CHAPTER 10: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION A) MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES AND CONCEPTS - Motives: needs, wants, desires and interests

that propel people to certain direction - motivation involves goal-directed behavior A.1) Drive Theories - applies the concept of homeostasis - homeostasis: physiological equilibrium or stability to behavior - Drive: an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activity that should reduce the tension > when experiencing a drive, the individuals will involve in the drive reduction in order to reduce the tension (e.g: when hungry, youll eat something and thatll restore physio equili) A.2) Incentive Theories - Incentive: external goal that motivates behavior - Push-and-pull model > Drive: uses push (internal push individuals action) -- the motivation lies within the organism > Incentive: uses pull (the external stimuli pull individuals action into doing something) -- the motivation lies in the environment -- therefore, incentive theory doesnt use the principle of homeostasis (which is to achieve a physio equil. within the organism) -- this theory emphasizes on the environmental factor - Expectancy-value Models: ones motivation to commit an action depends on these > expectancy of ones attaining the possibility > the value of the desired incentive A.3) Evolutionary Theories - If a particular motive crucial for a species, that is probably because that motive enables the species to reproduce /survive - can be understood through the adaptive theory > e.g: Need for dominance is more important in man because: 1) females may prefer mating with dominant males 2) dominant males may poach from subordinate males 3) dominant males may intimidate male rivals in competition for sexual access 4) dominant males may acquire more resources which increases mating opportunities A.4) The Range and Diversity of Human Motives - usually differentiate between biological motives (from the inside) and social motives (from the outside) > biological needs: limited > sociological needs: unlimited B) THE MOTIVATION OF HUNGER AND EATING B.1) Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger - stomach contraction may cause hunger (but this correlation is not necessarily true)

B.1.1) Brain Regulation - originates from hypothalamus: regulate variety of biological needs related to survival - through brain lesioning technique and electrical stimulation,discovered: > dual-centres model of hunger proposes that lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) > LH and VMH are the on-off switch for hunger However, - arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus : are believed to play a larger role in the modulation of hunger - arcuate nucleus contain a group of neurons that are sensitive to incoming hunger signals - paraventricular nucleus contain a group of neurons that respond to satiety signals B.1.2) Glucose and Digestive Regulation - Glucose: important source of energy - activity that increases blood glucose level makes feel satiated - activity that decreases blood glucose level makes feel hungry Glucostatic theory: fluctuations in blood glucoseare monitored in the brain where they influence the experience of hunger Arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus: sensitive to glucostatic fluctuation that contribute to the modulation of eating

B.1.3) Hormonal Regulation - Insuline: hormone secreted by the pancreas, needed when cells extract glucose from the blood > secretion of insulin is associated with increased hunger > also sensitive to the fluctuation of bodys fat stores > w/o insulin, it causes diabetes - Figure: Judith Rodin (mere sight of enticing food can stimulate the secretion of insulin) - Hormones involved in short term regulation of hunger > ghrelin : stomach contracts and promotes hunger > CCK: produces satiety signals when food is consumed (hunger is reduced) > leptin: produced by fat cells and released into bloodstream. Hi fat, hi leptin and doesnt feel hungry > leptin also tells hypothalamus the level of body fat storage - altogether: insulin, leptin ghrelin, CCK > converge in the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus B.2) Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger Key factors: - availability of food - learned preferences and habits - stress B.2.1) Food Availability and Related Cues - humans and animals eat not to compensate energy deficit. But to fulfill the pleasure of eating

- Palatability: the tastier the food, the higher the amount consumed - Quantity available: the more being served, the more being eaten - Variety: the higher the variance, the higher the amount eaten > sensory-specific satiety: incentive reduces when only eat a specific food - Presence of others: people who eat together use each other to guide their food intake BUT it works the opposite way if different sexes eat together Eating is mostly social action and it can be caused by other factors B.2.2) Learned Preferences and Habits - preferences are acquired through learning (what causes something to become habit) - humans do have some innate preferences i.e for sweet tastes present at birth - taste preference: formed through classical conditioning - food preference are a matter of exposure > repeated exposure increases liking B.2.3) Stress and Eating - some think that by eating more, it will make them feel better - studies have shown that stress leads to increased food consumption B.3) Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity - Obesity: the condition of being overweight - Body Mass Index (BMI): weight in kg divided by height (in metres) squared - having obese parents increase the odds of obesity in children - overweight people are vulnerable to: cardiovascular disease, respiratory problems, gallbladder disease, stroke, arthritis, muscle, skeletal pain, cancer - Evolution: eat more because afraid that there might not be any food later B.3.1) Genetic Predisposition - adoptees resemble their biological parents more in terms of BMI - identical twins resemble more than fraternal twins do - weight variation is higher in woman than man > some people have genetic vulnerability to obesity B.3.2) Excessive Eating and Inadequate Exercise - Overweight occurs when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure - technology created also reduces movement B.3.3) Sensitivity to External Cues - Figure: Stanley Schachter > proposed externality hypothesis: extrasensitive to cues that motivate hunger and insensitive to internal physiological signal > normal-weight people are usually motivated by internal physiological signal BUT, - were denied by Jufith Rodin by using the insulin example as the internal signal - revelation: Schachter theory was oversimplified

> normative cues: indicators of socially approved food intake: what, when, how much > sensory external cues: characteristics of the food itself such as palatability - Herman and Polivy argued: obese people are sensitive to the sensory external cues B.3.4) The Concept of Set Point - Set-point theory: body monitor fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable > when fat slips below crucial point: feels hungry and metabolism decreases - Settling-point Theory: weight fluctuates around factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditures achieves an equilibrium > weight tends to remain stable if there isnt any significant changes that influence it - if try to lose weight by making long-term changes, a person can reduce weight B.3.5) Dietary Restraint - uncertainty in dietary restraint contributes to obesity - chronic dieters are restrained eaters- people who consciously try to control their diet and feel guilty when fail BUT they always think about food - when the plan is disrupted, they are stimulated to eat excessively and eat excessively - sometimes, restrained dieters plan a big feast before consume in a big portion B.3.6) Eating Disorders - Anorexia nervosa: young woman starves themselves to death - Bulimia nervosa: young women alternate between binge eating and purging > more prevalent in women than men C) SEXUAL MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR C.1) The Human Sexual Response -Figures: William Masters and Virginia Johnson - Propose four cycles of sexual response: > excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution C.1.1) Excitement Phase - Level of physical arousal increases: muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, blood pressure - Vasocongestion(engagement of blood vessel) : produces swollen testes and penile erection > for female: swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips and vaginal lubrication C.1.2) Plateau Phase - physiological arousal occurs at a slower pace - further vasocongestion: tightening of the vaginal entrance, as the clitoris withdraws under the clitoral hood - men: secrete fluid but its not ejaculation but it may contain sperm C.1.3) Orgasm Phase -occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak > releases a series of muscular contraction around the pelvic area

> heart rate, respiration rate, blood pressure increase sharply - males orgasm are accompanied by ejaculation of the seminal fluid Gender differences in orgasm phase - women: multiorgasmic (experience more than one climax in a sexual encounter) > also more likely to engage in sexual intercourse without experiencing orgasm C.1.4) Resolution Phase - reduction in sexual tension is relatively slow and may be unpleasant - men: experience refractory period where they become largely unresponsive to further stimulation > refractory period increases with age C.2) Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Behaviour - Figure: Robert Triver with Parental Investment Theory > depends on what each sex has to invest: time, energy, survival risk - the sex that makes the smaller investment will compete for mating opportunities with the sex that makes larger investment > done by male by mating with as many female as possible AND - the sex with the larger investment will tend to be more discriminating in selecting its partner > females have to invest 9 months in pregnancy and this limits the number of offspring that they can produce > this also discourage them from mating with many males and being selective in mating - males are more willingly to engage in uncommitted sex compared to females C.2.1) Gender Differences in Patterns of Sexual Activity - Men: think about sex more than women do, overestimate female sexual interest in the, subjective rating in sex drive tends to be higher, have more frequent and varied sexual fantasies C.2.2) Gender Differences in Mate Preferences - Female: demand long-term commitment from males > emphasize more on partner characteristics: ambition, income, intelligent, social status But those preferences are viewed as subconscious preferences that have been hard-wired into the human brain

- Male: women who are sexually faithful and capable of nurturing children C.2.3) Criticism and Alternative Explanations - womens preferences could be the by-product of cultural and economic forces rather than biological imperatives - Counterargument: cultural and economic processes at work may themselves be products of evolution C.3) The Controversial Issue of Pornography - no correlation between greater availability of porno with elevated rate of sex crime

- But, porno may alter attitudes that influence sexual behavior > e.g: developed more liberal attitudes about sexual practices (view premarital and extramarital as acceptable) - Aggressive pornography: aggressive porno typically depicts violence against women > it increases males aggressiveness towards women - also may cause sexual coercion seems less offensive and perpetuate the myth that women enjoy being raped and ravaged > males who believe women who are raped asked for it tend to do this more - Prevalence: date rape (women are forced to have sex in context of dating) > males admit of doing so but never identify themselves as rapists and the same goes to women C.4) The Mystery of Sexual Orientation - Sexual orientation: persons preference for emotional and sexual relationship with individuals of the same sex, other sex or either sex - Heterosexual: seeks emotional-sexual relationship in opposite gender - Bisexual: with either gender Homosexual: same gender C.4.1) Environmental Theories - Freud theorists: male is likely to become gay when raised by a weak, detached, ineffectual father who is a poor heterosexual role model and by an overprotective, close-binding mother - extremely feminine behavior in boys or masculinity in girls foes predict the subsequent development of homosexuality > evidence: gay men and women can trace back their homosexual leaning back to their childhood even before they know what sex actually is > suggests that homosexuality comes in nature and not nurtured by the environment C.4.2) Biological Theories - Figures: Bailey and Pillard > men with adopted brother or twin brother. Result: identical more likely to have same sexual orientation , followed by fraternal twin and adopted brother is the least likely > indicating genetic predisposition in sex orientation OTHER: - hormonal secretion during critical period of prenatal development may shape sexual development, organize the brain in a lasting manner and influence subsequent sexual orientation - womens sexual behavior is easier to be rendered due to socio-cultural factor more than males do > evidence: lesbians and bi often change their sex preference, they are usually unable to trace their sex orientation development during childhood; it usually occurs during adulthood D) ACHIEVEMENT: IN SEARCH OF EXCELLENCE - Achievement Motive: the need to master difficult challenges to outperform others and to meet high standard of excellence

D.1) Individual Differences in the Need for Achievement - need for achievement can be measured with Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) > require subject to picture and describe it. From here, the personal motive traits can be learned - People in need of high achievement : accept criticism better, work harder and more persistently , future-oriented and delay gratification D.2) Situational Determinants if Achievement Behavior - FACTORS: > strength of motivation > probability of achieving the task > incentive of the task - when probability and incentive are weighed together, moderately challenging task seems to maximize ones sense of accomplishment - people vary in motivation to avoid failure - this is explained via avoidance and approach concept E) THE ELEMENTS OF EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE E.1) The Cognitive Component: Subjective Feelings - Emotion involves: > cognitive component (subjective conscious experience) > physiological component (physical arousal) > behavioral component (overt expression) E.2) The Physiological Component: Diffuse and Multifaceted - its hard to describe emotion due to its high subjectivity > usually involves automatic response that is hard to control - affective forecasting: effort to predicting ones emotional reaction regarding to future events > people often mispredict their feelings in relation to good or bad event > BUT good at predicting whether or not the event will generate positive feeling E.2.1) Autonomic Arousal - emotions are accompanied by visceral arousal > which is accompanied by autonomic nervous system which is responsible for fight-or-flight response -- modulated by the release of hormone - galvanic skin response (GSR) : an increase in electrical conductivity of the skin when sweat gland increases its activity - which brings to polygraph (lie detector) > device that records autonomic fluctuation while a subject is questioned > monitors blood pressure, heart rate, perspiration rate and GSR (level of sweat activity) E.2.2) Affective Neuroscience: Emotions and the Brain - new subdiscipline: study of affective neuroscience that focuses on neurobiology of emotions - suspects as the seat of emotions: hypothalamus, amygdala, adjacent structures in the limbic system

- amygdala: plays a role in the acquisition of conditioned fear > sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus which simultaneously routes the information along two separate pathways : fast pathway and slower pathway > amygdala processes the information instantly i.e when it senses threat and causes the autonomic arousal and endocrine responses -- this process is extremely fast and brain isnt able to process the information OTHERS: - prefrontal cortex: control emotional reaction and modulates emotion associated with the pursuit of goals - front portion of cingulate cortex: process pain-related emotional distress and emotional struggle when making choices - mesolimbic dopamine pathway: pleasurable emotions associated with rewarding events - mirror neurons: activated when copying someones action E.3) The Behavioral Component: Nonverbal Expressiveness - emotions are expressed through body language or non-verbal behavior - facial-feedback: facial muscle sends signal that help brain to identify the emotion > result: they feel what they are doing - emotional efference: change in facial expression affects the temperature blood going to the brain resulting in distinct emotions - facial expression maybe innate > blind people show the same expression when they are happy , frown etc E.4) Culture and the Elements of Emotion E.4.1) Cross-Cultural Similarities in Emotional Experience - several researchers bring pictures of people smiling, crying etc to a remote area in New Guinea and those people manage to identify accurately those emotion. > subject can identify more accurately the expression of people from same cultural group > considerable evidence: different cultures express emotions in similar ways E.4.2) Cross-Cultural Differences in Emotional Experience - socially engaging emotions (friendly feelings, sympathy and guilt) : widespread in Japan but not in North America which is high of socially disengaging emotions (pride, anger) Language perspective: some cultural groups do not possess words for sadness, depression etc Display rules: norms that dictate the appropriate expression of emotions > some cultural groups pose restrictions on certain kind of emotion -- nonverbal expressions of emotions vary across cultures because of culture-specific attitudes and display rules

F) THEORIES OF EMOTION F.1) James-Lange Theory - conscious experience of emotion results from ones perception of autonomic arousal > you feel afraid because your heart beats faster (if it doesnt, you might not even experience fear)

F.2) Cannon-Bard Theory - counter James-Lange Theory: physiological arousal may occur without conscious experience of emotion (e.g heart may beat faster by exercising eventhough there isnt any danger) > also because, some emotion may create an identical pattern of autonomic arousal - thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience) AND to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal) - many theorists agree that emotion originates from subcortical brain structures F.3) Schachters Two-Factor Theory - Experience of emotion depends on 2: > autonomic arousal > cognitive interpretation of autonomic arousal -- when you experience autonomic arousal, you search the environment for an explanation - agree that: emotion is inferred from autonomic arousal (James-Lange) AND different emotions yields similar pattern of autonomic arousal (Cannon-Bard) - people tend to refer to external rather than internal in determining what they are actually feeling F.4) Evolutionary Theories of Emotion - emotion developed because of their adaptive value - emotion evolved before thought and thought plays a small role in emotion - emotion originates from subcortical brain that evolved first before the higher brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thought - e.g: disgust feeling assists human with avoidance behavior that prevents disease and infection G) PERSONAL APPLICATION G.1) Factors That Do Not Predict Happiness G.1.1) Money - the association is weak. Once it exceeds the upper-ceiling of maximum income that max happiness, income doesnt matter anymore for happiness G.1.2) Age - tend to stable of life span G.1.3) Parenthood - parents with children are no more no less happier than childless couple G.1.4) Intelligence and Attractiveness G.2) Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness G.2.1) Health - happiness may foster better health G.2.2) Social Activity - happy when social around

G.2.3) Religion - because religion gives them a sense of purpose, meaning in their lives, help accept their setbacks, connect to a caring, supportive community G.3) Strong Predictors of Happiness G.3.1) Love and Marriage - married people are happier than the divorced G.3.2) Work - unemployment has strong negative effects on subjective well-being G.3.3) Genetics and Personality - extraversion/positive emotionality: outgoing, sociable, upbeat tend to be happier than others G.4) Conclusions about Subjective Well-Being 1) objective realities are not as important as subjective feelings 2) when it comes to happiness, everything is relative 3) people often adapt to their circumstances - hedonic adaptation: when baseline changes in regard to peoples judgment on the level of unpleasantness - we adapt more slowly to negative event than positive event F) ANALYZING ARGUMENTS: MAKING SENSE OUT OF CONTROVERSY F.1) The Anatomy of an Argument - argument: one or more premises that are used to provide support for a conclusion - premises: the reasons that are presented to persuade someone that the conclusion is true - assumptions: no proof or evidence is provided - counterarguments: reasons that take support away from a conclusion F.2) Common Fallacies F.2.1) Irrelevant Reasons - arguments that depend on irrelevant reasons (intentionally or inadvertently) F.2.2) Circular Reasoning - restatement of each other F.2.3) Slippery Slope - if you allow X to happen, things will spin out of control and far worse events will follow F.2.4) Weak Analogies - draw conclusion about event B because of its similarity with event A F.2.5) False Dichotomy - creates : choice between two outcomes > some horrible outcome > outcome intended F.3) Evaluating the Strength of Arguments

- conclusion - premise provided - any fallacies involved - assumptions made - counterargument - anything being omitted