EGYPT

Ancient History
#the civilization of ancient Egypt, together with those of Mesopotamia, India, and china, was one of the earliest in the world. It is perhaps the best example of continuous cultural evolution based on internal stimuli. Egyptian influence on other peoples was considerable. Syria-Palestine was strongly affected by Egyptian religion and art, and the cults of some Egyptian gods had followers in both Greece and Rome. The western alphabet is derived from the Phoenician, which was possibly modeled on Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Egyptian ideas are found in some parts of the bible; and Greek science and art were originally inspired by Egy pts. its th rich monuments and inscriptions, studied by archaeologists since the early 19 century, have made Egypt and Egyptology subjects of continuing interest. # 5000-3300BC farmers by the river Nile banded together to dig canals to control the Niles annual flooding and water their crops. # by 3300BC Nile farming villages had grown into towns. Rich and powerful kings were buried in big, box-like mud-brick tombs called mastabas. # Early Egypt was divided into two kingdoms: upper Egypt, and lower Egypt on the nile delta. In 3100BC, King Menes of upper Egypt conquered lower Egypt to unite the two kingdoms, but a king of Egypt was always called king of upper and lower Egypt; made Memphis in the north the new capital of the united Egypt. #royal power had greatly increased in the 3 dynasty. #after the archaic period; came the old kingdom (2649-2134BC), perhaps the greatest era of Egyptian culture. #centralized rule began to break down under the 7 dynasty. #two separate kingdoms emerged, one ruled by Heracluopolis(9 and 10 dynasty) and Thebes(11 dynasty). #the 12 dynasty, founded by Amenemhet I, worked hard to restore royal prestige, which had been seriously damaged by civil war and periodic famine. #Decline and invasion marked the second intermediate period. High officials became so powerful in the 13 dynasty that they manipulated and fought over the royal succession. #the cushites of upper nubia occupied lower Nubia, while Syro-Palestinians conquered Egypt itself and established the 15 dynasty. #expelling the Hyskos, the Theban insurgents founded the 18 dynasty, inaugurating ancient Egypts most brilliant period, The new kingdom. #internally, the pattern of royal succession was deviant for a while. Hatshepsut, regent for her young nephew Thutmose III, declared herself pharaoh and ruled for 22 years. #royal dogma taught that each king was possessed by the divine ka, or soul of kingship. #the religious reformer Akhenaten carried royal absolutism to an extreme. During his reign, all endowments were transferred to a single god, a cosmic pharaoh who manifested himself as the Aten or sun-disk. #after 1085BC, Egypt was split between a northern 21 dynasty and a line of Theban generals and high priests of amun who controlled the south. #by the 8 century BC Egypt had divided into 11 autonomous states, their subjects dependent on congested, walled towns for security and exhibiting increased anxiety by adherence to local rather than national gods. Thus weakened, the country fell to th cushites, whose 25 dynasty brought limited unity and resisted Assyrian expansion into Syria-Palestine. Assyria, provoked, occupied th Egypt, but a 26 dynasty regained independence, only to fall before Persia. The Persians ruled Egypt from 525 to 404 BC, and again from 341 to 333 BC. #in the 4 century BC Egypt was wrested from Persia by Alexander the Great; Alexanders general Ptolemy established a Macedonian dynasty that ruled the country for over 300 years. #eventually, roman policies created great problems for Egypt. Government had been by officials salaried by the state via general revenues, but a new liturgical system required the middle class to pay administrative costs directly. Peasants, forced to cultivate rd poorer lands to increase yield and onerously taxed, began to flee the countryside. In the late 3 century AD, Diocletians reforms met the resulting economic crisis, but administrative disintegration had begun. Egypt, like the rest of the empire, became Christian, but was rebellious and heretical, and eventually was divided up among four ruling families. Distressed and divided, it fell easily before the Arab conquest 639-42.
th th st th th th th th th th th rd

EGYPT

DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT* Predynastic Period Early Dynastic Period st 1 dynasty nd 2 dynasty Old Kingdom rd 3 dynasty th 4 dynasty th 5 dynasty th 6 dynasty First Intermediate Period th 7 dynasty th 8 dynasty th 9 dynasty th 10 dynasty th 11 dynasty Middle Kingdom th 11 dynasty th 12 dynasty Second Intermediate Period th 13 dynasty th 14 dynasty th 15 dynasty th 16 dynasty th 17 dynasty New Kingdom th 18 dynasty th 19 dynasty th 20 dynasty Late Dynastic Period st 21 dynasty nd 22 dynasty rd 23 dynasty th 24 dynasty th 25 dynasty th 26 dynasty th 27 dynasty th 28 dynasty th 29 dynasty th 30 dynasty st 31 dynasty Alexander the Great Ptolemaic dynasty c.5000-3100BC c.3100-2686BC c.3100-2890BC c.2890-2686BC c.2686-2181BC c.2686-2613BC c.2613-2494BC c.2494-2345BC c.2345-2181BC c.2181-2040BC c.2181-2173BC c.2173-2160BC c.2160-2130BC c.2130-2040BC c.2133-2040BC c.2040-1786BC c.2040-1991BC c.1991-1786BC c.1786-1567BC c.1786-1633BC 1786-c.1603BC 1674-1567BC 1684-1567BC c.1650-1567BC c.1570-1085BC 1570-1320BC 1320-1200BC 1200-1085BC 1085-332BC 1085-945BC 945-c.730BC c.817-730BC 720-714BC 716-656BC 664-525BC 525-404BC 404-399BC 399-380BC 380-341BC 341-332BC 333-323BC 323-30BC

*Exact dating of the Egyptian dynasties is impossible; the chronology shown here is one of the several used by historians.

EGYPT
Modern History
#ARAB CONQUEST #EUROPEAN INFLUENCE #THE MODERN ERA #THE PEACE INITIATIVE #between AD 639 and 642 the Arabs took control over Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and introduced both the Arabic language and Islam. The Arab caliphate had its capital at Damascus under the Umayyad and at Baghdad under the Abbasids. In 969, however, the Fatimid, a Shiite dynasty, conquered Egypt and founded the Ayyubid dynasty and restored Egypt to Sunni Islam. The Ayyubid dynasty, weakened by the fifth and sixth crusades, was brought to an end when the Mamelukes, originally brought to Egypt as war captives, revolted against their masters and seized power in 1250. Under their rule Egypt became an important cultural, military, and economic center. In 1517, Cairo was conquered by the ottoman sultan Selim I, who reduced the role of Egypt to that of an exploited province of the Ottoman Empire. #ottoman rule of Egypt remained uninterrupted until 1798, when a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt. Although the French were expelled in 1801, their short occupation brought the country into close contact with the west. During power struggle that followed the expulsion of the French, Muhammad ali pasha, an Albanian officer in the ottoman forces, established himself in a position of power and was recognized as viceroy of Egypt by the ottoman sultan. In 1811 he rid Egypt of the Mamelukes. He undertook successful military campaigns in Arabia and conquered the northern Sudan. In 1824 he sent an Egyptian force, led by his son Ibrahim, to help the ottoman sultan suppress the Greek independence revolt, but the Egyptian and Turkish fleets were destroyed at the battle of Navarino. When the sultan rejected Muhammad Alis demand for Syria in recompense, Ibrahim conquered Syria and ruled it for seven years. War with the ottomans broke out, and in 1841, Muhammad Ali defeated the ottoman sultan and became hereditary ruler of Egypt. During his rule, Muhammad Ali embarked upon programs of reform and modernization that laid the foundations of modern Egypt. #a nationalist revolt in 1881-82 was suppressed by the British, who then became the controlling power in Egypt. From 1883 to 1907 the effective ruler of the country was the British administrator lord Cromer. When World War I began in 1914, Britain made Egypt a protectorate and used it as a base for allied operations against the Ottoman Empire. In 1922 the protectorate was ended, and Egypt became a monarchy with Faud I as king. In 1937 he was succeeded by King Farouk, and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except in the Suez Canal zone. #during World War II, Egyptian forces helped the British to defeat the Germans at El Alamein. After the war, national feelings grew stronger, and discontent increased after Arab armies were defeated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. #in 1952 the Egyptian army seized power. #the monarchy was abolished in 1953, and Egypt became a republic with gen. Muhammad Naguib as the first president. #in 1967 increased tension between Israel and the Arab states and the closure of the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping brought about war with Israel. #in 1974 the United States and Egypt resumed diplomatic relations, previously severed by Egypt in 1967. #by September 1975, through U.S. mediating efforts, Egypt and Israel had reached several agreements on the disengagement of their forces. #Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty was signed on Mar. 26, 1979, in Washington, D.C. #January 1980, Egypt and Israel established diplomatic relations.

EGYPT
Environment
Land: Area: 1,001,449 km . Capital and largest city: Cairo (6,052,836) #Egypt can be divided into four major physiographic regions: the Nile valley and delta, the Arabian Desert, the Libyan Desert, and the Sinai. #most of the farmland of Egypt is limited to the Nile valley and delta, which have rich alluvial soils. The vast majority of remaining land is covered with infertile rocky or sandy soils that are unsuitable for agriculture. #Egypts climate is generally dry. During summer, temperatures may reach 42 . Winters are generally warm, with average temperatures between 13 and 21 . In the deserts, temperatures range from a mean annual maximum of 46 during the day to a mean annual maximum of 6 after sunset. The Mediterranean coast receives the most rain, about 200mm or less. In southern Egypt several years may elapse w/o any rain at all. In April and May hot, dry winds and sandstorms called Khamsin blow frequently. #Egypts desert climate restricts most vegetation to the Nile valley and Delta and the oases. The most widespread indigenous t ree is the date palm. The lack of forest and grazing areas limits wild-animal life. Crocodiles are found in the upper Nile. Egypt has more than 300 species of birds and 100 species of fish.
2

Demography
#Egypt has a high rate of population growth. By the late 1980s, about 40% of its people were under the age of 15. Population density in the Nile delta, where nearly 99% of all Egyptians live, is one of the highest in the world. #Cairo is the principal industrial and commercial center. Alexandria, the chief port and second largest city, is an important commercial center. Port Said, Tanta, and Giza have long been major urban areas. Other cities such as Aswan and zagazig have grown gradually with industrial development. Rapid urbanization has taken place over the last several decades.

Language
#Arabic is the official language of Egypt and is spoken by almost all Egyptians. The Coptic language, which is descended from ancient Egyptian, is now used only in the Coptic liturgy. Italian, Greek, and Armenian are heard in Cairo and Alexandria. Berber is spoken in some of the western oases. Many of the nearly 100,000 Nubians in the south speak Sudanic languages.

Arts
#culture in ancient Egypt influenced the Hebrew and Greek civilizations. Following the arab conquest of Egypt, the arts once again flourished. Public buildings and palaces during the Fatamid caliphate were characterized by elegant architecture. After the French invasion of Egypt in 1978, Jamal al-din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abdu, and other writers attempted to relate divine revelation to reason in order to resolve the conflict between modern and traditional values. Muhammad Husayn Haykal was the author of one of the earliest novels in modern Arabic, Zynab. One of the first writers to be recognized outside of the Middle East was the prolific Taha Husayn. #since the late 1920s, Egypt has been the principal Arab filmmaking center. The government actively encourages drama and owns all theaters. Traditional music, especially when adapted to western rhythm, is very popular. The Cairo symphony is Egypts outstanding national orchestra.

Religion
#nearly 93% of Egyptians are Sunni Muslims. In addition to Coptic Christians, other religious minorities include Greek orthodox, roman Catholics, Armenians, and a very small Jewish community, all concentrated in urban centers.

EGYPT
Government
#Type: republic. Legislature: peoples assembly. Political subdivisions: 26 governorates. #the constitution, adopted in 1971, defines Egypt as an Arab republic with a democratic, socialist system. Executive power is vested in the president, who is nominated by at least two-thirds of the legislature and then elected for a 6-year term by popular referendum. The president may appoint vice-presidents and the cabinet and can dismiss them and dissolve the legislature at any time. #the unicameral National Assembly functions primarily as a policy-approving body. Although the legal system is generally based on Islamic law, efforts by the fundamentalists to impose a strict Islamic code have been unsuccessful. For admisistrative purposes, Egypt is divided into 26 governatorates.

Economy
#the textile industry has been the principal manufacturing activity. Other important products include cement, iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers, rubber products, refined sugar, tobacco, canned foods, cottonseed oil, small metal products, shoes, and furniture. #mining has increased in importance since the mid-1970s. crude petroleum is the leading product, but salt, phosphate, iron ore, and manganese are also extracted. The availability of sufficient power remains a basic problem. Egypt is self-sufficient in petroleum and has some coal and natural-gas deposits. Much of its electric power is provided by the aswan high dam. #agriculture, which contributes about one-third of the gross domestic product, is labor-intensive, using traditional methods. Perhectare yields are among the highest in the world, although a rise in the water table and soil salinity caused by the Aswan high dam have decreased yields in the Nile delta. Land-reform laws limit individual holdings to about 40ha, but there are widespread evasions of the law. The pressure on the scarce arable land has steadily increased due to population growth, and costly government landreclamation and irrigation projects have been offset by the loss of cultivable land to urban sprawl. #Egypt has a flourishing fishing industry. The Aswan high dam adversely affected fishing along the Mediterranean coast; today about 70% of the total catch is obtained from inland waters, including fisheries along lake Nasser. #the Nile River and the Suez canal are both important transportation arteries. The railroad system is government controlled. The chief ports are at Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez. Egyptair, the government-owned airline, has domestic and internal flights. #petroleum is Egypts leading export in terms of value, followed by cotton and cotton products. Foodstuffs, machinery, and transportation equipment are the major imports. For many years Egypt has had a trade deficit.