Introduction to Geomechanics Applied to Open Pit By William Gibson

Introduction.sort of

Area x L x Grade x price = $$$$

Project has to be economical At the same time must be safe

Engineering design must balance both components

Nature of the Instability

Any excavation produce a redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field

Rock Mass Strength

Geometric Components to Deliver

Bench height Bench face angle SBW Geotechnical berm or ramp

Bench Stack

Overall Slope Height

BSA

Pit Floor Pit

Floor

IRA

Strength Assessment
Rock Mass Strength Joint Strength

Small and Large Scale Failures

Mode of Failure

Scale Define the Rock Strength and Mode of Failure

Strength defined by Failure Envelope

Rock Mass Strength

Concrete, Steel, Soil Laboratory Tests Rock Mass Classification Rock Mass Laboratory Tests

Material Strength

Rock Mass Strength

Linear Failure Envelope

= c + n tan
2c cos 1 + sin 1 = + 3 1 sin 1 sin

Non Linear Failure Envelope

3 1 = 3 + c mb + s c
a

RQD Rock Quality Designation

Q system

Rock Mass Classification RMR

Non Linear Failure Envelope

3 1 = 3 + c mb + s c
a

Rock Mass Strength

Alternative Method to Assess Rock Mass Strength

Joint Strength

Half of the Job done

Any excavation produce a redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field

Rock Mass Strength

Stress Analysis
Assessment of the Stability (Equilibrium)

Numerical Models

The models are function of the mode of failure analyzed (difficult to have a model that considers all the potential mode of failures) Failure through joints are different than failure through rock mass. In the first one the geometry of the surface failure is predefined

Mode of Failure

Planar Failure

Planar Failure

Equilibrium

Concept of FoS

F>D

=>

Wedge in Equilibrium FoS=F/D

Factor of Safety

Effect of Water on Tension Crack

Change Resistance and Drive Force due to Water
1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 0 0.2 0.4 Ratio zw/z 0.6 0.8 1 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 Factor of Safety

Force [kN]

F D FS

Wedge Analysis

Similar to planar failure Wedge considered as a rigid block Resistance forces controlled by joint strength Actual orientation of the joints is included in the analysis Actual location is not considered at bench scale (maximum possible wedge)

Wedge Stability Analysis

Wedge Analysis

In general applied to small scale Some times applied to large scale where faults define a wedge In mining the main objective is define the spill berm width (SBW) for falling rocks and small failures In civil slope design the main objective is identify the unstable wedge and support it

Results for Bench Analysis and its use in Open pit Design

In open pit mines some failures at bench scale are acceptable The wedge analysis is used to quantify the spillage

Length of wedge (L)

Given depth of failure (B)

Smaller length = Smaller failure volume Larger length = larger failure volume

More concentrated Volumes of failed material

More spread out

SBW required to contain spillage

Spill Berm

R=3

6 KV

tan tan tan tan

Spill Berm
Symmetrical conical expression of volume of failed material

Radius (R)

Spill Berm
L

K = 1.5 swelling factor V = volume of failed material (m3) L = length of wedge (m) a = bench face angle (? ) = angle of repose of failed material (38? )

Spill Berm

R=

Pyramidal (wedge) expression of volume of failed material

6 KV tan tan L tan tan

Example

Example

SBW required to contain spillage

Spill Berm

R=3

6 KV

tan tan tan tan

Spill Berm
Symmetrical conical expression of volume of failed material

Radius (R)

Spill Berm
L

K = 1.5 swelling factor V = volume of failed material (m3) L = length of wedge (m) a = bench face angle (? ) = angle of repose of failed material (38? )

Spill Berm

R=

Pyramidal (wedge) expression of volume of failed material

6 KV tan tan L tan tan

Break????

Mode of Failure <-> Kind of Analysis

Limit Equilibrium

Limit Equilibrium

Problem: more unknowns than equations

Different Methods based on Different Simplifications

Limit Equilibrium

The method calculates the FoS for a predefined surface In general we want the lowest FoS 1000s of trial must be tested to find lowest FoS In rock mechanics only for large scale failure can be applied

Hoek Chart

Example

Numerical Method

Numerical Models <-> Numerical Method

Finite Elements Finite Differences Boundary Elements Discrete Elements Discontinuous Deformation Analysis

Element 3 nodes, stresses are constant in the element

180 0.00000 0.45000 0.90000 1.35000 1.80000 165 2.25000 2.70000 3.15000 3.60000 150 45 15 60 75 90 105 120 135

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Finite Elements

v u

3 v

u 1

U=H(x,y)Ui

Elements 3 or 4 nodes are linear

Strain and Stresses are constant

Triangular Elements 6 nodes

-0.02400 -0.01800 -0.01200 165 -0.00600 0.00000 0.00600 0.01200 0.01800 150 0.02400

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Elements 6 or 8 nodes are quadratic

Strain and Stresses are linear

Finite Difference Method FLAC Program

& v & u

Calculation Cycle

Typical FLAC Model

Factor of Safety using Finite Difference or Finite Elements

tan c FoS = = tan f cf
f : friction at failure cf : cohesion at failure

Slope at Failure

Discontinuous Methods

Discontinuous Methods

Discontinuous Method

Numerical Methods

FoS is calculated with out assuming a surface failure More realistic approach to the stress distribution compared with limit equilibrium method Features like faults can be included

Job done
Any excavation produce a redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field

Rock Mass Strength

Sort of, How do we compare stresses and strength? Is Fos enough?

Example Combining all the analysis

Rock Fall Analysis

Typical FoS Used in Mining Industry

Probabilistic Analysis

Reliability Index

Probabilistic Analysis

Works better than deterministic, better feeling about the chances to face a failure More difficult to calculate, very demanding in computer power.

Summary

Think the mode of failure of a slope is a engineer responsibility not a computer program responsibility Choose the right tool for the analysis Because in mining the slopes are temporary and the access is limited the FoS used in design are low. Monitoring is mandatory

Summary

The most common methods to improve stability in mining is dewatering and unloading Support may be used in some special cases

References

Hoek, E. and J.W. Bray Rock Slope Engineering, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/Pra cticalRockEngineering.asp Contact: wgibson@srk.com.au