak relativistic effects (l~/c electron-mass dependence ontaken the HF field amplitude, the electronic nonlinearities leading to harmonic
107
generation at double as well as low frequencies, the existence of LF magnetic field ((B) = SB), and also the strictional nonlinearity (tie) = n0 + 6tie~~~e -~n0 (the perturbation of the plasma density under the action of the ponderomotive force). Assuming that the particle displacement within a period of the HF oscillation is much less than the characteristic scale of the spatial field variation, we develop a perturbation theory. Let us represent the rapidly varying quantities by
= =
W exp(iw0t) + v2 exp(2ito0t)
c.c. (5.46)
E=
n1 exp(iw0t) + n2 exp(2ito0t) + c.c. , ~E exp(ito0t) + E2 exp(2iw0t) + c.c.

2
where W, E and n1 are the slowly varying quantities. Here, WI ~- 1v21, n, In the first approximation, we obtain from eqs. (5.42) and (5.44)
2meotoo ieE
n2, and
IEI ~ 1E21.
(5.47)
e ~=-~~VxW.
Using eq. (5.47) and the system of equations for the rapidly varying quantities, we obtain [155] a truncated equation for the HF field E
i~E-Vx(VxE)+---~-V(VE)+ 2to 0 2to0
2
to0
c2
3 V2
to~to2~
2to0
2 ti0
2w~m~ e [3IEI2E+EX(E*XE)]_~~E 16c 0 2to0

2
.to01 / e +1 1E x~ ~BVx (Ve))+V(( 2to0 meoc

~
Ve)
~E) (5.48)
V(v2 .E*)
((Ve)VE + v2V.E*) ito0 ~ E~} 0.
Here, we have taken into account not only the electronic, the relativistic and the strictional nonlinearities, but also the effect of the self-generated LF magnetic field [152] on the nonlinear process of wave self-interaction, which leads to the term proportional toE x ~B. This term and the relativistic effects turn out to be of the same order. To obtain a correct description of the phenomenon, it is necessary to include both of them. From eqs. (5.41)(5.45), for the second harmonics, after neglecting lower order terms, we obtain 2meo (4to n0
2 2 0
2 to~0)
~4to0
to~0
(5.49) (5.50)
V.
l~2=
4meO 2 w
2E2+ V. (EV. E)].

2 2
0(4to0
[V
to~0)
108
To close the system of eqs. (5.48) and (5.49), the quantities riB, (Ve), and ~tie should be calculated. While deriving equations for these quantities, many authors have made use of the averaged quasihydrodynamic equations. In our opinion, such an approach is inappropriate when the forced LF motions have phase velocities smaller or roughly equal to the thermal velocities of the particles. To find slowly varying perturbations, we proceed from the kinetic equationfor the electrons where the relativistic effects may be neglected:
~tfe+()fe~(E~
vxB).~[~=0.
(5.51)
Following refs. [152,153], we expand the electron distribution function

fe =f~(v
ii) +
(f)
+ f,
exp(ito0t) +f2 exp(2iw0t)
c.c.,
(5.52) v + ii in eq. (5.53)
where = W exp(ito0t) + c.c., E = (E) + E, B = ~B + B, andf~- (f),f,. Assuming that f~ is the Maxwellian distribution function, and making the substitution v (5.52), we get
o1(f) -(v~V)(f)
e [
(E) +VIWI
2- i (v.V)D].-~---=0,
where D = (W* .V)W~~ c.c. andf~= no(meo/2irTe)32 exp(meov2/2Te). The distribution function is related to the macroscopic quantities through the relations
(f)
(f) dv,
(Ve)
if v(f) dv.
(5.54)
Let us now obtain the equation for the LF magnetic field perturbation FIB. Using the method of averaging, one has
(5.55)
Using eq. (5.53) for (f) and eq. (5.54), we can derive the expressions for (Ve) and ~tie~ Here, it is convenient to use the Fourier-transform
(f)k=
1 4fdrdt(f)exp(i~1tik.r).
(2w) (5.56)
We find
1
=
2 Pc
Dk
kIWIk ~
(1
[4
(k. (E)
)132(1 -
~+(/~e))
x (E)k x kJ+([3e)]
(5.57)
+ I[~(k~Dk)i3~(1_J+(/3e))_~ XDkXkJ+(13e)],
109
where /3e
fllkVte
and
J+(x) = x exp(x212) J
dT exp(T2/2).
The function J (x) has the following limiting values:

=
3x~ i(irI2)2x exp(x212),
for x
1,
IRe xI ~ lIm xI
J+(x) = i(IT/2)2x
for
xl
-~
A relation similar to eq. (5.57) may also be obtained for the ion drift velocity (v~).Neglecting the terms associated with HF ion motion, and using the relationship
~
no
i~)=-~[D+Vx W*xW],
we obtain from eqs. (5.55) and (5.56)

[~~2
~,tr
~~tr)]
~Bk
to2~\
4iren c I~/
(~I
~
to~
i--
-~-)k x Dk
iw~ 1 i-- k x k x (W* x W)k],

to~,0
(5.58)
where
2 ~~tr
~PI
~2
+k,,kv
As expected, in the absence of the HF field, the left-hand side of eq. (5.58) gives the dispersion relation of the transverse waves in the plasma. To obtain the equation for ~ we substitute (f)k derived from eq. (5.43) into eq. (5.44) to yield
~
e
(5.59)
Vte
to0
kVte
We can derive a similar relation for the ions. On using the Poisson equation
47re(6nIk ik Ek =
~ek)
and eliminating ~n 1, we find (1

+ +
(1
-~--
W~,
(5.60)
no
top0
110
where
k Thus, we have obtained a closed system of equations (5.48), (5.50), and (5.57)(5.60), which describes the dynamics of longitudinal and transverse HF and LF fields in a cold plasma (T~ 4 meoc2). These equations are quite general since they account for the following nonlinear effects: strictional nonlinearity, LF magnetic field excitation, and relativistic as well as electron nonlinearities. The equations are valid for describing nonlinear phenomena in plasmas in the case where the phase velocities of the LF motion exceed the electron thermal velocity, (1 ~ kVie (the hydrodynamic limit), and also in the opposite limit 12 -~kVie (kinetic limit). In the following, we consider these two cases separately. Assuming Te ~ T~and kVie ~ 12 ~ kv,~,we can write eq. (5.60) in the kinetic limit as
[c9~
c~(1 + to
1~1
2~)V2] 110 e2lEl2
(21T)
3/2
Vte
dr ti ~n~(r,t)
0Irrl
2~) + to~
(5.61)
4mimel) too
Besides the term ~ 2 ~from LF charge separation, we have also included the damping of the acoustic waves. It can be shown that the integral term in eq. (5.61) makes a considerable contribution only when the forced wave phase velocity is of the order of ion-acoustic velocity. Since we are not interested in this case, we shall neglect this term. In the kinetic limit, eq. (5.58) then yields V2~B
~iB F
3/2
(2w)
1
Vie
~ dr ~)8(r,t) rrj
/to2 0
~~to0
ie
=
4 toocmeo
LV x [Vx (E x E*)] +
1)V x [(E*~V)E (E .v)E*]j
(5.62)
Unlike the integral in eq. (5.61), the nonlocal term in eq. (5.62) plays an essential role in the nonlinear processes. It describes nonlinear Landau damping associated with the anomalous skin effect of the excited LF magnetic field. 2) ~iB and assume to If we neglect the term (to~1Ic 0 w~,0, we obtain the equation derivedin ref. [152].It should be noted that if to0 ~ to~,0,it is necessary to account for the second term on the right-hand side of eq. (5.62), since it changes significantly the dynamics of the quasi-static magnetic field generation. To close the system of equations, we write down the averaged electron drift velocity, namely,
(tOe) = 2 3 [(E*.V)E_(E.V)E*]. 4w0m~0
(5.63)
Thus, we have obtained a complete system of equations describing the nonlinear modulational interaction in the kinetic limit. Now, we focus our attention on the hydrodynamic limit, (2 ~ kVie. Here, one finds
111
(V2
toP0)~B=
e 4ctoomeo
to 2~) 1
v x (EV. E*
e2IEI2
2 2 2
E*V. E),
(5.64)
(5.65)
~
ti 0
~t(tOe)
=V2(1 +
=
4mjmeotoo
~---
(E)
VIEI2,
(5.66)
meo
~B= fll~cV
(tOe).
4meQtoo (5.67)
0 (2 ~ kVte), the nonlinear source term for the magnetic field generation in eq. (5.64) is different from that of the kinetic result (12 kVte) given in eq. (5.62). In the following, we shall discuss the modulational instabilities, due to which low-frequency magnetic fields are generated. Let us consider first the hydrodynamic limit. The basic set of equations are eqs. (5.48)(5.50), and (5.64)(5.66). Using eq. (5.66), it is easy to confirm that eq. (5.48) does not contain explicitly the LF perturbation of the magnetic field, riB. According to eq. (5.48), LF magnetic fields may affect the dynamics of the HF fields only through the terms including the drift velocity (tOe). It can be shown that when the characteristic (L) and temporal may () scales of the slow motion satisfy the relativistic condition 2, thespatial strictional nonlinearity be neglected as compared to the LItm> c(meolm) nonlinearity. Besides, if L ~- cIw~ 0, the electron nonlinearities may also be neglected as compared to the relativistic nonlinearity. And, as eq. (5.64) shows, the contribution of the terms in eq. (5.48) associated with the LF magnetic field 6B is also negligibly small. We then obtain a nonlinear equation for the HF field amplitude
~ 4
Note that in the hydrodynamic limit (w~
w~ id1E~-VXVXE+ 6meoc ~II2 to0 l
(5.68)
Equation (5.68) shows that the characteristic time of the nonlinear process determined by the relativistic effect is of the order
~1
w~oIV~I/16c -
According to eq. (5.64), LF magnetic field generation will be on the same characteristic time scale. However, the influence of this LF magnetic field on the HF field is not essential. In the case L 4 cIto~ 0. according to eqs. (5.48) and (5.64), the relativistic and ~iBterms are of the same order. However, if L ~ cIw~0,the relativistic nonlinearity and the terms associated with ~B are much smaller than the electronic nonlinearities, Furthermore, the characteristic time of the processes will be of the order of that of electronic nonlinearities,
r 1 ~topO(ADeIL) 2 (vEIvtC)2
The generation of the LF magnetic fields will be on this characteristic time scale. Thus, within the
112
hydrodynamic limit, the so-called magneto-modulational instability, namely, HF wave instability associated with the appearance of LF magnetic fields, is excluded. Nevertheless, the generation of magnetic fields will take place, and the characteristic increments of the magnetic field generation are determined, depending on the specific condition, either by the relativistic and electron nonlinearities, or by strictional effects. In the kinetic limit, which is of interest, the equations describing the dynamics of the plasma are eqs. (5.48)(5.50) and (5.61)(5.63). It is clear from eqs. (5.48) and (5.42) that if the integral term in eq. (5.62) can be neglected, then the relativistic effect and the term connected with LF magnetic field generation are of the same order. But if nonlinear damping is dominant in eq. (5.62), then the relativistic effect in eq. (5.48) exceeds the term connected with the excitation of LF magnetic fields. To illustrate the above point, we investigate the stability of monochromatic HF Langmuir waves with respect to potential perturbations. Here, we assume to~~ ~ and neglect the electronic nonlinearity (the terms involving the second harmonic contributions, n2 and v2 in eq. 5.48). It has been shown elsewhere
[152] that the electronic nonlinearities do not affect the modulational instability of Langmuir waves.
We represent the HF wave amplitude as

E = [E0+ E,
~tie = ~
exp(ik~ r
iQt)
E2 exp(iflt
ik r)] exp(ik0 . r
iQt),
itokt),
(5.69) exp(ik. r
if2t), ~iB = ~iB exp(ik. r
where,
2A~e ~(ItEl2~2)toPo
~topok
Substituting eq. (5.69) into eqs. (5.48) and (5.61), and following the standard methods [152], we obtain a dispersion relation of a rather cumbersome form, which will, therefore, be omitted here. For the sake of simplicity, we shall restrict ourselves to the case k I k 0. Besides, we shall neglect terms associated with 4c can be the electron LF[152]. density validity of effects the use of of LF the magnetic condition field Vte exceeds (4meo/9m1) easily justified It perturbations. is only for thisThe case that the the strictional one. Then, the dispersion relation takes the form
~
((22
to~ok4A~e)
~r
k~k2)
k2v~e
-~
i~l
k2V~e
22
[~(~2
_i]=o.
(5.70)
The second term in eq. (5.70) is due to relativistic effects, while the last term is from the quasi-static magnetic fields. If we neglect the relativistic effects here, we obtain the dispersion relation of ref. [152]. Let us now examine the case k 0 k. The term connected with 6B in 2Ic2 eq. >(5.69) mayThe be neglected as 4(kADe)2. growth rate compared to the relativistic effect, and the instability takes place if IV~l of the quasi-static magnetic fields is maximum at km = 2~312IVEl/CADeand is given by
~
(Im ~)max
~(l1.~El2,~c2)topo .
(5.71)
P.K.
Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
113
On the other hand, in the limit k0 4k, for IVEI ~- V~/c the nonlinear Landau damping of the quasi-static magnetic field in eq. (5.70) may be neglected. Then, the SB term is twice that of 12(kADC)2. the relativistic one. The 2/c2 > Its increment instability associated with the magnetic field perturbation occurs if IVEI attains a maximum at km = (24)~2IVEI/CADe,and is given by (Im I2)max
=
~(lv~I2/c2)w~
.
(5.72)
However, in the opposite limit, I I 4 v ~/ c, the nonlinear damping of the magnetostatic perturbations is dominant, and the relativistic term in eq. (5.69) greatly exceeds the term associated with SB. In contrast to the results of ref. [152]in this case the modulational instability is absent, and there is no generation of the quasi-static magnetic fields.
6. Nonlinear waves in electronpositron plasmas Electromagnetic waves become ultrarelativistic when the electron momentum in the waves greatly exceeds meoc. That is, the wave energy density is much greater than the rest-mass energy density. In such intense wave fields, the ion motion can also become dominated by the kinetic energy obtained from the waves. In this case, the rest-mass energy of both the electron and the ion is negligible compared to the kinetic energy. In fact, the dispersion relations for electrostatic plasma oscillations as well as circularly polarized electromagnetic waves become independent of the rest mass in the large wave amplitude limit [20,28, 158]. Furthermore, in semiconductors, the holes (charge deficiencies) also behave like positive charges with a mass similar or less than that of the electrons [159161]. In special cases, such as when the conduction electron Hamiltonian in the effective mass approximation near the bottom of the conduction is not parabolic in momentum [161,162], the particles can also behave as if they are relativistic. In the above situations, one has effectively an electronpositron plasma. An electronpositron plasma is by itself of practical interest because of its possible application in pulsar physics. The pulsar is believed to be a fast-rotating neutron star with an extremely strong (1012 G) magnetic field. The latter is generated from the conversion of the rotation energy to magnetic energy, accompanied by a slowing down of the rotation rate of the pulsar. If the rotation and the magnetic axis are misaligned, Maxwells equations would allow the existence of strong magnetic dipole waves which can carry off the angular momentum and the rotational energy [163,164]. One can estimate the decrease in the rotation rate of the pulsar, which has been found to be in rough agreement with the observed lengthening of the time interval between the pulses. Ostriker and Gunn [165] pointed out that charged particles in the magnetic dipole wave in vacuo would be quickly accelerated to very high energies. Thus, the dipole waves could act as an effective accelerator for cosmic ray particles. However, Goldreich and Julian [166] argued that because of the existence of a large field-aligned electric field E0 = vB0/c 10 V/cm due to the rotation, the inevitable surface field emissions would fill the pulsar surrounding with charged particles until the region acquires enough plasma to sufficiently reduce the parallel electric field. In such a region, the hydromagnetic approximation would be valid. Shortly after, Sturrock [167]showed that cascade breeding of electronpositron pairs can occur along the magnetic field lines. The pair production is triggered by the high-energy curvature-radiation photons which are emitted by the high-velocity charged particles streaming from the pulsar surface. Thus, the pulsar polar cap region is probably filled with a plasma consisting of the secondary positrons and electrons [168172]. The plasma particles are expected to obey a one-dimensional velocity distribution function
114
P. K. Shuk!a el a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
because of the rapid loss of transverse momentum by synchrotron radiation. At present, it is still not clear exactly how the rotational energy and the angular momentum of the pulsar are being transformed into high-energy charged particles and the magnetic fields, nor how the intense coherent radiation is generated. One of the most important problems in pulsar physics concerns the origin of the coherent radio emissions which led to the discovery of pulsars [173]. These emissions have been found to exhibit intensity modulations on time scales of 1 ps to a few milliseconds [174, 175], compared to the average pulse lengths of 0.03 to 4 s. Furthermore, the pulsar radiation at radio frequencies has unusually high brightness temperatures (1030 to i03 K instead of less than 1016 to 1018 K for other astronomical objects), pointing to the coherency of the generating mechanism. The fine structure, together with the characteristics in luminosity and spectra, should be instrumental in verifying pulsar emission theories. An important, and closely related, problem is the possible acceleration of cosmic ray particles by the ultrarelativistic pulsar electromagnetic waves [20, 28, 164]. We note that since the electronpositron plasma exists in a region of open field lines in the pulsar magnetosphere only for a limited time (in the rotating frame), namely up to a pulsar period, one should consider only those processes which are shorter than the latter. In this report, we do not attempt to consider the validity of the theories of pulsar radiation and particle acceleration. Rather, we shall review some of the general problems on the propagation and interaction of intense (relativistic) electromagnetic waves with electrons and positrons. 6.1. Characteristics of an electronpositron plasma Because of the difference in mass between the electron and the ion, motion in a (particularly magnetized) electronion plasma can have many different characteristic time and space scales. Most of these scales do not exist in an electronpositron plasma. On the other hand, many basic physical mechanisms are similar for the two plasmas. In this section, we compare some of the similarities and differences between them. For the comparison to be meaningful, we shall assume that the ions are singly charged (Z = 1). Furthermore, we shall assume that the plasma is cold, so that the problem of defining relativistic temperatures does not arise. This assumption, however, does not preclude us from invoking thermal effects in the nonrelativistic low-frequency (such as the adiabatic) plasma response to the relativistic high-frequency motion. The only, but crucial, difference between a positron and an ion is the mass. It is clear that, except for the mass, the single-particle behaviour is unchanged. However, any cooperative phenomena which originate from the mass difference between the electron and the ion will not appear in an electron positron plasma. Thus, ion-acoustic waves, lower hybrid waves, as well as all the other low-frequency phenomena which depend on the existence of the ion time or space scales, do not occur in an electronpositron plasma. For convenience, we shall use the notation m 0 = meo = m~0. On the other hand, a pure electron phenomenon, such as the plasma wave, in an electronion plasma, will appear with a modified frequency (to = \/~to011) in the electronpositron plasma. Such a modification occurs because the electron and positron densities oscillate with the same time scale but 180out of phase, so that the charge densities are in phase. Similarly, in an electronpositron plasma, the relativistic circularly polarized waves discussed in section 4.3.1 would have a dispersion relation given by 2 = c2k2 + to p2)1/2 where v = eE/m0wc. Also, the upper-hybrid waves would have a frequency to = to~, where to~= 2to~()+ (2~. It is easy to show that the Debye length of an electronpositron plasma is given by
2to~ 1/(1 +
115
2
=
1
41Tn 2 0e
/1 ~
1\
+
(6.1)
which is similar to that of the electronion plasma. Thus, the colder specie determines the Debye length [176]. Since the linear dispersion relations for waves in an electronion plasma are usually given in terms of a summation of the dielectric susceptibilities over the species [72, 177], it is simple to apply them to an electronpositron plasma. The results are, nevertheless, not always predictable as are the cases mentioned above. For example, if one attempts to obtain the dispersion relation of electromagnetic waves in the extraordinary mode [176]polarization (k I B 0 and E I B0), one finds that the longitudinal and transverse components are decoupled. The former is simply the modified upper-hybrid wave to = to~, and the latter has the dispersion relation 2k2/to2 = 1 2to~ 2 (2~), (6.2) c 0/(to which has a cutoff at the modified upper-hybrid frequency, and resonances at the cyclotron frequencies (12oe 12op) The corresponding electronion plasma extraordinary waves, on the other hand, are both transverse and longitudinal, have two independent (the left and right) cutoffs, and a resonance at the upper-hybrid frequency. The reason for the difference is that the electron and positron high-frequency Ex B 0 currents 3E x B n0q 0

m~c((1~w2)
(6.3)
are identical in magnitude but opposite in sign, so that they do not contribute to the net current. It is precisely the electron E x B0 current which couples the electrostatic and the electromagnetic components of the extraordinary waves in an electronion plasma, since the high-frequency ion E X B0 current is much smaller. Similarly, one can easily show that for circularly polarized waves propagating along the external magnetic field (kIIB0) in an electronpositron plasma, the dispersion relation is also given by (6.2). In fact, it turns out that the latter is valid for transverse waves propagating at any angle with respect to the external field, provided the plasma is cold. On the other hand, in the low-frequency limit to the dispersion relation (6.3) for the electromagnetic waves becomes 2 = to~ = k2B~/81Tm to 0n0,
4 Q~ 4
which describes 2 the electronpositron plasma counterpart of the familiar Alfvn waves. In the usual = k2B~/4irm~ti Alfvn waves (to 0), the dynamics is governed by the ion polarization drift. The E X B0 drift effects cancel for the electrons and ions. When the ions are replaced by positrons, the latter cancellation still holds (in fact, this holds for all frequencies, as mentioned above), what remain are the electron as well as the positron polarization currents, which are now added, hence the factor 8 ~ instead of 41T. Note also that the condition k2c2/2co~ the usual 0 4 1 must be satisfied for the modified Alfvn waves to propagate. When is arbitrary, the Alfvn waves have the dispersion relation [191]
to~/fl0
116
to =
kVA(1
k2V~to~00/Q~c2),
(6.4)
where VA c(1
+ 2to~
2. 01/I2~)~
6.2. Finite amplitude waves and solitons In the pulsar magnetosphere, since both the radiation and the charged particles can be highly energetic, a fully relativistic treatment is necessary in studying the physics of radiationparticle interaction. The problem is therefore intrinsically nonlinear, and the weakly nonlinear theories (such as three-wave coupling, weak modulation, as well as weak plasma turbulence, to be discussed later) may not be applicable. On the other hand, the relativistic interaction of finite amplitude waves with electronion plasmas has been reviewed in section 4. In this section, we consider the localization and propagation of intense circularly polarized electromagnetic waves [174,177] in an electronpositron plasma. Relativistic as well as ponderomotive force effects are included fully in the formulation. For three limiting cases of physical interest, we demonstrate analytically the existence of smooth as well as spiky envelope solitons. 6.2.1. Governing equations We start with the relativistic two-fluid equations (2.1) to (2.6). Here, we have] = e, p, for electrons positrons, respectively. Thus, in the present chapter, m 0 = m0~ = moe is the rest mass, q1. = e is the charge, and T,. is the temperature. We have again assumed nonrelativistic isothermal electrons and positrons, although other adiabaticities can also be included with only minor modifications. The circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are taken to propagate in the direction i of the external magnetic field B01. The wavevector potential A1, where B = B0z + V x A, is given by A1
=
A(z, t)(1 i,)~) exp(iq2)
c.c.,
(6.5)
where ~ = toot k0z. The upper and lower signs denote right and left polarizations, respectively. Due to a modulation of the background density because of the presence of the intense radiation, the amplitude A in (6.5) is complex and a slowly varying function of z and t. Using the relation E = V~ c~A, it is easily verified that (2.1) is satisfied by [66]
p11
q1A1!c(1
a1y1)
(6.6)
which gives the high-frequency fluid response together with the equation governing the slow response m0[a1p1~ + q1~4 + T15(ln n)]
=
~p~1
a~y1[p~1o~y1 + ~y1~2p~1],
(6.7)
where a1 = 121/to0for right (+) and left () polarizations. The right-hand side of (6.7) includes the relativistic ponderomotive force on a magnetized plasma by the electromagnetic waves. It is from the terms v VP1 and v, x B in (2.2). Recall that no averaging (over the high-frequency period) process is necessary because for the circular polarization of the waves, the nonlinear terms do not produce higher
117
harmonics. It should be emphasized that the corresponding linearly polarized wave case does not yield such a simple result because of harmonic generation. To complete the description, we need the Poisson (2.5) and wave (2.6) equations, which become
=
4~re(n~tie),
(6.8)
=
(to~
+ c2c9~A + 2iw 2 k~c2)A 09~A + 2ik0c 5A
47rce(n~V~1 tieVei),
(6.9)
where the WKB approximation has been used in obtaining (6.9). Here
=
y1q1A/m0c(1
+ ~
(6.10)
Equations (6.6) and (6.7) together with (6.9) and Poissons equation (6.8), describe the interaction of a circularly polarized electromagnetic wave with an electronpositron plasma. Relativistic as well as ponderomotive force effects are included exactly (with respect to the amplitudes). The main assumptions used are that the variation is only in the z direction, that no other waves participate in the interaction, and that I a I is not close to unity (otherwise a kinetic description is necessary due to the possibility of cyclotron resonance). To consider stationary localized solutions, one takes the usual modulational representation A=A(~)exp(iE~t+iKz), where ~ = z
(6.11)
Vt, 0 and
=
are the nonlinear frequency and wavevector shifts, and obtains from (6.9)
9~A + zlA
2
41Te(n~V~1 tieve~j/c,
(6.12) (6.13)
and
K=
17to0/c
2to~ Ic2 2k 2. c 0 V 0Kc Equation (2.1) in the moving frame can be written as
=
2~ =
0, with k~c2 + 20to
V(V p 15 y1/m0)~. (6.14)
We shall now consider some special cases which are analytically solvable. a1 x and adiabatic response[86] We first consider the case in which the low-frequency response is adiabatic, that is, m0 d~ = 0. From (6.7), one obtains for right () and left (+) polarizations
6.2.2.
-~
2(y
q14
m0c
12~/2to0y~) T1 ln n. = const.
(6.15)
We are interested in the strong magnetic field limit (a1 ~- 1). One finds for this case Pip = Pie = 2m~)~2. Note that the fluid velocity is now given by wheretOel p1 = = m0yto0AIB0, and y = (1 +p~/c V 1,1 =p11m0-y = to0AIB0, (6.16)
118
P.K.
which may be identified as the usual E x B0 drift of the electron and positron fluids in the electromagnetic wave. As mentioned, we shall consider the case of adiabatic frequency response given by eq. (6.15) which yields n0 exp(~1/T1.), 2a~,.p2(1 + p2)~,and p = p where x q1b + ~m0c 1 /m0c. Here, the boundary conditions n p = 0 at z = ~, where n0 is the equilibrium density, have been used. Equation (6.12) becomes
ti =
(6.17)
=
n0,
0,
i~A = 4lTef3to0A(n0
ne)/cBo,
(6.18)
We shall now make the ansatz (the exact condition shall be given later) that a is sufficiently large such that the term q1q in x can be neglected. That is, the adiabatic density modulations of both species are assumed to be driven directly by the ponderomotive force. Substituting (6.17) into (6.18), one obtains 2)A[exp(~/Te) exp(~/T~)], (6.19) 9~A +~A= (f3to~o/ac
~m 2ap2(1 + p21 = a = 1a 2/m 0c 11, to~ = 4irn0e 0, and /3 = +() represents right (left) polarization. 2, eq. (6.19) determines the behaviour of A. Since for a11 potential 1, x can4be expressed in terms from of A (6.8) by straightforward integration. The electrostatic can then be obtained Equation (6.19) has two independent symmetry properties, namely, it is invariant under the transformations A A and ~. One thus expects symmetric as well as antisymmetric solutions for A. In the following, we shall obtain the conditions for the existence of symmetric localized solutions for A(fl. Equation (6.19) can be integrated once. One obtains where x
=
Xe
(c9 ~[t)2 +
U(~P) = 0, 2. The effective potential U is given by

0~/c-s/~, and
1J
=
(6 + 1),
(6.20)
where ~ = to~ (eA/m0c) (m0/2 Tea) U(~) = ,~p2 + exp(/31P2) + 6 exp(13I2/6) where q = a c2~ /to ~, and 6
=
(6.21)
U(IP) *0
T~/ Te. The constant of integration has been chosen such that
for
Equation (6.20) is in the form of a quadrature, so that solutions can be obtained by straightforward numerical integration. One also obtains from (6.21)
=
p2~
exp(f3~P~)exp(/3P~/8)],
(6.22)
which determines
i~
in terms of the maximum amplitude
0) = 0. Localized solutions of 2U/d~1)I~,, (6.20) exist ~ if 0, U(0) = 0 and U(~I) < 0 for 0< ~ < Thus, one requires since U(W) is continuous. To obtain the existence conditions (dU/d~P)l,~, >0 and (d
~.
~,
given by (o~ ~1)l~,~ = 0 or U(111
119
for localized symmetric solutions, we investigate the behaviour of U(P) near V~0,eq. (6.21) yields U(~1) =
~
-~
0 and .1
For (6.23)
~(1 + o~)~P4.
Thus, we require ~ <0, or exp(/3~P~/) + exp(/3~1~)> 1+ 6

.
(6.24)
On the other hand, the condition (dU/d~t)I, >0 leads to (6

+
f3~P~) exp(/3V~/5) + (1
f3~P~) exp(f3~t~) <6
1.
(6.25)
The conditions (6.24) and (6.25) thus determine the range of values of the free parameters ~PJ and 6 for the existence of localized symmetric solutions ~P( h). From (6.8), (6.17), (6.24) and (6.25), noting 9~ 0(4), one finds that the condition for neglecting the electrostatic potential Ij in the expression for x is a 2m 21 Te~ which can be satisfied if the plasma is not 0c too cold. In the small (but finite) amplitude limit ~I 41, one can obtain from (6.20) the analytical results
-~ ~
~1~sech[22(1 +
_1)h/2!1~(~_
~)]
(6.26)
and ~ = (1 + In the pulsar polar magnetosphere, one expects T~ Te. Setting 8 1, the condition (6.24) becomes cosh(~P~) > 1 for both polarizations, and is always satisfied. The condition (6.25) becomes, again for both polarizations, 1+~ which is always satisfied. Thus, our result shows that large amplitude localized electromagnetic waves can exist in the pulsar magnetospheres. We have shown that in a strongly magnetized electronpositron plasma, solitary circularly-polarized electromagnetic wave pulses can propagate because of adiabatic self-modulation. Unlike the cold plasma case given later, the pulses are smooth rather than spiky. The results may be applicable in the magnetosphere of some pulsars. In a region where B 9 1 for 0 a i0~electrostatic i0 to 9 Hz. The requirement that a ~s-2m 21T for neglecting one the obtains low frequency 0 i0~ i0 0c potential can be satisfied except for very low temperatures. For the same radiation bands, intensities of ii 50100 have been deduced from observational data [85].Although the present calculation is valid for narrow-band circularly polarized waves and the observed radiation is usually broad-band linearly polarized (but, often with important amounts of circular polarization), the discrepancy is not crucial since many factors, such as magnetic field and density inhomogeneities, Faraday rotation, wave dispersion, etc., can alter the polarization or spectrum before the waves leave the pulsar magnetosphere.
~ 106_1012 G,
6.2.3. a~ ~ ~ and cold plasma [86] Here, we shall study the limit T 1 = 0 and I a.I ~ ~,corresponding to a coldelectronpositron plasma in
120
P. K.
a very high ambient magnetic field, such as that existing in the pulsar polar magnetosphere. For ~, I a1 we have p,,
=
1,
q1a1AIc-,y,,
which is independent of the charge q, and therefore Pci = p~1 and v~1= v~,1.Equations (6.12), (6.14), and (6.2) yield 2, (6.27) + 4A = ~Ao9~y where y = = Ye In (6.27) we have dropped the linear inertia term ~ which is justified except for ultra-fast (V= c) pulses. In other words, here the ponderomotive pressure, instead of the thermal pressure, keeps the fluid in quasi-equilibrium. Furthermore, we note that (6.27) differs significantly from that of usual electronion plasmas, where V~ 1 $ V~1 and ti~, Expressing ~ in terms of A, and integrating (6.27) once, we obtain 2 = 4A2(1 to~A2/c2B~)1 (c9~A) where the boundary conditions for localized solutions, namely, A, ~A* 0 as c~ have been used.
~*
The exact solution of the last expression, given transcendentally, is [86,96] A A~ sech{[1 (A/A~)2]2 + 42A~~} ,
(6.28)
where A~ = cB
0Ito0 is the maximum amplitude. Equation (6.28) describes a soliton which is cusped at the center, where ~A becomes infinite. Thus, the electric or magnetic fields appear as isolated spikes. Furthermore, by choosing different boundary conditions, Equation (6.27) also admits cusped cnoidal wave solutions [16, 141].
6.2.4. a = 0 and warm plasma [86] We now consider the opposite limit, namely a, *0. This corresponds to the case where the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is so high that the ambient magnetic field can be ignored. From eqs. (6.6) and (6.7), one obtains 2)(p 2 + (1 /32)(Q2 1 e2A2/m~c4)]2, (6.29) (1 f3 5/m~c) = f3Q [(f3Q) where Q = 1 fln(n/n 2, and quasi-neutrality (tie = n~, n) has been 0), /3 = V/c, f= (T~ + Te)I2m0c assumed. A similar expression has been obtained by Kozlov et al. [60]. On the other hand, the equation for the envelope A becomes

4A
2(to~
0Ic)
2(n/n
0)yA.
(6.30)
Two cases can be investigated analytically. First, let us consider the adiabatic limit (/3 ~ 0). Again ignoring the linear inertia p~,Equation (6.30) can be integrated once, yielding the quadrature 2 = 4A2 + 4(to~ 2f{1 exp[(1 y)/f]} , (6.31) (~A) 0/c) where ~ = (1 + e2A2/m~c4)2,and the condition ~A = 0 when A = 0 has been used.

121
It is easily shown by standard methods [63] that eq. (6.31) admits well-behaved localized solutions satisfying
2141 > 2to~ 2to~0> c 0y exp[(1 y~)if], (6.32) 24 = 4fw~ where c 0{1 exp[(1 y~)If]},~ = ~(A~ and A~ is the maximum of A. Note that (6.32) is always satisfied. The second limit, which can be analyzed, corresponds to a coldplasma (T1 = 0). We obtain for this case

(~ ~)2
U(~) = 0,
U(~)
4~2
g[1
(1
~2)1
/2]
(6.33)
2w~ 6/34, 11 = A/AC, and A~ f32m~c4/e2(1 /32) is the maximum value of A. where = 4e 0/m~c The gconstraint ~P. ~ 1 allows (6.33) to have a localized solution which has a discontinuity in the derivative at ~P= 1. This may be seen from the effective potential U(W): For (4 g12) <0, it decreases from 0 to 4 g as ~Pvaries from 0 to 1. The constraint ~P~ 1 can be interpreted as the existence of a potential wall at ~I = 1. Since U(~1) (4 g/2)W2 for ~ there exists a localized solution of (6.33) having the finite derivative (4 g)2 at I = 1. Thus, the soliton here resembles that of (6.28). The latter soliton, however, not only has a discontinuous derivative at the center, that derivative is also infinite. We note that ~ x when ~P 1. It is thus expected that some physical effect (dissipation, charge separation, etc.) should prevent the soliton amplitude reaching the maximum value given here.
* *
6.2.5. Discussion of the envelope solitons In the last two sections, we have reviewed the theory of the propagation of circularly polarized electromagnetic waves along an external magnetic field in a relativistic electronpositron plasma. We find that nonlinear coupling of the pulsar radiation with the background plasma can occur by exciting finite amplitude density perturbations; the latter in turn drive the ambipolar potential which can accelerate particles. The investigation demonstrates that this interaction can give rise to pulses of smooth as well as spiky [86]radiation for the superstrong magnetic field case (to 0 ~ In the opposite limit (to0 ~we showed the existence of smooth solitons for hot plasmas and peaked solitons for cold plasmas. The peaked solitons have discontinuous profile gradients at the amplitude maxima. In the real physical situation, it is expected that the discontinuities would be locally smoothed by dissipative or other mechanisms, although the steep structure remains. The latter are consistent with the observed microstructure of the pulsar radiation [178,179] received on earth, assuming that the main characteristics of the radiation remain unchanged as it propagates through the interplanetary space. Physically, the steep structure may be attributed to the tendency toward wave breaking in the presence of strong nonlinearities. We have used boundary conditions leading to localized wave envelopes. However, the investigation can readily be generalized to include more general boundary conditions which maythen yield smooth and peaked cnoidal-wave solutions.
4
6.3. Particle acceleration and heating In this section, we review some of the theories of particle acceleration and plasma heating by finite amplitude waves in a relativistic electronpositron plasma. This topic is closely related to that of the last section, and is of interest in the physics of cosmic ray acceleration [28, 164, 179] by pulsar radiation. The
122
P.K.
main problem consists of obtaining self-consistently the quasi-steady (time-independent in the wave frame) large amplitude wave solutions of the relativistic equations of motion together with Maxwells equation. From the exact solutions one then calculates the self-consistent particle flux density. The mathematics of the problem is similar to that for the solitary wave propagation considered in the last section, namely, to obtain a quadrature in a stationary frame. However, here one does not look for modulated wave pulses. Instead, one seeks propagating plane wave (or waves of other forms) solutions with well-defined period or periods such that efficient waveplasma interaction can occur. Thus, it is convenient to introduce the wave frame [20, 158] i~= to(t z/v0), where V,3 is the wave phase velocity to
be determined self-consistently from the solution. It will be assumed that in the wave frame the plasma motion is time-independent. In the quasi-steady wave frame, the exact equations of motion of a cold plasma can be written as [20, 158] dn(njLj)
=
0,
(71k + IJ~),
(6.34) (6.35)
L~ d0p1
ep. . E L.d y.= / , ~ / m~toc
(6.36)
2)12 is defined as usual. Note that where L.of = the -y1 cold p15/m~v8 isassumption, the Landau eqs. function, and = (1 + p~ /m~c to those for single particles, and because plasma (6.35) and (6.36) are similar that if L. = 0, (i.e. p, = m 0y,v8), the plasma would move with the wave phase velocity. Equations (6.34) to (6.36), together with Maxwells equations (2.3) to (2.6) lead to n.L1 V,3B
=
const.
, ,
2 ~ nq
=
~
(6.37)
cz x E = const.
(6.38) a 1p,1
d,1E1 = d,,E5
=
~ d,,i x B1
(6.39) (6.40)
n.q1p,5
2 = V~I(c2 Vi). From (6.40), one sees that in general there is an where E1 = component (Er, E~) and a vanishes only in special cases. We have already come across this property electrostatic which (but in the form of a low-frequency modulation) of the relativistic electromagnetic waves in the last section. We now specialize to a convenient system in which E 5 = E~ = B~ = 0 and E5, B~,B5 ~ 0, so that = and p15~= p,~,. In this case, one has charge neutrality, since ~ = Pez and = Ye everywhere. Equations (6.38) and (6.39) are then somewhat simplified, and they combine to yield [20]
~
eto j c 2 22 2 2 2 --~1~) (d,~E5) =m0c(y l)p5p~~

to~11
2\2
(6.41)
123
with the condition ~~(~0) = 0, where i~ is the location at which the boundary conditions are given. Note that 2(y 1)p~p~=0 m~c at ~ = ~ because of the condition Ppx = Pex~ Equation (6.41) is in the form of a quadrature. However, one still has to eliminate ~ p~,and y in terms of E~. The task is straightforward but tedious [20].As an example, we shall present the results for the electromagnetic superluminous (c < v,,) waves in the absence of average (background) d.c. magnetic fields. After eliminating y, p~,, p~ in (6.41), one obtains ~
l
~)2
~2 +
(6 42)
4L~[Q~+2(~ ~~2)]2 0toc,~ = 2IV~)to2

.
where ~(q) = eE~(-q)Im
~(n0) L~
L(~0),etc., and
(6.43) c Since the right-hand side of (6.42) is even in ~, there can be neither average electric field nor average magnetic field (in the ~ frame). The dispersion relation is obtained from the periodicity condition that i~ changes by IT when the solution passes between two zeros (~, ~2) of d~ That is,
Q = 4L~w;0/(1
~.
IT
(d~) d~.
(6.44)
The result is
~,3
(to~ 0) =
(V~
c2)1/2to2~o{2E +
2) L c [~(~ 0
V,3
2]K~F},
(6.45)
2 = (1 + Q/~), K~ = Q(~ + Q)~, E(K) and F(K) are the complete elliptic integrals of the where K second kind, respectively. In obtaining (6.45), we have used the definition of the average first and laboratory plasma frequency, given by
(w~) =
d~(dn to~
~Y
0L0(y/L)
=
2).
to~0L0v,3I(V~c
124
The average flux for each species is then given by (nv~) = cn 0L(p5ILm~c) (n)c U,, 2 I i~~ 2) 11+! 0(~ c 2 ~ L L 0v,,m0c
*
1
-
K~F ~ ~.
(6.46)
2EK~F~
*
2 1, K~ 0), the relation (6.42) describes a sawtooth wave. In the large (K (at i~) do not influence the result. Thus, when the amplitude is Furthermore, theamplitude boundary limit conditions sufficiently large, the wave determines the plasma mean characteristics. In particular, the energetic particle flux is determined by the waves. Several authors [19, 20, 158, 179181] also considered various other types of waves, such as Alfvn and plasma waves. The conclusions are somewhat similar to the case discussed here. The main differences are: (i) for subluminous (v,, <c) waves, there is an upper limit for the wave amplitude because of the possibility of wave breaking; (ii) for circularly polarized electromagnetic waves, no unique relation between the particle flux and the wave amplitude exists; (iii) for longitudinal (electrostatic) waves, there is an additional arbitrary factor (a constant of integration) which was set to zero by Kennel and Pellat [20]. However, according to Chian [181], this dynamic parameter should be chosen self-consistently with the wave properties (amplitude, flux, etc.) and can alter the maximum possible amplitude. Thus, superluminous waves (whose amplitudes are not restricted), can be an efficient transporter of particles (flux cc(ti)c2/v,,) in the pulsar magnetosphere. The average density remains, however, relatively low, as the waves have the V,,/c* cutoff. In order to have large densities (but lower velocities), Michel suggested the existence of a radially outfiowing pulsar wind [172, 182, 183], (analogous to the solar wind) which can deliver a large number flux to the nebula. Numerical simulations [179, 184] of the time evolution of the relativistic electromagnetic waves in an electronpositron plasma confirms that the waves generate or maintain a large longitudinal particle flux. The latter decreases as the wave frequency approaches the relativistic cutoff frequency ~[2w~ 0/ (~,) 1/2 Here, the average is over the plasma particle velocities, since the particles have different velocities in the wave field. Near the cutoff, it is found, as expected, that the waveparticle interaction becomes very strong. The particle simulation also indicates that both sinusoidal and sawtooth waves are modulated by spiky density perturbations which eventually destroy the waves. In this case, the final state consists of a forward moving heated plasma with a complex spectrum. At present, the physics of this turbulent state is still unknown. 6.4. Weakly nonlinear theories There is a large volume of literature on small but finite amplitude waves in electronpositron plasmas. Most of these works are related to applications in either pulsar or semiconductor physics [85, 159162]. They can be classified loosely into several categories: (i) small but finite amplitude simple wave propagation. This includes the small amplitude limits (if they exist) of the problems discussed in section 6.3; (ii) wavewave interactions. These include parametric decay problems, (and wave-modulation problems which are the small amplitude limits of those considered in section 6.2); (iii) waveparticle interactions, including Cerenkov radiation, Landau damping, cyclotron resonance, etc.; and (iv) weak turbulence theories.
125
In this section, we consider briefly the linear and weakly nonlinear motion in electronpositron plasmas. Clearly, they are not representative of the existing literature. They are biased toward the areas associated with the other problems covered in this report. Before discussing the individual problems, we emphasize that up to now, a fluid model with an ad hoc pressure term (which is similar to that of the nonrelativistic plasma) has been used. This model, although quite often used [184] in the literature because of its simplicity, is by no means theoretically justified. Besides the fact that such fluid models do not take care of waveparticle interaction problems, there is also the possibility that the nonlinear non-sinusoidal waves can contribute significantly to the moments of the distribution function. Thus, the temperature (or pressure) may be heavily dependent on the wave fields, and the isothermal assumption may not be meaningful. Furthermore, since the relativistic factor is quadratic in the momentum, the moments would be strongly dependent on the particular form of the distribution. These effects have been neglected in the fluid model earlier, and can partially be taken care of in the small amplitude theories. We first briefly discuss the results from kinetic theory for linear wave propagation in a relativistic electronpositron plasma. The formulation is similar to that of relativistic electronion plasmas. The
particle distribution function
f~ satisfies
vXB).t9~f~zzr0, (6.47)
~+v.t~Jj+qj(E+! where p
=
m0yv. Here, v and p refer to particle velocity and momentum, respectively. We define the average (Q1) by
(Q~) =
[Qf~(p)In] dp,
(6.48)
where f1~ is the equilibrium distribution function. The averaged perturbation (moments) quantities are
defined similarly. Linearizing (6.47) and using the Maxwells equations, we arrive at the dispersion relation [185,186] 2 2)e 2 , (6.49) (to 1 k~c 11= k~c
where
=
to~ 10(y~
3(to
k 5V)
2)
,
2Ito2) ,
(6.50) (6.51)
1 + ~ (to~ 1~/12~0)(-y1)(1 + k~c
and -y 2Im~c2)2. 1. = (1 +p waves propagating parallel to B For Langmuir 0, we have the dispersion relation [186]
=
0.
(6.52)
For to
~-
ck~,one obtains the limiting relation
126
to2(y3)w~0+3k~c2(1(y)I(y3)), while for

(Ok
(6.53a)
to
ck, we get
c[k
a(k 5
212k k0) + b(k5
k0)
0],
(6.53b)
where k0=2(y) 0/c,a=(y(1+V/c) With the power-law (relativistic) distribution function 2 2 e fci.(m 2 2 6(p 0c +p~c) 1)/p1
2w~
21y2(1+v/c)3), and b3(y3)~(y((y)I(y3)y2)2).
(6.54)
and p = ~,one obtains [187] a = 1 3ITm0c/8p0 and /3 = 2.8, where p0 is the momentum of the fastest particle. It can be shown [185, 187] that any isotropic relativistic distribution function relaxes to the ~= power-law due to Bremsstrahlung loss in a strong magnetic field. Clearly, the propagation characteristics depend on the form of the distribution function, especially when the effects of Landau or Cerenkov damping or excitation are considered. From (6.53b), we see that [188]longitudinal waves with phase velocities less than the speed of light can propagate (if the distribution function vanishes sufficiently fast at large momenta). For propagation of electromagnetic waves across (say k = k1) the external magnetic field, electrostatic waves exist only for to ~ ~ Besides, similar to the nonrelativistic case, the electrostatic and electronic waves are uncoupled (see, section 6.2). For to 4 (2~, there are two types of transverse waves. The first has the polarization E = (E1, E1, E5) and B = (0, B5, 0). The dispersion relation is
2 = to
2to~(y3) + k~c2(1 2to~
0(y
,)
/I2~).
(6.55)
2B~ /m~c2). Thus, = to/k1 > c if to~0 4 i2~(= e TheV~ second type has the polarization E = (0, E~, 0), B = (0, 0, B 5), and the dispersion relation is
to =
k1c(1
to~,0(y)IQ~).
(6.56)
The waves are sometimes called magnetosonic waves. The Alfvn waves, having the polarization k = k5 and E = (0, 0, E5), can be obtained by setting the right-hand side of (6.49) to zero. The dispersion relation is again given by (6.56), with k1 replaced by k5 (see, section 4.2). The dispersion relation for oblique propagation of electromagnetic waves is quite complicated [185]. The waves can be classified into two types. One is purely transverse, called t waves, while the other is mixed, called L waves. Furthermore, the waves (for example Langmuir and Alfvn) are often coupled, and cannot be discussed separately. Weakly nonlinear waveparticle [185, 186, 189] and wavewave [185,1881951 interaction problems involving the waves discussed above closely resemble those in electronion plasmas. The methods of formulation and solution are well known [27, 196]. As mentioned earlier, the main physical difference is that in the electronpositron plasma, the ion (slow) time scale is missing. On the other hand, a lower-frequency wave in an electronpositron plasma can also provide the necessary low-frequency perturbation.
P.K. Shuk!a et a!.,
Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
127
Waveparticle interaction problems include the resonant excitation of waves by beams [185,197] as well as the subsequent quasi-linear relaxation. Furthermore, wave conversion by nonlinear Landau damping, and particle heating due to cyclotron resonance have also been investigated by various authors [186,189]. Wavewave interaction problems include mainly three-wave coupling involving the various relativistic modes [185, 188, 191, 192, 194]. Self-modulation [191,194] as well as modulation by lower-frequency modes [185,195] are also possible. The latter interaction may generate localized wave pulses similar to those discussed in section 6.2. As an example of wavewave interaction, we consider the modulational instability of linearly polarized electromagnetic waves in the form [195] E=z~Ecoso, (6.57)
where
kx, and the ambient magnetic field B0 is directed along the z-axis. In the linear limit, the density perturbation associated with the ordinary mode is zero because the radiation electric field E is aligned along B0). In the electronpositron plasma, the frequency to and the wavenumber k are related by 2=2w~ 2c2, (6.58) w 0+k
~
=
tot
The wave equation is
(o~ c2~)Ecos
4~th,.j
5 ,
tie
(6.59)
=
where j~ = ne(V~5 density.
Vez) is
the field aligned plasma current, and
n~ = n is the particle number
The lowest-order radiation-induced velocity perturbations are determined from the parallel component of the momentum balance equation. One finds
=
q.E ~ sin ~.
(6.60)
A change of the quiver velocity appears due to the relativistic particle-mass variation. Under the weak relativistic approximation
V~
4 c, the nonlinear particle velocity is given by [31] (6.61)
3c. ~(q1E sin io/m0wc)
The particles oscillating in the pulsar field would generate high-frequency currents which can beat the radiation magnetic field B = B~y.The resulting nonlinear Lorentz force V 1B~ then drives the plasma 1~ particles in a plane perpendicular to B 0. Subsequently, nonlinear particle density fluctuations are generated, given by
+
n0~i,1 = 0,
fl10t~
(6.62)
~
(6.63)
128 t9tVjy
=

.1~l
1oVi~,
(6.64)
where B~ = (ck/to)E cos ~. Note that an electronpositron plasma does not support charge separation which may give rise to an ambipolar electric field. Combining eqs. (6.63) and (6.64), one obtains (~9~ +~
=
.~-~--
1(ii,~~B~).
~ ~.
(6.65) Accordingly, from eqs. (6.60) and (6.62) one finds (6.66)
In the pulsar magnetosphere, one usually has 5

fl1
=
ck,. cos2~,
222
where i. = eE/m0toc is the strength parameter. The plasma current densities which are in phase with the radiation electric field can now be written as
i~=i~+i~.
Here, the linear part of the current density is given by
=
(6.67)
n0e(v~ V~~) = (w~0EI2ITw) sin ~,
(6.68) (6.69)
and the nonlinear contribution is 2/4ITto)RE sin ~, = (w~0v with R

=
c2k2/1l~ 0 +
~
Inserting (6.67) into (6.59), one obtains the nonlinear wave equation ~ (6.70)
Since the nonlinear effects cause the wave amplitude to change on a slow time scale, we let cos ~ = ~z( ~,T) exp(i~)+ c.c., where 4 = x VgT~ in eq. (6.70). One then obtains in the WKB approximation [196] 2~ = 0, (6.71) ~ + P~P+ Ql ~I where to 9~ 4 1 and (6.58) has been used. Here, Vg = ilto/k is the group velocity of the wave packet, P=c2/2to, and Q=Rw~ 0I2w. Equation (6.71) reveals that a plane carrier wave is unstable with respect to low-frequency modulations [15, 1961. The nonlinear dispersion relation governing the modulational instability is (cf., eq. (3.57)) 2 c4K4/4to2 + c2K2to~ = 20, (6.72) (12 KVg) 0i~R/2to
v

P.K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasinas
129
where ~
v(E0), E0 is the amplitude of the pump wave, (2 and K are the frequency and wavenumber of the modulations, respectively. The modulation is unstable if
=
>
cKh/~i~to~.
(6.73)
The maximum growth rate is given by

=
to~0Rp~I2to.
(6.74)
It is believed that possible final states of the modulational instability can result in localized solitary pulses. The stationary envelope soliton solution of eq. (6.71) is [196] 2 = v~sech2[IQ/2PI2~m~], (6.75)
p
where ~m = V(Em), and Em is the maximum amplitude at ~ = 0. The soliton pulse width is 6 = I 2P/QI2v~= (2/R)2Ae v~,where ~e= c/to~ 0is thep0 collisionless electron depth. In the observers 2v~ ~~m ) 1, where y~ is theskin relativistic factor associated frame, the temporal pulse width T0 is roughly (R with the stream velocity of the electrons and positrons. The number of wave crests in a given modulation is [85] N=6k/2IT=(~RIT2)112kAeV~
.
(6.76)
From the observed temporal pulse widths of pulsar micropulses (-1 ~isto 1 ms) and the frequency range of pulsar radio emission (100 MHz to 1 GHz), Chian and Kennel [85] noticed that N varies roughly from 102 to 106. Taking typical values y, = 102, ~, = 102, I~eoI ~ ~p0 = 106 s-I, ck/w~ 4, which are consistent with 0 100, [174,198]. ~ 10~ s, andlinearly Ck/(leo polarized 41, one pulsar finds T0 1 p~s and N= i0external magnetic field would observations Thus, radiation across the be subjected to the relativistic modulational instability. The contribution of the nonlinear density fluctuation related current density is rather small because of a very strong magnetic field. One can consider the nonlinear propagation of circularly polarized waves in the same manner. The linear dispersion and polarization of the waves are given by (6.2) and (6.5), respectively. The corresponding evolution equation is the same as (4.143). The nonlinear frequency shift can be obtained from (4.144), with v 05 = ~ where o=e, p. The slow ambipolar potential is driven by the ponderomotive force [110] ~ q 1 1 m 0ff to(to+(20,~) ku
to(to+Q0~)
~
1 o1jIEI
2.
(6.77)
When the parallel (to B0) phase velocity of the electrostatic modulation is assumed to be much larger than the electron thermal velocity, one finds that the low-frequency motion is given by [199] vw 4kc
to;~
[~q m
to~oQo (i_~
to +120 to to
12~
to+4,
~o (2~,) ~2 to +
JL
(2
2to~ ~~i(kV,.~ (22)2 m~V2
2kc 2 1 q c2 m2
~
to~o
(to +
lE2 i~~i
(6.78)
130
2~ (2to~~ + V where ~ = z
=

~ q~EI2~
(i
?~)
to),
(6.79)
Vt. In the limit of strong magnetic field (12~ ~+
the last two expressions take the form (6.80)
Vto 2kc2B~ [(~ kV
2aqtoto2 m~Cou( kV
E12],
2to2~
(2to~~ + V2~)~ = where a

=
~L
(i
..)1E12,
(6.81)
c2
V2(1
2kV/to)2.
to~,
Simplifications occur for two limiting cases. First, for V2~~-
we get from eqs. (6.80) and (6.81)
~
2
[(i
~.
to2V2
~Y]IEI
2ato2to2
QIEI2
(6.82)
Secondly, in the opposite limit, V2~4 to~, eqs. (6.80) and (6.81) yield
V
=
1/
kV\2
2kc2B~L\ 1(1
to /
I ~EI
0 E~2 1I .
J
(6.83)
Inserting eq. (6.82) into eq. (6.71), one obtains the usual cubic Schrdinger equation given by eq. (4.152). For v~Q <0, the wave train is subject to modulational instability. A possible final state of the latter is the envelope soliton (4.154). On the other hand, substituting (6.83) into (6.71) one gets 2E Q = 2 0, (6.84) 1E + ~(Vg V)o~E + ~v~9~E + QIIEI 2Ei~9~lEI where Q, = aV 2to~ 2B~12~ and Q 2/2kc2B~. It is of interest to point out that Litvak 9to 2 = Vg(1 and Sergeev [95] have 0/kc demonstrated that (6.84) kV/to) admits cusped soliton solution. i

7. Some applications associated with relativistic effects In this section, we discuss some of the important applications associated with relativistic effects in the study of electromagnetic wave generation and particle acceleration. Since ideas in these fields are still evolving, the following discussions include merely a few of the well-known mechanisms.
7.1.
Free electron lasers [82, 83]
Since at present relativistic electron beams with high current and large energy are available, it is natural to use them as energy sources for electromagnetic wave generation. In fact, the relativistic
P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
131
electron beams can be utilized to generate coherent radiation covering a wide spectrum, particularly, in the millimeter, infrared, and perhaps also the X-ray regimes. High-power radiation sources such as gyrotrons [200210] and tunable free electron lasers (FEL) [82, 83] are highly desirable in many applications, including far-infrared spectroscopy, plasma heating and diagnostics, isotope separation, particle acceleration, as well as inertial fusion. Strictly speaking, the FEL mechanism does not depend on relativistic effects. However, as we shall see, the latter are important for achieving very short wavelengths. The FEL is based on the interaction of a relativistic electron beam with a rippled magnetic field (called the wiggler magnetic field) [82]. In the beam frame, the latter looks like an electromagnetic pump wave, which under proper conditions, can cause parametric interaction with the beam mode and generate daughter electromagnetic waves. The interaction occurs because the nonlinear Lorentz force v~ X Br (v~ is the electron wiggler velocity and Br is the strength of the radiation magnetic field) can reinforce a space charge or density beam mode. The latter bunches the relativistic beam electrons by decelerating some and accelerating the others. If the axial V0 of the beam electrons is slightly larger than the phase velocity of the beam mode, the average energy of the electrons decreases and the radiation field is amplified [82]. For the bunched streaming electrons, synchronism requires that the radiation frequency satisfy the relation k,~V~/(1V~/c), (7.1) which follows from to0 = k0c, where k0 is determined by equating the phase velocity Vph = to0/(k0 + of the beam mode with the electron axial velocity V0. Here, k~is the wiggler wavenumber in the 2, laboratory frame. For highly relativistic electrons, the radiation wavelength A~ is approximately A~I2y where ~ (1 V~/c2)~2 and A~ is the wiggler wavelength. By varying the energy of the electron beam
=

or the wiggler wavelength, one can produce short-wavelength (A~ -~ A~) tunable coherent electromagnetic radiation. Experiments [211]have demonstrated the feasibility of the FEL, but the conversion efficiency is rather low. There have been several suggestions [83,212] to increase operating FEL efficiencies. By decreasing the wiggler wavelength one can decrease gradually the phase velocity of the beam mode which is approximately c(1 Ar/Aw). In this approach, the beam electrons remain trapped and lose a large fraction of their kinetic energy to the radiation field. An alternative approach to efficiency enhancement is to superimpose a longitudinal magnetic field [83, 213] on the wiggler. Due to the resonance effects, the gain of the FEL may be enhanced. In the following, we present a brief derivation of the gain of a FEL in the presence of a guide magnetic field [213]. We first derive the appropriate dispersion relation for the Raman and Compton processes in the beam frame. Since the gain is maximum for backscattering, we consider a one-dimensional model. The maximum growth rates are calculated. Transforming back to the laboratory frame, one then obtains the gain of the FEL may be enhanced. In the following, we present a brief derivation of the gain of a FEL in the presence of a guide magnetic field [213].
E = 2E 0[1 cos(k0z
to0t) 9
sin(k0z
to0t)],
(7.2)
where the guide magnetic field is B0~, and k0

=
yk~,
to~=
yV~k~,
(7.3)
The upper and lower signs in eq. (7.2) denote the right- and left-hand polarizations, respectively. We shall consider the interaction of the pump with the plasma waves and quasi-modes of frequency to and
132
wavenumber k. The sidebands are

to=toto 0,
(7.4)
k+=kk0. The wave equation for the sidebands, namely, 2k~ 1 c2k~k~ to ~ E~ = 4ITe ito.~n (c 1v0.,.,

(7.5)
(7.6)
contains a nonlinear current resulting from the beating of the pump with the beam or quasi-modes. Here, v0~is the electron quiver velocity in the pump,
=
i[eEo/meo(too ~ 12)] x (1 ij) exp(to0t ~ ik0z),
(7.7)
where 12 = eBo/meoc is the electron-cyclotron frequencyassociated with the guide magnetic field, n1 is the driven density perturbation, and 1
=
~
w~I(w~. (22)

~1~2to~e/[to(to~
(22)] ~ (22)
~~QW~e/[to(to~
(22)1
).
(7.8)
We have used a right-hand circularly polarized pump wave, anticipating that the electron-cyclotron resonance can increase the gain of the laser. The density perturbations n1 can be calculated from the low-frequency Vlasov equation (v
to/k)f + (e/meo)(4
i/i)~f0/v= 0,
(7.9)
where f0 is the equilibrium velocity distribution. The ponderomotive potential ~s, due to the beating of the pump and the sidebands, originates from the v X B force l/J=(i/ck)(v0~xB+ v.1. xB0)+[+**], (7.10)
where the angular brackets (...) denote averaging over the high-frequency oscillations. From eq. (2.3), we have to0~~B01_ = ck0_.. x E0~~ . The particle velocity in the wave is e
2
V~= meo(to
(7.11)
(22)
/-itoE~ ~ 12E 1+
-u2E~\ iE~+)
(7.12)
Integrating eq. (7.9) over the velocity space one finds

2Xe(o~ 4ITen1
=
~fr),
(7.13)
133
where
=
to~
dV
(of0/a~)
(7.14)
Xe
k J
Vto/k
Using the Poisson equation 2~ =4ITen k 1, we get from eq. (7.13) the density perturbation 2XeclF/4ITe(1 + XeL n1 = k Combining eq. (7.6) with eq. (7.14), we obtain the dispersion relation 1+A~q~D~+AqDI=0, where A~= kV~to~to+Xe/(to
(7.15)
(7.16)
(7.17)
0 u2)(1 + Xe),
q~ = k~[to,(to0 f2)] + k0[to0(to~
and 2k2.,. D~ = c with

to~e=
to~+
to~eto/(to ~
12),
4irne2lmeo and
v 0
=
eEoImeo too.
Assuming that the anti-Stokes component is off-resonant (D~ 0), while the Stokes component is resonant (D ~as0),we obtain from eq. (7.17) (1
+
Xe)D_ = V~kXeto~[k_ (toe
12) + k0to/to0(to
+ Q)]/(to~
12).
(7.18)
Note that since the pump is right circularly polarized, the Stokes, or backscattered wave (to_ to0, k = k k0 k0), is left circularly polarized. Let us first analyze eq. (7.18) for the Raman process. In this case, to/k ~- Vte~and for a Maxwellian electron distribution function, eq. (7.14) becomes
2.
(7.19)
=
Xe = ~to~e/to Taylor expanding
Xe and D_ around
0 and D
0, respectively, we obtain
(7.20) (7.21)
D ~iFRD_/to_
134
P.K. Shuk!a et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas
where TR is the growth rate, and DJto.. =2to~ + 1~2to~e/(too (2)2
(7.22)
(7.23)
/to =2to~e/to3.
Combining eqs. (7.18), (7.20) and (7.21), we obtain after neglecting the nonlinear frequency shift kV F2 R 4A where A
=
22
toto
(to~_Q)2~
724
f2to~e/2to 0(to0
(2)2
(7.25)
2,
we have a reactive quasi-mode as the scatterer. For this
When to~tope~ e~E~0, and(7.18) vo/c>(tope/too) case, one finds from eqs. and (7.19)
to 3
=
222
Votopetoo/2to 0(to0
[2)A.
(7.26)
The growth rate is

=
~
2k2to~etoo/2A(too 12)2]13(v 23 . [c 0/c)
(7.27)
For the Compton regime, we have

Xe
=
to
kVte~and
~(1/k2/k~e)Z(to/kVth),
(7.28)
where ADe = U,e/tope is the electron Debye length, and Z is plasma dispersion function. On using eq. (7.20), we get from eq. (7.18) the growth rate for the Compton regime:
22 kVto
= 2 Im Xe 2(to~-12)A
(7.29)
Since
2 1/2 2
Im Xelmax
T%_ (~)
0.76
-9_
(7.30)
the maximum growth rate is
04 (v)2
A
~
to0to~e 2
(7.31)
(to~u2)
The gain (that is, the growth rate in the laboratory frame) can be readily obtained by means of the
135
following Lorentz transformations [214]:
E0
yBL,
to~e =
to~0Iy,
F/2y,
(7.32)
k = 2yk~,
(7.33)
where BL and k~ are the magnetic field and wavenumber of the wiggler magnetic field (in the laboratory frame). It is easy to show that ck
R
to
toy
________
1/2
4AL
C
~2
(k/(2
734
1)2
where AL = 1+ and
to,~=
1?
2k~(k
to
(2/)3~
(7.35)
eBLImeoc.
For a left-hand circularly polarized wiggler, we have

R pL
~to~(to~o/ck~)2i[34 for fj~(to~/212)(to~0ck~y
2)2 for ck~y/12 ck~y/[2 1, ~4 1.
(7.36) (7.37)
For the reactive mode operation, the gain is

1
2c k
22
to
2 0to 11/3
4y
LAL(kWc
p C 12/11)2
(738)
For the Compton regime, the gain is

FL

0.19 YAL
(to~~2 1 (1ck~yI(2) ck~ ~Q! k~A~
. 7 39
For comparing the gains of the Raman and the Compton processes, we should remember that they occur in different wavenumber and frequency regimes. Taking the maximum values in both cases, we find the relation
=
~
pO
(7.40)
and taking the parameters of the microtron, y = 100, z~y/y = i0~, k~ =
Assuming F~
2IT/4.6cm,
p0 = 1010
s~,the right-hand side of eq. (7.40) becomes of the order
102.
136
At present, the guide magnetic field is mainly used to help focusing the beam. It can also have adverse effects. For example, too strong a field can prevent scaling the FEL to submillimeter wavelengths. Furthermore, the resonance of individual particles at k~v11 12/y, where is the parallel particle velocity, can significantly reduce the beam quality and strength, and introduce instabilities such as the cyclotron maser instability. Recent experiments [215,216] confirmed the above prediction, and showed that moderately efficient FEL amplifiers can produce millimeter pulses with peak power of about 108 W. 7.2. Cyclotron resonance masers [200210] The cyclotron maser mechanism, discovered in the late 1950s, depends on the relativistic mass dependence of the electron gyrofrequency. This relativistic effect leads to phase bunching in the electron-cyclotron motion, and consequently, the maser instability arises. Devices based on this mechanism are referred to as gyrotrons. The latter are far more developed than the FEL and are amongst the most efficient devices for generating coherent high-power radiation at centimeter and millimeter wavelengths. Gyrotrons are currently employed, among other applications, for supplementary heating of tokomak plasmas. Let us now briefly discuss the physics of the cyclotron maser instability. Consider an ensemble of mono-energetic relativistic electrons streaming along and gyrating about an external magnetic field B0~. Initially, the phases of the electrons in their cyclotron orbits are random, so no coherent radiation will be emitted. This situation can, however, be improved by imposing an electromagnetic field E = E09 cos to0t from a cavity or waveguide mode when the frequency too is near one of the cutoff frequencies of the structure. The electrons would now behave as individual oscillators in the cavity mode, gyrating about B0~ with a frequency (2~ = (2~~ where y is the relativistic factor. Phase bunching can occur because of the dependence of the electron gyrofrequency on the relativistic electron mass. Those electrons that are accelerated in the wave electric field become heavier, rotate slower, and accumulate phase lag, while those electrons that are decelerated become lighter, rotate faster, and hence accumulate phase lead. This will result in phase bunching of the electrons such that they radiate coherently. In fact, in the cyclotron maser mechanism, only the perpendicular kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to radiation, the parallel energy remains unaffected. To analyze the maser instability, we consider the propagation of field aligned right-hand circularly polarized electron-cyclotron waves in a tenuous electron gas (such as in gyrotrons) consisting of cold
electron streams having a distribution function [204]
f~(i1p5)
(2ITp1)8(p1 p0)6(p5p20). 2
to~
k5V50
(7.41)
The relevant relativistic dispersion relation for the maser instability is [204]
2
k2 2 5c =
~p0
~
F
~11
k2V50 kZVZI)
/3~
(lC
k~c
1
(7.42)
(w~
(2)2]
2, V~ 3io =po/ymeoc, p where -y~ = 1 + (p~ +p~11)/m~0c 0=pzo/ymeo, / 10 is a constant, p1 and ~ are the transverse (to B01) and the axial momenta, respectively, and k~ is the wavenumber along B0~. Note that since ~ 12~the ions form a neutralizing background in the cavity. For k5 = 0, eq. (7.42) is solved to give
P.K.
137
to~ = 11C +
i/310w~0/(2y)2,
(7.43)
where the first term on the right-hand side of eq. (7.42) has been neglected under the assumption
Po12eo/(211)2 ~ to~,
0. Thus,
the maser real frequency is Il~~ whereas the growth rate is (7.44)
to1
Piotopo//(2Y)h12,
which is independent of both the frequency 12~and the magnetic field. On the other hand, assuming that the doppler-shifted frequency to k5t50 remains finite as k2 (short-wavelength limit), we obtain from eq. (7.42)
k5,.o5o
+ ito1.
(7.45)
Equation (7.45) shows that the axial drift of a relativistic electron beam can lead to significant frequency up-shifts while the growth rate remains the same as eq. (7.44). This mechanism suggests a novel means for the development of intense far-infrared gyrotrons. Finally, it is important to note that a finite energy spread of the beam will reduce the wave growth rate at the higher frequencies. 7.3. Particle acceleration by electromagnetic waves [217220] Collective acceleration of particles to high energies by intense fields is a topic of growing interest in recent years [217220]. In the past, the electromagnetic energy from the laser was used to accelerate charged particles. Interaction of relativistic particles with free electromagnetic waves in the presence of an external magnetic field was considered by Palmer [220]. It has been found that an An electron is 4 W. example accelerated to 10 GeV, has using a circularly polarized electromagnetic intensity iO of a laser accelerator been given by Colson and Ride [219]. waves These of authors analytically solved the relativistic equations of motion, d 1(y~) =
e
meoc
[E+ ~3x (B0z
B)],
(7.46)
(7.47)
d~y=--13~E,
for an electron in a static, uniform magnetic field B0z~,and a superimposed circularly polarizedplane wave of constant amplitude. Here, E=E0[Icos49sin4], E0[1 sin q~ + 9 cos 4], 2 are the particle velocity and energy, respectively, and ~_2 = 1 j3 where ~cpolarized and ymeoc circularly waves travel in the z-direction with frequency, to = kc, and phase ~ = kz It is easy to show that eqs. (7.46) and (7.47) have two constants of motion, namely,
B
=
(7.48) (7.49) . ~3. The

tot +
(7.50)
138
y(i
=
/3,
sin o),
(7.51)
2 and cf3 eEo/yomeoc, y0m~Oc 50 are the electrons initial energy and z velocity. We have defined f~ E = /31E0 cos 0. Equation (7.50) shows that if the energy increases, f3~ increases, and the transverse velocity where ~to
(1
/3
50)to,
E =
f3~ = (2~y
~2
1)/112
(7.52)
decreases. The pitch angle of an accelerating particle decreases as it moves through the interaction region. If B0 is chosen such that z~to = 0, then, in the limit of large energies the asymptotic form for y as a function of y can be derived from eqs. (7.47), and (7.50) to (7.52). One finds [219] 2)(A/2rr)2(eBolmeoc2)z23 , (7.53) 11 (eEo/meoc where A is the laser wavelength. The physical mechanism of the acceleration is that the external magnetic field guides the electron through a helical trajectory, and thereby generating a coupling between the rotating field E of the radiation and the particle, leading to efficient energy transfer. If the particle and the laser field rotate in a synchronized manner, then due to the resonant interaction, half of the electrons in a mono-energetic beam are decelerated, and the other half are accelerated. Those particles that begin to accelerate will continue to do so, and can reach high energies over short distances. 7.4. Beat-wave accelerator [84, 221] The laser beat-wave accelerator concept, put forward by Tajima and Dawson [84], is a collective electron acceleration scheme which utilizes a large amplitude plasma wave generated by the nonlinear coupling of two intense laser beams or by the forward Raman scattering of a single incident laser beam. The ponderomotive force creates high phase velocity (vPh = to~ 2)for ~ 0/k~in Vg anc(1 to~0/2to where Vg is the group velocity of the laser) electrostatic oscillations underdense plasma so that VPh ~ c. The electrons can be trapped in the electrostatic potential, and can gain a large amount of energy as they are accelerated forward. Clearly, an upper limit of the energy gain is reached when the particle starts to overtake the wave. This limit can be overcome by introducing a perpendicular guide magnetic field. This idea, named the Surfatron (not to be confused with a plasma device of the same name [222]) was introduced by Katsouleas and Dawson [223]. Here, due to the perpendicular magnetic field, the particles are deflected across the wavefront and are thereby prevented from outrunning the wave. Arbitrarily large energy gain is theoretically possible as the particles ride across the wavefronts, like surfers cutting across the face of an ocean wave. Katsouleas and Dawson [223] also incorporated relativistic effects when the strength of the wave electric field is larger than the external magnetic field and when VPh S c. In a magnetized plasma, the ordinary mode radiation can parametrically drive the electrostatic upper-hybrid oscillations with
~
2Ik c(1 w~~/2to~) ~ c. f2~)) The dynamics of a single relativistic electron in a plane perpendicular to the upper-hybrid wave electric
Vph = (to~
0+
P.K.
139
field E
1E0 sin(kx
=
tot)
and an external magnetic field B0i is governed by
(eEo/meo) sin(kx
tot)
Qeo1~y
(7.54)
= 12eOLlx,
(7.55)
y
where V1 and V~are velocities in the x and

2 V~/c2)
.
directions, and (7.56)
(1
V~/c
An electron initially trapped can never de-trap if y~B 0 < E0,
(7.57)
2)2.Thus, for the lowest-order motion, one may take v~ = v~, and from eqs. where = (1 V~Ic (7.55) and (7.56), obtain
V~ = Vp(2~ot/Yp(l+ VpfleOt
2 2 2
Ic
2 1/2
(7.58)
for acceleration across the wavefront. The exact velocity space trajectories can be obtained from the numerical solutions of eqs. (7.54) and (7.55). It turns out that the total velocity of the particle asymptotically approaches the light speed as predicted by eq. (7.58). The total energy as a function of distance traversed across the wavefront can be calculated by integrating eq. (7.58) and eliminating in favour of y in eq. (7.56). The result is
t
+ y~. 2 0V~/c The corresponding energy gain in the direction of the wave is
=
y(y)
y~y12~
(7.59)
y~(l + (2~ 2/c2)2 (7.60) 0x It follows from the last two expressions that a high phase velocity wave is preferred for the rapid acceleration of particles. The change in y per unit distance is
=
.
y(x)
to01l~0/top0~
to~u2~ 0/to~0c, (7.61)
12eot ~ 1 have been used. The rate of energy gain is obtained by multiplying eq. where V~ = to~/w~ and (7.61) by the rest energy, meoc2. Katsouleas and Dawson found that short laser pulses (say, A 0.3 rim) with incident laser power 5 x 1016 W/cm2 require shorter lengths (zXx 5 m, ~y 0.5 m) for the Surfatron accelerator with B 3. = 6 iO G and the electron number - 1020 For cm example, the However, the realizability0 of a XSurfatron accelerator depends on density several n0 factors. scheme requires a fine tuning between the electron plasma frequency and the beat-wave frequency of the laser in order that the laser induced plasma wave grows linearly. Thus, very high-power lasers could be
~
140
required to shorten the time of growth. In addition, in order to avoid the effect of parametric instabilities, the laser energy must be delivered in a pulse shorter than 10 ps. Finally, synchrotron radiation could remain minimal because a nonsynchronous particle will move by radiation damping to a synchronous position; thereby one can eliminate the phase error from the finite phase spread of the beam particles, as well as fluctuations in the beat-wave phase and amplitude [224227]. 7.5. Interaction of bunched electron beam with a plasma [228] Recently, Chen et al. [228] presented a new scheme for accelerating electrons. The idea is to inject a sequence of bunched high-energy (relativistic) electrons into a cold plasma. Because of the two-stream instability, a wake plasma wave is excited. If a late-coming electron bunch rides on the wave at a proper phase, it will be boosted to a higher energy by the electric field of the wave. A simple analyticaltreatment shows that the energy gradient attainable for each electron in the driven bunch is ~=4n6e2to~0/V~
tb is
(7.62)
~
the velocity of the beam electrons, and to~, where n6 is the number of particles in the beam, 0is the 3, n~ = 2.5 X 1010 cm3, and Vb/toPo 1 cm, one finds electron plasma frequency. For n0 = iO cm 2.4 GeV/m. Note that this estimate does not include nonlinear plasma effects (such as described in section 3.1) and also the self-consistent effects that act to slow down the driving bunches. The present theory also assumes that the electric field does not approach the cold plasma wave-breaking amplitude, and that the electric energy is small compared with the free energy of the driving bunches. The former condition puts a restriction on the maximum allowed energy gradient, whereas the latter limits the effective acceleration length.
8. Conclusions
The problem of interaction of electromagnetic waves with plasmas is of interest in many branches of physics and engineering. Although the linear wave propagation, mode conversion, collisional absorption, as well as the resulting plasma hydrodynamics are fairly well understood [93], the nonlinear behaviour is not yet fully investigated. For finite amplitude waves, the coupling of the radiation fields with nonthermal fluctuations in plasmas can become substantial. In this review, we have discussed the current status of some of the important relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas. Our work can be considered as complementary to ref. [229], which deals with nonrelativistic nonlinear effects in unmagnetized plasmas. Bobin [229] reviewed ponderomotive effects, wavewave couplings, and harmonic generation, with special emphasis on high intensity laserplasma interaction. Since the electron quiver velocity is controlled by the well-known IA2 scaling, short and weak laser pulses can behave nonrelativistically. However, for long and superstrong laser pulses, the electron motion becomes relativistic. One must then include such effects as the electron mass modulation and the relativistic ponderomotive effects. We have also covered several other nonlinear phenomena which may have relevance to many branches of physics. Specifically, we have emphasized the importance of the nonlinearity associated with the relativistic electron-mass variation in strong electrostatic and electromagnetic waves in unmagnetized and magnetized plasmas. As has been documented throughout this review, the relativistic effects could have
141
profound influence on the parametric interaction, soliton formation, profile modification, self-focusing, magnetic field generation, and other phenomena. In the ultra-relativistic situation, one encounters new electromagnetic waves which are absent in the nonrelativistic limit. The linear and nonlinear propagation and absorption characteristics of these new waves are entirely different from the usual waves. It has been pointed out that the combined effects of electron-mass variation and ponderomotive force nonlinearities can also lead to new phenomena such as supersonic envelope solitons, which do not exist when only the radiation pressure related nonlinear terms are retained. For circularly polarized electromagnetic waves, we have presented the exact relativistic ponderomotive force valid for arbitrary field intensities in a magnetoplasma. The nonlinear structures discussed here can find applications in laserpellet interactions where self-generated d.c. magnetic fields of the order of a few mega-Gauss have been observed. For example, for a CO2 laser at 10.6 p~mand B0 = 10MG, we find a 1.0. For a left-hand circularly polarized 2, wave p = 2, the power associated with the localized solutions is of the order of i~~ W/cm whichwith is within the reach of flux present-day laser technology. The present review presents some of the problems and difficulties in the understanding of the complex interaction of strong electromagnetic and electrostatic waves with astrophysical and inertial-confined fusion plasmas, as well as the heating of magnetically confined tokamak devices by powerful wave sources. It also provides a brief discussion of some of the most recent ideas on beat-wave particle accelerators, which puts heavy emphasis on relativistic effects. This work can by no means be considered complete. Many topics require further investigation. These may include parametric interaction and soliton dynamics in an inhomogeneous medium, inclusion of the heating nonlinearities, and particle acceleration in the large amplitude localized wave packets. Furthermore, the problem of modification of particle distribution function in the presence of relativistic nonlinear waves is yet to be considered. The multidimensional structure of superstrong electrostatic and electromagnetic waves in magnetized plasmas is also worth studying. We hope that the present work clarifies certain aspects on the nonlinear relativistic interaction of waves with plasmas, and shall motivate further investigation in this area. Finally, we note that there are many other important topics involving the nonlinear motion of charged particles not included in this report. For example, there has been significant progress in the research of the generation and stability of relativistic electron beams [230233],relativistic electronpositron bremsstrahlung in crystals [2342361, as well as other particle acceleration schemes [237239]. These problems have been discussed in detail in the review articles given in the reference.
Acknowledgements It is a pleasure to thank D. Anderson, U. de Angelis, J.F. Drake, Y.C. Lee, M. Lisak, U.A. Mofiz, K. Nishikawa, L. Stenflo, D.D. Tskhakaya, R.K. Varma, T. Watanabe and H. Wilhelmsson for their valuable collaboration in the past. The benefit of useful discussions with J.M. Dawson, K. Elssser, A. Hasegawa, C.S. Liu, and H. Schamel is gratefully acknowledged. One of the authors (N.N.R.) is grateful to the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Federal Republic of Germany, for the award of a Research Fellowship and also for its encouragement and constant support during the writing of this Report. He would like to thank Professor G. Ecker for warm hospitality at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, Ruhr University, Bochum. This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through the Sonderforschungsbereich Plasmaphysik Bochum/Jlich, as well as by the Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt fr Luft- und Raumfahrt Indian Space Research Organization Exchange Program.
142
P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas
Appendices Appendix A In this appendix, we obtain the nonlinear Schrdinger equation (3.49) by an alternative method. This procedure starts directly from the nonlinear dispersion relation (eq. (3.47)), which we abbreviate as D(to, k; 1E12)E
=
0.
(A.!)
For the modulated amplitude varying slowly in space and time, one can use a Taylor expansion by letting to* to + ic9~and k* k iV in (A.1). For both weak nonlinearity and weak dispersion, (A.1) becomes [16]
D(to or
i9~, k
iV; IEI2)E
0,
~l2
(i~ 1_i~.V_~
~:V2+
E12)E0,
(A.2)
where we have omitted the cross derivative terms. Dividing (A.2) by clD/ato, we get an equation which describes the nonlinear evolution of the envelope in one-dimensional form, i.e., 2 ~k2 ~ i~E+~~~2E_ ~
2E=0 E~
(A.3)
where ~ = z V 2 is the nonlinear frequency shift caused 9t, Vg ~to/9k is the group field. velocity, and ato/~lEl by self-modulation of= the high-frequency The nonlinear frequency shift can readily be calculated from the dispersion relation (3.47). Introducing the frequency mismatch
2 6=to(to~ 2 2 1/2
0+ck) into (3.47) with 64to~0,ck, one obtains

=
A.4
(A.5)
~6/olEI
2I~
1.
(A.6)
We then obtain from (A.6) 2lto3m~ , 2 (A.7) 0qe 0c where q is defined in section 3. Combining eqs. (A.3) and (A.7) we arrive at eq. (3.49). Equation (A.7)
oto/9IEl
2=
~to~
143
shows a downshift of the frequency partially due to the relativistic effects. The reason is that an increase of the electron mass with increasing field intensity is reflected in a decrease of the electron plasma frequency, leading to a downshift in to. Appendix B The first four coefficients b0, b1, b2, and b3 in eq. (3.129) are given as follows: The coefficient b0 is zero by virtue of2[13(M2 the localized conditions whereas the remaining are given by 1)boundary 4M2(1 + A)], b, =2f3 b 2 = F2/F, , b3 = F4/F3, (B.1) (B.2)
where the following notations are introduced: 2M2(1 + A) + ~f34b, + 6/3~(1 M2), F, = 12/3 F 4b~+ ~/33b 2[M2(M2 1) + ~f3b~(1+ ~3) 2f3b 2] 2 = ~/3 1(y~3) + 2pM 1M 4/3M4(y 6(1 + A), 1 1) + 8M F 2M2(1 + A)b 4b~+ 9/33h 2 1), 3 = 4/3 1 5f3 1(M F 2b 2(1 M2 + b 3[~/3b~(4b,b 4 = 16I3M 2[/3(1 + A)b2 + ~{M 1f3) /3 2 b~) 2[16f3(1 + A)b~ + b~(y,y2 + ~ ~)+ 6b,b2(112 + ~ ~)+ 12(y, 1)b~] 2f3M + 4b 2(M2 1) 2f3M2b 2b 2{M 1+ ~13b~(1 + f3)}] 2f3M 1[f3b,{~b2(1 + /3) +~b~(3/3 1) 2(1+ /3) + + ~b~/32} /3b 2 ~b,(1 + f3)} M2 + ~/3(4b ~b1M 2{M 1b2 b~) 2 ~f3b 6 kb~f33 ~M4b,/3 + ~M2b~/32)] + ~f3(M 1)(b~ 4b2) + ~(M + 4/3M4[b 6[b 2 ~b,(1 + /3)} + 2b 1(y2 + fl + 3b2(y, 1)] 8M 1{M 2(1 + A)], 2~f3b y1=M 1, y2=~f3(b~4f32),
~/3b~(1 + /3)}]
~$(24b3 + 12b,b2
3b~),
2,
and, A = 4(26
=
1) +
(2cM
Vg) +
(2cM
Vg)
2koc2/to~oADe.
Appendix C The first two coefficients a 1 and a2 in eq. (5.11) are given by a,=2qIf3, a2
=
(C.1) (C.2)
F2IF,
144
where Fi7f3Nn+613N(1_ F2=_N(1+ ~ and ~=1

~ ~ ~
1+
(2f3N131).
Similarly, all the higher-order coefficients can be easily calculated explicitly. References
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RELATIVISTIC NONLINEAR EFFECTS IN PLASMAS

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Elsevier Science Publishers B .V. (North-Holland Physics Publishing Division)

P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas Abstract:

P.K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

(1.4) 0 can propagate

Thus, waves in the frequency range

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a modulated wave packet.

P. K. Shukia et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

(2.4) (2.5) (2.6)

B=VxA, E=~.d~AV~. We shall use throughout the Lorentz gauge condition,

P. K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P.K. Shukla et a!.. Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

P. K. Shukia et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasrnas

(2ito0t~~ + 6ik0v~9~ + 3v~9~)E + ~ w~0~u~E = 0,

P.K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

where the amplitude a0 is given by the relation

w0lto~0.The instability of the unperturbed solution (3.12) against low-frequency, long-

wavelength perturbation can be studied by letting u =(a0+ a1)exp[i~ +i(w~0 w0)t],

P.K. Shuk!a et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

0 2.Finally, assuming that requiring that W~ ~(Kc/wpo)(meo/mj)~ Im (1 \/~Kvte(WemeoImj)4 for W 1 meolmj

~topoK2A~eao, one gets (3.18)

~,j 50\~ KVte.

Thus, the present relativistic instability occurs at long wavelength k 0 ADC

(meol m1 ~1/ 2 and for (3.21)

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

E*o~E)+ n~u] dx,

Mt, and M is the Mach number. Then, eq. (3.13) gives

1). Multiplying eq. (3.30) by d~G and

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

(3.33) the nonlinear frequency shift A are given by (3.34)

obtains two equations, one of them is a purely transverse component,

{~1[(a~E~)(1v0Ic ) 2)312] + [c1~ + w~~(1v~ Ic

v0Ic )E~} {c9~[(~~E~)(1 v~Ic2)~2] + w~

P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in p!asmas

(3.38) 0 x B) f, (3.39) (3.40)

P.K. Shukla et al., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

The velocity v0 of an electron in the wave field is v0 =

eE x sin q~. meowo

in the velocity v 0, where (3.44)

sin 3q. In the harmonic

P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

we obtain from eq. (3.50)

0c Linearizing in the form

(3.54) (3.55) with p 1, o~ exp(iK~ iQt) we obtain the determinant

-ill 2 w~0qe 4w 0m~0c

It follows that the modulation is unstable if

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

(3.58) w~,0. The maximum

2/m~ (w~0qe 0w~c

P. K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

and 6~2~ is the electron

n e~0)0t]e~0t+ . .. 2~ e21~b0t + A~2~ e_2~~~~0t] eIwot

P.K. Shukla et a!., Relativistic nonlinear effects in plasmas

the maximum growth rate

(3.74) k0c k 2 0JEJ 0, v~ = dvgIk0,

2 = e2JEJ2Im~ where V 0w~, vg = to0Iilk0 ponderomotive force given by F~ = 4meowo 2 2 o2JE1