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BIOLOGY OBJECTIVES Unit 11: Nervous, Sensory, and Motor Systems

CHAPTER 27: NERVOUS, SENSORY, AND MOTOR SYSTEMS
An Overview of Animal Nervous Systems
1. Describe the structural and functional subdivisions of the nervous system. The nervous system forms a fast-acting communication and coordination network throughout an animals body The nervous systems of most animals have two main subdivisions: o The Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain, and Spinal Cords o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Made of nerves that carry signals into and out of the CNS A nerve is a communication line made from cable-like bundles of neuron fibers wrapped in connective tissue Describe the structure and function of neurons.

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A. Function: Neurons are he nerve cells specialized for carrying electrical and chemical signals from one part of the body to another Sensory Input is sending signals from sensory receptors such as receptors in the eyes to the CNS o Sensory Neurons convey this information Integration is the interpretation of the sensory signals and the formulation of responses o Inter-Neurons perform integration Motor output is the process of sending signals from the integration centers to effectors such as muscles o Motor Neurons perform motor output B. Structure: Cell Body: Houses the nucleus and other organelles Two types of extensions project form the cell body o Dendrites: Receive incoming messages from other cells and convey the information toward the cell body o Axon conducts signals toward another neuron or an effector Glial Cells: Support cells that protect insulate and reinforce neurons/ Produces Myelin Sheath that insulates many axons and increases the speed of the nerve signal 3. Define a resting potential and explain how it is generated. A resting neuron contains potential energy that resides in an electrical charge difference across its plasma; the voltage difference is called the resting potential Created from an excess of negative charges in the cytoplasm due to Sodium ions (Na+) being more concentrated outside the cell, and Potassium ions (K+) are more concentrated in the cytoplasm The membrane of a neuron has protein channels and pumps that maintain the charge difference Describe the changes that are associated with an action potential. An action potential is the release of the membranes potential energy to generate an electrical nerve signal as a result of a stimulus, which is any factor that causes a nerve signal to be generated 1. Membrane is at its resting potential positively charged outside, and negatively charged inside 2. Stimulus triggers the opening of the first set of ion channels, allowing positive ions to enter the neuron; if the threshold is reached, action potential is triggered 3. Channels open and more positive ions flow in as a result the inside becomes positively charged with respect to the outside. 4. Change triggers the closing of the first set of channels, and the opening of others that allows positive ions to diffuse rapidly our returning the membrane to its potential Explain how an action potential propagates itself along a neuron. + 1. A stimulus is received by the dendrites of a nerve cell. This causes the Na channels to open. + 2. Having reached the action threshold, more Na channels (sometimes called voltage-gated channels) open Reach point of depolarization in inside of membrane + + 3. The Na channels close and the K channels open to bring back top polarized state 4. The Na+/K+ Pump eventually brings the membrane back to its rest potential. At each point along the neuron the action potential triggers changes in the adjacent region that result in propagation of the action potential along the neuron Describe the structure of a chemical synapse. Synapses are the relay points between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell Found in two varieties: Electric Synapses, found in heart and digestive system, and chemical synapses,

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Johnson prevalent in most other organs Chemical Synapses: o Have a narrow gap, called the synaptic cleft, separating a synaptic terminal of the sending neuron from the receiving cell o Use Neurotransmitters to carry information from one cell to another 1. An action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal causing vesicles filled with NTs to fuse to the plasma membrane of the sending neuron releasing molecules into the cleft 2. The released NTs diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors triggering a new action potential

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Describe the types of inputs a single neuron can receive and note the nature of the neuron's response. A neuron may receive input from hundreds of other neurons via thousands of synaptic terminals; thus the nervous system can account for a huge amount of information Be able to identify structures on diagrams related to any of the preceding objectives.

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The Human Nervous System: A Closer Look

9. Describe the general structure of the brain, spinal cord, and associated nerves. The spinal cord, lies inside the spinal column and acts as the central communication between the brain and the rest of the body The Brain is the master control center of the nervous system

10. Describe the functions of meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. Meninges are three connective tissue layers that also protect the brain and spinal cord The cerebrospinal fluid cushions the CNS and helps supply it with nutrients, hormones, and white blood cells 11. Compare white matter and gray matter. White matter is mainly axons covered by fatty myelin Gray matter is mainly nerve cells bodies and dendrites 12. Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic divisions of the nervous system. Neurons of the somatic nervous system carry signal to and from skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli; the somatic nervous system is said to be voluntary because many of its actions are under conscious control Neurons of the autonomic nervous system regulate the internal environment by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles, and the organs and glands of the systems; these actions are said to be involuntary 13. Compare the functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the peripheral nervous system. The autonomic nervous system contains two sets of neurons with opposing effects on most body organs. The parasympathetic division primes the body for digesting food and resting The sympathetic division prepares the body for intense, energy-consuming activities (fight/flight) 14. Describe the parts and functions of the human brain. The Brain is divided into 3 regions: Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain The Hindbrain: o The Medullla Oblongata, and the Pons make up the brainstem, where all of the sensory and motor neurons carrying information pass through with the stem acting as a filter o Cerebulllem: the planning center for body movements The Midbrain: o Receives and integrates auditory daya, coordinates visual reflexes and sends data to higher brain centers The Forebrain: o Contains the hypothalamus, that controls the pituitary gland and the secretion of hormones, and the thalamus, which has most of the cell bodies of neurons that relay information to the cerebral cortex and sends out information to appropriate brain centers o Cerebrum: The largest and most sophisticated part of the brain that consists of right annd left cerebral hemispheres The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres enabling them to process information together The cerebral cortex is a highly folded layer of tissue cerebrum that forms on the surface of the cerebrum; divided into 2 hemispheres, and 4 lobes Frontal: Motor Cortex Parietal: Somasensory Cortex receives touch, pain, pressure and temperature Occipital: Vision Temporal: Hearing, Smell 15. Be able to identify structures on diagrams related to any of the preceding objectives.

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The Senses
16. Define sensory transduction, a receptor potential, and sensory adaptation. Sensory Transduction: The conversion by sensory receptors of stimuli into electrical signals Receptor Potential: Changes in membrane potentials caused by sensory stimuli, and vary in intensity depending on the strength of the stimulus Sensory Adaptation: Some sensory receptors become less sensitive when they are stimulated repeatedly 17. Describe the five general categories of sensory receptors found in animals. Note examples of each. Pain Receptors: Respond to various stimuli causing injury or disease Thermorecptors: Detect either heat or cold Mechanorecptors: Stimulated by various forms of mechanical energy such as touch or pressure Chemorecptors: Respond to chemicals in the external environment or body fluids Electromagnetic Receptors: Sensitive to energy of various wavelengths Photoreceptors in the Eyes 18. Describe the parts of the human eye and their functions, and be able to identify them on a diagram. Sclera: the outer covering Cornea: Transparent anterior part of the sclera, lets light into the eye and also helps focus light Iris: Circular, pigmented muscle that regulates the size of the pupil, which lets light into the interior of the eye Lens: Focuses light onto the retina by refracting light rays and changing shape Two fluid-filled chambers make up the bulk of the eye o The posterior chamber is filled with vitreous humor o The small anterior chamber contains aqueous humor 19. Compare the structures and functions of rods and cones. Built into the human retina are two types of photoreceptors named for their shapes: rods and cones o Cones: Stimulated by bright light and can distinguish color/ Contain photospins, which absorb bright light; the fovea contains a high concentration of cones, and is the center of focus o Rods: Enable us to see in dim light only in shades of gray/ Contain rhodopsin, which can absorb dim light

20. Describe the structures and functions of the ear related to the sense of hearing, and be able to identify the structures on a diagram. The Outer Ear: o Consists of the pinna and the auditory canal o Collects sound waves and passes them to the eardrum, a thin membrane that separates the

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outer ear from the middle ear The Middle Ear o When sound waves strike the eardrum it vibrates and passes the sound to three small bones, the hammer anvil and stirrup The Inner Ear o Consists of fluid-filled channels in the bones of the skull o The organ of the Corti, the actual hearing organ, is found within the cochlea, and consists of hair cells, the receptor cells of the ear When sound waves are collected by the outer ear they are transmitted eventually to the cochlea, where the hair cells in the organ of Corti bend, which trigger nerve cells to send signals to the brain

Motor Systems
21. Describe the organization of the human skeletal system. All vertebrates have an endoskeleton situated among soft tissues and consisting of bones, hard supporting elements, and cartilage at points of flexibility The Axial Skeleton: Supports the axis of the body (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) Appendicular Skeleton: Made up of the bones of the limbs, shoulders and pelvis 22. Describe the three major types of joints: ball-and-socket, hinge, and pivot. Give examples of each. Ball-and-Socket: In the shoulder and hip Hinge: Permit movement in a single plane; elbow flexing Pivot: Allow rotation; elbow rotation Bones of the skeleton are held together at movable joints by strong fibrous ligaments 23. Describe the following common skeletal disorders: arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoporosis. Arthritis: An inflammation of the joints Rheumatoid Arthritis: An autoimmune disease, usually begins between ages 40 and 50, affects more women than men Osteoporosis: Makes bones thinner and more porous, and therefore more susceptible to fractures 24. Describe the structure and arrangement of the filaments found in a muscle cell. Skeletal muscles pull on bones to produce movements; skeletal muscle consists of bundles of parallel muscle fibers Each muscle fiber contains bundles of myofibrils and are referred to as striated because the myofibrils exhibit alternating light and dark bands when viewed in a microscope o A myofibril is composed of two kinds of filaments: Thin filaments (made of actin, a protein), and Thick Filaments (made of myosin, a thicker protein) o A myofibril consists of repeating units called sacromeres, which is responsible for the contraction in a myofibril 25. Explain how a muscle cell contracts, i.e. the "sliding filament" theory of muscle contraction. A sacromere contracts when its thin filaments slide past its thick filaments; in the contraction the lengths of the fibers do not change, the thin filaments simply overlap in the middle of the sacromere The key event is the binding between the heads of the myosin molecules in the thick filaments and specific sites on actin molecules in the thin filaments When the muscle cell is stimulated, Calcium ions are released exposing the binding sites on the actin so that the myosin cells can attach

Johnson Association areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex where different types of incoming sensory information are integrated Axon: A neuron fiber that extends from the cell body and conducts signal to another neuron or to an effector cell Dendrites: A neuron fiber that conveys signals from its tip inward toward the rest of the neuron, one of several short extensions that convey the nerve signals towards the cell body Eustachian tube: An air passage between the middle ear and the throat that equalizes air pressure on either side of the ear drum Supporting cells: A cell that protects, insulates, and reinforces a neuron