UNIT –II

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Heat Engines are otherwise called “Thermal Engines”. It is a machine which

converts heat energy into useful mechanical work. Heat engines develop more than 80%
of energy generated in the world.
They are broadly classified into two types:
1. Internal Combustion Engines
2. External Combustion Engines

2.2 TYPES OF HEAT ENGINES

Heat Engines are broadly classified as Internal combustion Engines
and Exeternal Combustion Engines

2.2.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES:

In the Internal Combustion Engine, the chemical energy of the fuel is released as
a heat by the way of combustion inside the engine cylinder where power is produced. The
heat produced is nothing but the products of combustion. By expansion of this hot
medium inside the cylinder, heat energy is converted into useful work.
The name “Internal Combustion Engine” is a misnomer since the fuel is burnt
internally.

2.2.2 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES:

They are steam engines and steam turbines. In these, heat energy is produced
during the combustion of fuel in a boiler furnace. This energy is used to produce the
steam under the pressure in boiler. The steam expands in turbine and thereby does work.
The name “External combustion engine” is a misnomer since the fuel is burnt
externally.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION

2.3.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON IGNITION:

(i) Spark Ignition Engines (S.I engines)

In this type of engine, combustible mixture is sucked into the engine
cylinder. This mixture is compressed . The compression ratio is about 5:1 to 7:1. At
the end of compression, the mixture exists in the cylinder as high pressure and
temperature. The Electric spark ignites this mixture. The burning of mixture produces
greater pressure and temperature. The product of combustion expands and produced
power. Then the products are expelled out.
(ii) Combustion Ignition Engines (C.I Engines)
In this type ,air alone is sucked into the engine cylinder The air is
compressed. The compression ratio is about 14:1 to 17:1. The heat of compression in
the air is much greater due to high compression. At the end of compression the fuel is
injected in the form of fine spray into the engine cylinder. The compression heat
ignites the fuel and causes in to burn. Combustion of fuel produces high pressure and
temperature. The product of combustion expands and thereby produces power. The
combustion products are then exhausted.

(iii) Precombustion chamber Engines

The mixture is ignited by a spark in a special small anti-chamber,

while the takes in the main chamber.

2.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF STROKES:

(i) Four stroke Engine

In this engine, four strokes of the piston is required to complete a

working cycle. In this engine, two revolution of the crankshaft is used to complete
the cycle of operation.
(ii) Two Stroke Engine

In this engine, two strokes of the piston is required to complete a working

cycle. In this engine, one revolution of the crankshaft is used to complete the cycle of
operation.

2.3.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CYCLE OF OPERATION:

(i) Otto cycle

(ii) Diesel cycle
(iii) Dual cycle

2.3.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE TYPE OF FUEL USED:

(i) Engines using Light Liquid Fuels ---- Petrol Engines

(ii) Engines using Heavy Liquid Fuels ---- Diesel Engines
(iii) Engines using Gaseous Fuels ---- Gas Engines
(iv) Mixed Fuel Engines
(v) Multi Fuel Engines
2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE MODE OF CONVERSION OF
HEAT ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL WORK:

(i) Reciprocating Engines:

In this, heat energy gets converted into mechanical energy in the inside of
engine cylinder while the piston reciprocates.
(ii) Rotary Engines:

In this heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy in the inside of

engine cylinder while the specially shaped casing and a rotor rotates inside
the
casing.

(iii) Gas Turbine:

The heat energy in the hot gases is converted into mechanical work on
the rotating blades of the gas turbine.

(iv) Combination Engine:

In this the heat energy is converted into mechanical work partly in the
cylinder of reciprocating engine and partly in the blades of turbine.

2.3.6 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD

OF MIXTURE FORMATION:

(i) External Mixture Formation Engines:

Used in spark ignition engines, and gas engines in which the fuel is injected
into
the intake pipe or intake manifold and mixes with air externally to the
cylinder,
i.e., in the carburetor.

(ii) Internal Mixture Formation Engines:

Used in diesel engines, with injection of fuel into the cylinders and in gas
engines in which the gas is fed into the cylinder at the beginning of
compression.

2.3.7 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF COOLING

(i) Air cooled engines

(ii) Water cooled engines

2.3.8 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF GOVERNING

 (i) Quantity governing
(ii) Quality governing
(iii) Hit and miss governing

2.3.9 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF

CYLINDERS

(i) Inline Engine

All cylinders are arranged in a line and the power is taken from a single
crankshaft. This arrangement is used in automobiles.

(ii) V-Type
It is a combination of two inline engines set at an angle of V vary from 30° to
75°.

(iii) Opposed piston engines

The piston reciprocates in a common cylinder having common combustion
chamber at the centre.

(iv) Radial Engine

All the cylinders are set along the radius of a circle. The connecting rods
point towards the centre of the circle. The connecting rods of all pistons work on a
single crank pin which rotates around the centre of the circle. This occupies little
floor space and simplifies the balancing problems. This is popular in aircrafts.

(v) Rotary Engine

The engine consists of three sided converse type of piston rotating in a
cylinder.
This engine is known as “Wankel engine”. It is of high speed, lighter weight
and
works on spark ignition system.

2.3.10 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF CONTROL OF

CHARGE UNDER VARIABLE LOAD

(i) Quality control engines

In which the composition of the mixture which undergoes combustion is
changed
by admitting more or less quantity of fuel in accordance with the variation of
load. Air quantity remains almost constant. All diesel engines are quality
control
engines.

(ii) Quantity control engines

 In which the composition of the mixture which remains almost constant
when the
load varies and the quantity of the mixture admitted is changed. All Petrol
engines are quantity control engines.

(iii) Combination control engines

In which both quality and quantity of the mixture are varied
depending on the load.

2.3.11 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PURPOSE (OR) APPLICATION

(i) Stationary Engines

(ii) Mobile Engines
(iii) Aero Engines
(iv) Marine Engines

2.4 COMPONENTS

For effective functioning of the internal combustion engine every components of

the engine has to work properly. The following components of the engine are,
 Components of I.C Engine
Cylinder:
It is a cylindrical space (or) container in which piston reciprocates. The working
substance contained with in the cylinder is subjected to different thermodynamics
processes. The cylinder is supported in cylinder block.

Piston:
It is a reciprocating cylinder component which is fitted in to the cylinder. The
power generated by the working substance during the expansion stroke is transmitted into
the piston, hence it forms the first link in transmitting the gas force to crankshaft

Piston Ring:
These piston rings are fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal
between piston and cylinder wall, thus preventing leakage of combustion gases

Combustion chamber:
It is the space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, below the cylinder head
and above the top of the piston surface during the combustion process. The combustion
of the fuel takes place with in this space.

Connecting Rod:
The connecting rod inter connects the piston and the crank-shaft and transmits
the gas forces from the piston to the crankshaft. It has two ends called small end and big
end. The small end of the connecting rod is connected with piston by using a pin called
gudgeon pin. The big end of the connecting rod is connected with crank pin by using a
pin called crank pin.

Crankshaft:
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston in to useful rotary motion of
the output shaft. The crankshaft is enclosed within crankcase. The crankshaft is attached
with big end of the connecting rod.

Spark plug:
It is usually mounted on the cylinder head. It is a component which initiates the
combustion process in spark ignition engines.

Fuel injector:
This component is present in the case of combustion ignition (CI) engines. This
component atomize the fuel into fine droplets, thus injecting it at correct timing, in
correct proportion during the working cycle.

Inlet Manifold:
It is a piping system which connects the intake system to the inlet opening. Air,
as in the case of CI engine (or) air fuel mixture, as in the case of SI engine, will follow
through the inlet manifold.

Inlet Valve:
It is mounted on the cylinder head. It is used to regulate the charge (either air or
air fuel mixture) coming into the cylinder.

Exhaust Manifold:
It is a piping system which connects the exhaust system with the exhaust (or)
outlet opening. Products of combustion from the cylinder will escape into the atmosphere
through this system.

Exhaust Valve:
It is also mounted on the cylinder head. It is used to control and regulate the
discharge of combustion products from the cylinder into the atmosphere. In general the
exhaust valve is subjected to higher temperature and corrosive atmosphere than the intake
or inlet valve.

Cam Shaft:
The cam shaft is driven by crank shaft through timing gears having gear ratio
of 2. The cam shaft is used to control the opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves.

Cam:
 These are integral parts of the cam shaft. They are designed in such a way to
open the valve at the correct timing and keep them in the same position for necessary
duration and to close it.

Flywheel:
It is mounted on the crank shaft and its function is to maintain the speed of the
engine as a constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke and is
utilized during remaining strokes of operation.

2.5COMPARISON BETWEEN FOUR STROKE

AND TWO STROKE CYLINDER ENGINES:

Four Stroke Cylinder Engine Two Stroke Cylinder Engine

1. For every two revolution of the crank 1. For every one revolution of the crank
shaft, there is one power stroke. shaft, there is one power stroke.
2. Because of the above, turning moment is 2. Because of the above, turning moment is
not so uniform and hence heavier flywheel more uniform and hence a lighter flywheel
is needed. is used.
3. For the same power more space is 3. For the same power less space is
required. required.
4. Because of one power stroke in two
revolutions, lesser cooling and lubrication 4. Because of one power stroke for every
requires. Lower rate of wear and tear. revolution, greater cooling and lubrication
5. Valves are required – inlet and exhaust requirements. Higher rate of wear and tear.
valves. 5. Ports are made in the cylinder walls –
6. Because of heavy weight, complicated inlet, exhaust, and transfer port.
valve mechanism and water cooled, 6. Simple in design, light weight and air
making it complicated design and difficult cooled and easy to maintain.
to maintain.
7. The air-fuel mixture is completely 7. As inlet and exhaust port open
utilized thus efficiency is higher. simultaneously, some times fresh charges
may escape with exhaust gases. The
exhaust gases are not always completely
removed. This cause lower efficiency.
8. Volumetric efficiency is high due to 8. Volumetric efficiency is low due to
more time for induction. lesser time for induction.
9. Lower fuel consumption per horse 9. The fuel consumption per horse power is
power. more because of fuel dilution by the
exhaust gas.
10. Used in light vehicles, e.g. Motor cycle,
10. Used in heavy vehicles, e.g. Buses, scooter, etc.
lorries, trucks etc. 11. The engine cost is less.
11. The engine cost is more. 12. The exhaust is noisy due to short time
12. The exhaust is less noisy. available for exhaust.
2.6 COMPARISON OF S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES:
S.I. Engines
1. The fuel used is gasoline (Petrol).
2. Air + Fuel mixture is taken during
suction.
3. For mixing air and fuel a separate device
called carburettor is required.
4. Since homogeneous mixture is produced
in carburettor, no need of injector.
5. Pressure at the end of compression is
about 10 bar.
6. A spark plug is used to ignite the air fuel
mixture.
7. Self ignition temperature of fuel is not
attained. In other words, the fuel is not self
ignited.
8. S.I. Engines works on otto cycle (i.e)
combustion takes place at constant volume.
9. Compression ratio is around 6 to 10.
10. Cold starting of engine is easy.
11. These are very lighter.
12. Cost is comparatively low.
13. Running cost is high.
14. Less maintenance.
15. ηthernal is about 25%.
16. Over heating trouble is more.
17. Spark plug needs frequent maintenance.
18. These are high speed engines.
19. Noiseless operation due to less
C.I. Engines
1. Fuel used is Diesel.
2. Only air taken during suction.
3. No need of carburetor.
4. For atomizing and spraying the fuel
inside the cylinder, fuel injector is
necessary.
5. Pressure at the end of compression is
about 35 bar.
6. Spark plug is not necessary.
7. The fuel get ignited due to the high
temperature of compressed air.
8. C.I. Engines works on diesel cycle (i.e)
combustion takes place at constant
pressure.
9. Compression ratio is around 15 to 25.
10. Cold starting of engine is diffucult.
11. Heavier engine.
12. Cost is high.
13. Running cost is not high.
14. High maintenance is needed.
15. ηthernal is about 35 to 45%.
16. Over heating trouble is less.
17. Fuel injector needs less maintenance.
18. These are low speed engines.
compression ratio. 19. Very noisy operation due to high
20. Engine weight / kW is less. compression ratio.
21. Vibration is less. 20. Engine weight / kW is more.
22. Generally employed for light duty 21. More vibration is there.
vehicles e.g. two wheeler, otto etc. 22. Generally employed for heavy duty
vehicles e.g. truks, buses, etc.

2.7 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM:

The timing of sequence of events such as inlet valve opening, inlet valve closing,
ignition exhaust valve opening and exhaust valve closing can be represented graphically
in terms of crank angles from dead centre position. This diagram is known as “Valve
Timing Diagram”.

2.7.1 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

2.7.2. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE:

2.8 PORT TIMING DIAGRAM
The timing of sequence of events such as exhaust port opening and closing,
transfer port opening and closing, ignition and inlet port opening and closing can be
represented graphically in terms of crank angles from dead centre position. This diagram
is known as “Port Timing Diagram”.

2.8.1 PORT TIMING DIAGRAM FOR TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

2.8.2 Port Timing Diagram for Two Stroke Diesel Engine:

2.9. FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

 The functions of the fuel supply system are
(i) To store the fuel
(ii) To supply the fuel to the engine to the required quantity and in proper
condition
(iii) To indicate the driver the fuel level in the fuel tank.

2.9.1 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM OF A PETROL ENGINE:

The fuel feed system of a petrol engine consists of the following components:

(i) Fuel Tank

(ii) Fuel Pump
(iii) Fuel Filter
(iv) Carburettor
(v) Intake manifold and
(vi) Fuel Gauge

Carburetor:

Carburetor is the device which is used for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and
mixing it with the air in varying proportions to suit the change in operating conditions of
the engine. Thus the carburettor performs both the process of atomization and
vaporization. Atomization is the process of breaking up the liquid petrol fuel into very
small particles so that it is properly mixed with air. Vaporization is the process of change
of state of the fuel i.e. from liquid phase to vapour.

Main Parts are Float Chamber, Float, Venturi, Throttle Valve and Choke Valve

2.9.2 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE:

The main difference between the fuel supply system of a diesel engine and that of
a petrol engine is, the system in diesel engine consists of a fuel injector instead of a
carburettor and the remaining elements are the same.
So, the components of fuel supply system of a diesel engine includes
 (i) Fuel Tank,
(ii) Fuel Filter,
(iii) Injection Pump (or) Fuel Pump,
(iv) Injector,
(v) Pipings,
(vi) Fuel Gauge.

The fuel from tank directs to the main filter through a fuel pump. After filtered,
the fuel proceeds to the inlet side of fuel injection pump. From the fuel injection pump
the fuel under pressure flows, in the feed pipes to the fuel injector. From the fuel injector,
the fuel gets injected into the cylinder in correct proportion.

2.10. FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM:

There are three different methods of fuel injection viz.

(i) Individual Pump System,

(ii) Common Rail System,
(iii) Distributor System and
(iv) Unit Injector System.

2.10.1. Individual Pump System

2.10.2. Common Rail System

2.10.3. Distributor System

2.10.4 . Unit Injector System

2.10.5. Essential Requirements of Fuel Injection System:

(i) The fuel should be injected in a fined automized condition.

(ii) The fuel should be properly distributed in the combustion chamber.
(iii) The fuel injection timing should occur at correct moment.
(iv) Quantity of fuel injected should meet the load condition of the engine.
(v) The beginning and end of the injection should takes place sharply.

2.11. IGNITION SYSTEM FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINE:

 The ignition system supplies a very high voltage up to 20,000 volts for igniting
the compressed air fuel mixture by producing spark in the plug.
There are two different types of ignition systems which are commonly used in
petrol engines. (i) Coil (or) Battery ignition system and (ii) Magneto ignition system.

(i) Coil (or) Battery ignition system

(ii) Magneto ignition system

2.12. COOLING SYSTEM

The peak temperature that occurs during combustion in internal combustion

engines varies from 1500°C to 2000°C. This large amount of heat produced due to fuel
combustion is absorbed by the piston, cylinder head and cylinder walls.
The internal combustion engine at best can transform only 30% of the heat
generated by burning the fuel in to “useful” work. About 30% has to be removed by the
cooling system and the reminder by the exhaust and lubrication systems. What ever may
be the amount of heat carried away by the coolant, it must be noted that it is a dead loss,
because not only no useful work can be obtained from it, but a part of engine power is
also used to remove this heat. Therefore it goes without saying that heat loss must be kept
minimum by the designer.

2.12.1 NECESSITY OF ENGINE COOLING:

 (i) The high temperature reduces the strength of the materials used for piston and
piston rings.
(ii) The large temperature differences between the engines parts may cause unequal
expansion, resulting in cracking of the parts and thereby the engine failure.
(iii) At high temperature, the lubricating oil may be heated up to such an extent heat
decomposition of lubricating oil occurs and viscosity changes may render it unfit
for effective lubrication.
(iv) At high temperatures, the lubricating may even evaporate and burn, injuring
position and cylinder surfaces. Piston seizure due to overheating, resulting form the
failure of the lubrication is quite common.
(v) The overheating causes excessive thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may
load to their distortion.
(vi) The overheating may cause burning of valves and valve seats.
(vii) In petrol engines, the pre-ignition of the charge is possible, if the ignition parts
initially are at high temperature.
(viii) The overheating reduces the efficiency of the engine.

2.12.2 METHODS OF COOLING:

All the heat rejected from the engine ultimately goes to air. Nevertheless, two
basic systems are used to cool the engine. These are:
(i) Direct or air cooling
(ii) Indirect or Water cooling or Liquid cooling

2.12.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN AIR COOLING AND WATER COOLING

SYSTEMS:

Air Cooling System Water Cooling System

1. It is a direct cooling system. 1. It is an indirect cooling system.
2. The design of this system is simple and 2. The design of this system is complicated
less costly. and more costlier.
3. It does not depend on any coolant. 3. It is dependent on supply of water.
4. There is no danger of leakage of the 4. There is danger of leakage of the
coolant. coolant.
5. The installation is easier as it does not 5. The installation is comparatively
require radiator and water jacket. Hence difficult; size of the engine is big with an
size is small, causing reduction in weight. increase in weight by about 20%.
6. It works smoothly and continuously. An
air cooled engine can take up some degree 6. If this system fails, it may cause serious
of damage. A broken fin does not affect damage to the engine within a short time.
much.
7. Maintenance is easier. 7. It requires more maintenance.
8. used for small capacity engines. 8. Used for medium and large capacity
engines.
9. Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder 9. Uniform cooling is possible with water
head and valve may not be possible. cooling.
2.13 LUBRICATION SYSTEM:
The function of the lubrication system is to provide sufficient quantity of cool, filtered oil to give
positive and adequate lubrication to all the moving parts of an engine. The various lubrication
system is used for internal combustion engines may be classified as
(i) Petrol lubrication system
(ii) Wet sump lubrication system
(iii) Dry sump lubrication system

2.13.1. FUNCTIONS OF THE LUBRICATING SYSTEM:

(i) Lubrication
(ii) Cooling
(iii) Cleaning
(iv) Sealing
(v) Reduction of Noise

2.13.2. PROPERTIES OF THE LUBRICATING OIL:

(i) Viscosity
(ii) Viscosity Index
(iii) Cloud Point and Pour Point
(iv) Flash Point
(v) Specific Gravity
(vi) Carbon Residue
(vii) Oil ness
(viii) Oxidation Stability
(ix) Cleanliness
(x) (10) Colour

2.14 PERFORMANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

2.14.1 Indicated mean effective pressure:

Mean effective Pressure (mep) =
Area of Indicator Diagram × Scale of the diagram
Length of theindicator diagram
AS
=
L
Where, A is the area of the indicator diagram in mm2
S is the scale of the indicator diagram in bar/mm
L is the length of the indicator diagram in mm.
Hence the mep will obtained in terms of bar.

2.14.2 Indicated Power:

 It is the power available inside the engine cylinder

I.P. = Mean Effective Pressure X Stroke Volume

LAn 3
Stroke volume = , m / sec
60
P .L. A.n
I .P. = m
60

Where L = Stroke length in ‘m’

A = Area of the piston in m2
n = Number of working strokes per min.
= N for two stroke engines
= N/2 for two stroke engines
N = Speed in rpm
Pm= Mean Effective Pressure in N/m2 and
I.P= Indicated power in Watts.
For multi cylinder engines, if K is the number of cylinders, the Indicated power is given
by,

KPm LAn
I .P. =
60

2.14.3 Brake Power:

It is the power available at the crank shaft

2π Nre (T1 T2 )
B.P. =
60

Where N = Speed of the engine in rpm

T1 T2 = Load on the brake drum in N
re = Effective radius of the brake drum in m.
t
re = r +  
2
r= Radius of the brake drum in m.
t = thickness of the rope in m.
Friction Power:
Friction Power = Indicator Power - Brake Power.

2.14.4 Fuel Consumption:

V × ρ fuel × 3600
Fuel Consumption (or) Total Fuel Consumption = kg / hr
t
Where, V = Volume of fuel consumption in a given time in m3
ρ = Density of fuel in kg/m3
 t = time in sec.

Total Fuel consumption

Specific Fuel Consumption = kg / Kwhr
Brake Power

2.14.5 Air Consumption:

Mass flow of air through the orifice is, ma = ρ aVa

π 2
= Cd d ρ a 2 gha in kg/sec
4
Where, d = diameter of the orifice in m
ha = head of air in m
Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.6 to 0.62 (usually)
ρa = Density of air in kg/m3

2.14.6 Efficiencies of Internal Combustion Engine:

Brake Thermal Efficiency:

BP
ηbte =
Heat in fuel

BP × 3600
=
m f × CV

Where, mf = mass flow rate of fuel in kg/hr

CV = Calorific Value of the Fuel in kJ/kg
BP = Brake Power developed in kW

Indicated Thermal Efficiency:

IP
ηite =
Heat Supplied

IP × 3600
=
m f × CV

Mechanical Efficiency:
 BP
ηm =
IP

Relative Efficiency:

Indicated Thermal Efficiency ηite

Relative efficiency = =
Air Standard Efficiency η ase

Volumetric Efficiency:

Actual volume of air taken Va

η vol = =
swept volume Vs

Va = Actual Volume of air taken

π 3
= Cd d 2 ρ a 2 gha m
4 s

Vs = Swept Volume
π D 2 Ln m3
= K
4 60 s

Where, D = Diameter of the cylinder in m

L = Stroke length in m
K = Number of the cylinder and
n = Number of working cycles per min.

2.14.7. HEAT BALANCE SHEET:

Total Heat Supply:

m f × CV
Heat supplied by the fuel = , in kJ/sec or kW
3600

Where, mf = Total fuel consumption in kg/hr

CV = Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg

Total Heat Rejection:

(i) Heat absorbed in useful work = BP in kW

(ii) Heat rejected to cooling water = mwCpw (t2 − t1 ) , in kW

Where, mw = mass of cooling water circulated in kg/sec.

Cpw = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg. K
t2 = Exit temperature of the cooling water, in K
t1 = Inlet temperature of the cooling water, in K

(iii) Heat carried away by Exhaust Gases = mg Cpg (t g − ta ) in kW

Where, mg = mass of exhaust gas which is equal to the sum of mass

of air and mass of fuel in kg/sec.
Cpg = Specific heat of gas in kJ/kg. K
tg = Temperature of exhaust gas in °K and
ta = Atmospheric Temperature in °K
.
(iv) Unaccounted Losses = Heat Supplied by the Fuel – [Heat absorbed in useful
work + Heat rejected to cooling water + Heat
carried
away by Exhaust Gases]