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The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the activity of large numbers (populations) of neurons. First recorded by Hans Berger in 1929. EEG recordings are noninvasive, painless, do not interfere much with a human subjects ability to move or perceive stimuli, are relatively low-cost. Electrodes measure voltage-differences at the scalp in the microvolt (V) range. Voltage-traces are recorded with millisecond resolution great advantage over brain imaging (fMRI or PET).
EEG
Standard placements of electrodes on the human scalp: A, auricle; C, central; F, frontal; Fp, frontal pole; O, occipital; P, parietal; T, temporal.
EEG
EEG
EEG
Many neurons need to sum their activity in order to be detected by EEG electrodes. The timing of their activity is crucial. Synchronized neural activity produces larger signals.
The Electroencephalogram
A simple circuit to generate rhythmic activity
The Electroencephalogram
Two ways of generating synchronicity: a) pacemaker; b) mutual coordination
EEG
EEG potentials are good indicators of global brain state. They often display rhythmic patterns at characteristic frequencies
EEG
EEG suffers from poor current source localization and the inverse problem
EEG
EEG rhythms correlate with patterns of behavior (level of attentiveness, sleeping, waking, seizures, coma). Rhythms occur in distinct frequency ranges:
Gamma:
Beta: Alpha: Theta:
Delta:
Higher frequencies: active processing, relatively de-synchronized activity (alert wakefulness, dream sleep). Lower frequencies: strongly synchronized activity (nondreaming sleep, coma).
EEG
Power spectrum:
EEG - ERP
ERPs are obtained after averaging EEG signals obtained over multiple trials (trials are aligned by stimulus onset).
MEG
The MEG laboratory
MEG
Measures changes in magnetic fields that accompany electrical activity.
MEG
An example (auditory task):
MEG
1 -- Listening to tones that were delivered with a delay of about 5s. A random time was added to prevent stimulus prediction. The signal is an average over about 80 stimulus presentations. 2 -- Reacting to acoustic stimuli. The same stimulus presentation as in (1) but now the subject was told to press on an air cushion as soon as possible after the tone was heard. 3 -- Synchronizing with a rhythm. Here the tones were presented regularly with a frequency of 1 Hz. The subject was told to press the air cushion in synchrony with the stimulus.
PET
Positron Emission Tomography
Requires the injection of a positron-emitting radioactive isotope (tracer) Examples: C-11 Glucose analogs (metabolism) O-15 water (blood flow or volume) C-11 or O-15 carbon monoxide PET tracers must have short half-life, e.g. C-11 (20 min.), O-15 (2 min.). Cyclotron! Positron + electron 2 gamma ray beams. Gamma radiation is detected by ring of detectors, source is plotted in 2-D producing an image slice.
Sensing Techniques-PET
Radioactive element decays, gives off positron Positron moves a short distance and gives off two gamma rays in opposite directions
Sensing Techniques-PET
PET Scans
Eyes Closed
White Light
Complex Scene
PET Scans
Episodic Task
Semantic Task
Difference
PET Scans
PET
PET - Examples
In cognitive studies, a subtraction paradigm is often used.
PET - Examples
Another example of control and task states, and of averaging over subjects:
Marc Raichle
PET - Examples
(a) Passive viewing of nouns; (b) Hearing of nouns; (c ) Spoken nouns minus viewed or heard nouns; (d) Generating verbs.
M. Raichle
PET - Examples
M. Raichle
PET - Examples
PET images taken at different times, e.g. during learning, can be compared.
M. Raichle
PET - Examples
PET images are pretty to look at ...
MRI - fMRI
The Physics (sort of) ...
Subjects are placed in a strong external magnetic field. Spin axes of nuclei orient within the field. External RF pulse is applied. Spin axes reorient, then relax. During relaxation time, nuclei send out pulses, which differ depending on the microenvironment (e.g. water/fat ratio).
Sensing Techniques-fMRI
Functional Magnetic Nuclear Resonance Imaging Similar to Pet, uses radio frequency information given off by water Gives better time (6 seconds) and spatial (2 mm) resolution than Pet or Cat scans Technology still under revision Slight danger to subjects Expensive ($300 an hour)
fMRI Method
MRI Scans
MRI Scans
fMRI - Examples
Summary
Appropriate technology depends on question ERP has good temporal resolution CAT, Pet, MRI have good to fair spatial resolution, only PET has any functional capture fMRI has reasonably good spatial, reasonably good temporal, but is expensive