Ha miIto ns Princip Ie

3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters the equations of motion have been presented as differential equations. In this chapter we shall express the equations in the form of stationary values of a time integral. The idea of zero variation of a quantity was seen in the method of virtual work and extended to dynamics by means of DAlemberts principle. It has long been considered that nature works so as to minimize some quantity often called action. One of the first statements was made by Maupertuis in 1744. The most commonly used form is that devised by Sir William Rowan Hamilton around 1834. Hamiltons principle could be considered to be a basic statement of mechanics, especially as it has wide applications in other areas of physics, but we shall develop the principle directly from Newtonian laws. For the case with conservative forces the principle states that the time integral of the Lagrangian is stationary with respect to variations in the path in configuration space. That is, the correct displacement-time relationships give a minimum (or maximum) value of the integral. In the usual notation
61;.

dt = 0

or 61 = 0 where

This integral is sometimes referred to as the action integral. There are several different integrals which are also known as action integrals. The calculus of variations has an interesting history with many applications but we shall develop only the techniques necessary for the problem in hand.

Derivation o f Hamilton S principle 47

3.2 Derivation of Hamiltons principle

Consider a single particle acted upon by non-conservative forces F,, F,,Fkand conservative forcesf;, J , fc which are derivable from a position-dependentpotential function. Referring to Fig. 3.1 we see that, with p designating momentum, in the x direction

F, + f ; =

d z

(PI)

with similar expressions for the y and z directions. For a system having N particles DAlemberts principle gives

We may now integrate this expression over the time interval t, to t2

?( dt d l 1 ; ?( d l
F, + f;
-

(p,)

6xl = 0, 1 5 i

3N

Fl +f;- ; i l( P I )

64 dt = 0

Nowf; = and the third term can be integrated by parts. So interchanging the order of 3x1 summation and integration and then integrating the third term we obtain t2 I2 d t2 t2 av Fl% dt - w t - [Pl6X11+ (PI) ; (6x1) dt = 0 (3.3)

av
tl

?(1
I

1
t,

axl

tl

1
tl

We now impose a restriction on the variation such that it is zero at the extreme points t, and tz; therefore the third term in the above equation vanishes. Reversing the order of summation and integration again, equation (3.3) becomes

1 : (E

F16xl - 6V

+E
1

p 1 6 x , ) dt = 0

(3.4)

Let us assume that the momentum is a function ofvelocity but not necessarily a linear one. With reference to Fig. 3.2 if P is the resultant force acting on a particle then by definition

Fig. 3.1

48 Hamilton 's principle

Fig. 3.2
dPi pi = dt so the work done over an elemental displacement is

dp. dr, = xidpi P,&; = -' dt The kinetic energy of the particle is equal to the work done, so

T = $xidpi
Let the complementary kinetic energy, or co-kinetic energy, be defmed by

Tc = Jp,& It follows that 6P = pi6& so substitution into equation (3.4) leads to

1 ;

( 6 ( T * - V)

+?

F j 6 x j ) dt = 0

or

" (T* ti I t ,

V) dt = -

"(ZF;Sx,)dt = 6 1'2(-W)dt
It,
;

(3.5)

t,

where 6 W is the virtual work done by non-conservative forces. This is Hamilton 's principle. If momentum is a linear function of velocity then T* = T. It is seen in section 3.4 that the quantity (T* - V) is in fact the Lagrangian. If all the forces are derivable from potential functions then Hamilton's principle reduces to

1:

Xdt=O

(3.6)

All the comments made in the previous chapter regarding generalized cosrdinates apply equally well here so that Z is independent of the co-ordinate system.

Application o f Hamilton S principle 49

3.3 Application of Hamilton's principle In order to establish a general method for seeking a stationary value of the action integral we shall consider the simple madspring system with a single degree of freedom shown in Fig. 3.3. Figure 3.4 shows a plot ofx versus t between two arbitrary times. The solid line is the actual plot, or path, and the dashed line is a varied path. The difference between the two paths is 6x. This is made equal to Eq(t), where q is an arbitrary k c t i o n of time except that it is zero at the extremes. The factor E is such that when it equals zero the two paths coincide. We can establish the conditions for a stationary value of the integral I by setting dlldc = 0 andthenputtingE=O. From Fig. 3.4 we see that
6 (x + dx) = 6x + d(6x)

Therefore 6 (dr) = d(6x) and dividing by dt gives d x d 6 - = - (6x) dt dt For the problem at hand the Lagrangian is
m i 2 kx2 E=--

(3 -7)

Fig. 3.4

50 Hamilton S principle

Thus the integral to be minimized is

The varied integral with x replaced by f = x + ~q is

+ ET^)'
Therefore

k ( x + ~ q ) i )dt 2

Integrating the first term in the integral by parts gives

By the definition of q the first term vanishes on account of q being zero at t, and at t2, so
P 12

Now q is an arbitrary fimction of time and can be chosen to be zero except for time = t when it is non-zero. This means that the term in parentheses must be zero for any value of t, that is
m,f+kx= 0

(3 -9)

A quicker method, now that the exact meaning of variation is known, is as follows
t2

SIt,

(;X2

k T ~ 2 dr ) = 0

(3.10)

Making use of equation (3.7), equation (3.10) becomes

P

Again, integrating by parts,

h6x

;1

- It:mi 6x dt

kx 6x dt
4

= 0

Lagrange 3 equations derivedjkm Hamilton S principle 5 1

or - It:(m2 + la) 6x dt = 0
and because 6r is arbitrary it follows that
&+la= 0

(3.1 1)

3.4 Lagrange's equations derived from Hamilton's principle

For a system having n degrees of freedom the Lagrangian can be expressed in terms of the generalized co-ordinates, the generalized velocities and time, that is P = P (qi,qi,t). Thus with
t2

I=/
tl

Xdt

(3.12)

we have

Note that there is no partial differentiation with respect to time since the variation applies only to the co-ordinates and their derivatives. Because the variations are arbitrary we can consider the case for all q, to be zero except for q,. Thus

Integrating the second term by parts gives

Because 6qj = 0 at t, and at t2

Owing to the arbitrary nature of 6qj we have

(3.13)

These are Lagrange's equations for conservative systems. It should be noted that i = T* - V because, with reference to Fig. 3.2, it is the variation of co-kinetic energy which is related to the momentum. But, as already stated, when the momentum is a linear function of velocity the co-kinetic energy T* = T , the kinetic energy. The use of co-kinetic energy

52 Hamilton S principle

becomes important when particle speeds approach that of light and the non-linearity becomes apparent.

3.5 Illustrative example

One of the areas in which Hamilton's principle is useful is that of continuous media where the number of degrees of freedom is infinite. In particular it is helpful in complex problems for which approximate solutions are sought, because approximations in energy terms are often easier to see than they are in compatibility requirements. As an example we shall look at wave motion in long strings under tension. The free-body diagram approach requires assumptions to be made in order that a simple equation of motion is generated; whilst the same is true for this treatment the implications of the assumptions are clearer. Figure 3.5 shows a string of finite length. We assume that the stretching of the string is negligible and that no energy is stored owing to bending. We further assume that the tension T in the string remains constant. This can be arranged by having a pre-tensioned constant-force spring at one end and assuming that aulax is small. In practice the elasticity of the string and its supports is such that for small deviations the tension remains sensibly constant. We need an expression for the potential energy of the string in a deformed state. If the string is deflected from the straight line then point B will move to the left. Thus the negative of the work done by the tensile force at B will be the change in potential energy of the system. The length of the deformed string is

If we assume that the slope dddx is small then

i=O

For small deflections s Q L so the upper limit can be taken as L. Thus

r.

Fig. 3.5

Illustrative example 53 The potential energy is

-T

(-s) = TS giving

(3.14)

If u is also a function of time then duldx will be replaced by duldx.

If p is the density and a is the cross-sectional area of the string then the kinetic energy is (3.15) The Lagrangian is
E=
r =0

J-

(3.16)

According to Hamiltons principle we need to find the conditions so that t2

r =L

6 1t , r-f =O

:[

dxdt=O ( g ) 22 -L ax( 2 ) 2 ]

(3.17)

Carrying out the variation

s,,.Lo[p ( & ) 6 ( $ )

t2 + = L

-T($)6($)pd2=O

(3.18)

To keep the process as clear as possible we will consider the two terms separately. For the first term the order of integration is reversed and then the time integral will be integrated by Parts

(3.19) because 6u = 0 at t, and t2. The second term in equation (3.18) is

Integrating by parts gives

54 Hamilton S principle

(3.20)

The first term is zero provided that the emUare passive, that is no energy is being fed into the string after motion has been initiated. This means that either 6u = 0 or du/dx = 0 at each end. The specification of the problem indicated that 6u = 0 but any condition that makes energy transfer zero at the extremes excludes the first term. Combining equations (3.19) and (3.20) and substituting into equation (3.18) yields

and because 6u is arbitrary the integrand must s u m to zero so that finally

pa,,,
T

aZu
s

(3.21)

This is the well-known wave equation for strings. It is readily obtained from free-body diagram methods but this approach is much easier to modify if other effects, such as that of bending stiffness of the wire, are to be considered. Extra energy terms can be added to the above treatment without the need to rework the whole problem. This fact will be exploited in Chapter 6 which discusses wave motion in more detail.