existentialism Dictionary.

com defines existentialism theory as A philosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the individual experience in a hostile or indifferent universe, regards human existence as unexplainable, and stresses freedom of choice and responsibility for the consequences of one's acts. 1 Existentialism is generally an atheistic philosophy though some theists have attempted to adopt it into their individual theistic paradigms. Although many, if not most, existentialists were atheists, [Sren] Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel pursued more theological versions of existentialism. The one-time Marxist Nikolai Berdyaev developed a philosophy of Christian existentialism in his native Russia and later France during the decades preceding World War II. 2 Existentialism, for most of its adherents, can be understood as atheistic. In order to see this, it helps to look at the philosophy of existentialism as it contrasts with that of theism. Theists generally believe in an ultimate transcendent reality. Existentialists believe each persons experience is unique and truly known only by that person. In other words, theists point to an objective reality, while existentialists see only a subjective one. Theists emphasize interpersonal relationships (between a person and God, a believer and other believers, a believer and non-believers, etc). Existentialists emphasize the isolation of the individual experience in a hostile or indifferent universe. Theists believe that humans are created by God and are given a purpose by that Maker. Existentialists regard human existence as ultimately unexplainable. Theists and existentialists generally agree on freedom of choice and responsibility for the consequences of one's acts. But they differ significantly in that theists hold to an absolute moral standard, while existentialists believe in moral relativism.

Existential" redirects here. For the logical sense of the term see Existential quantification. For other uses see Existence (disambiguation). Existentialism is the philosophical and cultural movement which holds that the starting point of philosophical thinking must be the experiences of the individual. Moral and scientific thinking together do not suffice to understand human existence, so a further set of categories, governed by a norm[clarification needed] of "authenticity", is necessary to understand human existence.[1][2][3] ("Authenticity", in the context of existentialism, is being true to one's own personality, spirit or character.[4]) Existentialism began in the mid-19th century as a reaction against the then-dominant systematic philosophies, such as those developed by Hegel and Kant. Sren Kierkegaard, generally considered to be the first existentialist philosopher,[3][5][6] posited that it is the individual who is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and for living life passionately and sincerely ("authentically").[7][8] Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II and influenced a range of disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature and psychology.[9]

Existentialists generally regard traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[10][11] Scholars generally consider the views of existentialist philosophers to be profoundly different from one another relative to those of other philosophies.[3][12][13] Criticisms of existentialist philosophers include the assertions that they confuse their use of terminology and contradict themselves.[14][15][16]

Subaltern (postcolonialism)
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In the critical fields of post-colonialism, the term subaltern identifies and describes the person who is socially, politically, and geographically outside of the hegemonic power structure of the colony and of the colonial Mother Country. In describing history told from below, the term subaltern derived from the cultural hegemony work of Antonio Gramsci, which identified the social groups who are excluded from a societys established structures for political representation, the means by which people have a voice in their society. The usage and the application of the terms subaltern and subaltern studies entered the field of post-colonial studies through the works of the Subaltern Studies Group of South Asian historians who explored the political-actor role of the men and women who are the mass population rather than the political roles of the social and economic lites in the history of South Asia. In the 1970s, the application of subaltern began to denote the colonized peoples of the South Asian Subcontinent, and described a new perspective of the history of an imperial colony, told from the point of view of the colonized man and woman, rather than from the points of view of the colonizers; in which respect, Marxist historians already had been investigating colonial history told from the perspective of the proletariat. In the 1980s, the scope of enquiry of Subaltern Studies was applied as an intervention in South Asian historiography. Yet, as a method of intellectual discourse, the concept of the subaltern occasionally proved culturally problematic, because it remained a Eurocentric method of historical enquiry when studying the nonWestern peoples of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. From having originated as an historical-research model for studying the colonial experience of South Asian peoples, the applicability of the techniques of subaltern studies transformed a model of intellectual discourse into a method of vigorous post-colonial critique. The intellectual efficacy of the term Subaltern eased its adaptation and adoption to the methods of investigation in the fields of history, anthropology, sociology, human geography, and literature.[1]

Concept of Subaltern and Subaltern Studies

Dr. Abhishek Gopal* 'Subaltern' originally is a term for subordinates in military hierarchies which is elaborated in the work of Antonio Gramsci to refer to groups who are outside the established structure of political representation. Subaltern was first used in a nonmilitary sense by Marxist Antonio Gramsci. Some believe that he used the term as a synonyms for proletariat, possibly as a codeword in order to get his writings past prison censors, while others believe his usage to be more nuanced and less clear cut (Morton, Stephen). It has also been emphasised that the term "subaltern" is an allusion to the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1881-1937) which literally, refers to any person or group of inferior rank and station, whether because of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity or religion. The term 'subaltern' is used in post-colonial theory. The exact meaning of the term in current philosophical and critical usage is disputed. Some thinkers use it in a general sense to refer to marginalized groups and the lower classes a person rendered without agency by his or her social status (Young, Robert J.C., 2003). Others such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak use it in a more specific sense. She argues that 'subaltern' is not just a classy word for oppressed, for others, for somebody who's not getting a piece of the pie... In post-colonial terms, everything that has limited or no access to the cultural imperialism is Subaltern a space of difference. Now who would say that's just the oppressed? The working class is oppressed. It's not subaltern...Many people want to claim subalternity. They are the least interesting and the most dangerous. I mean, just by being a discriminated against a minority on the university campus, they don't need the word 'Subaltern...'. They should see what the mechanics of discrimination are. They are within the hegemonic discourse wanting a piece of the pie and not being allowed, so let them speak, use the hegemonic discourse. They should not call themselves subaltern (de Kock, Leon; 1992 : 2947).

Gayatri Spivak suggests that the subaltern is denied access to both mimetic and political forms of representation.

websites

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism#Definitional_issues http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/existentialism-theory-faq.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaltern_%28postcolonialism %29#Theory