Penicillin: An Accidental Miracle

Nina Howard and Meredith Schilpp

National History Day Website Group
Junior Division

Secondary Sources:

"Andy", Anonymous. "What Exactly Is Penicillin?" The Milwaukee Journal 24 Jan. 1957: 1. Print. This
newspaper article is a secondary source. It describes how penicillin was a lucky miracle and how
the mold grew.

Bakalar, Nicholas. "First Mention- Penicillin, 1940." The New York Times 23 Feb. 2009: n. page. The
New York Times. Web. 29 Dec. 2012. This New York Time's article is a rare passage about when
the Times first mentioned penicillin. On May 18, 1922, Alexander Fleming was first mentioned
in this newspaper. This was for his discovery of antibacterial properties in human tears. The
bacteria fighting effect of tears is from lysozymes, which scientists now know is a type of
enzyme that destroys cell walls of certain bacteria. It was not until 1940, twelve years after its
discovery, that penicillin made it into the Times.

"Be Careful With Penicillin." Los Angeles Times 7 Feb. 2000: n. pag. Los Angeles Times. Web. This
newspaper article found in the L.A. Times warns people to be cautious when using penicillin, as
it is the most commonly prescribed drug to cause medicine allergies. Anaphylactic reactions
from the drug are estimated to cause 400 to 800 deaths throughout the year. A new perspective
on penicillin is revealed in this article; it shows negative aspects of penicillin, and why some
people may not consider this medicine to be a "miracle drug.

"Biotechnology: Screening Procedures, Fermentation and the Production of Penicillin, Industrial
Enzymes." Biotechnology: Screening Procedures, Fermentation and the Production of
Penicillin, Industrial Enzymes. Web. 17 Dec. 2012.This website gives information about how
penicillin is produced in a factory including amazing images and diagrams of how the
process functions.
De, La Bedoyere, Guy. The Discovery oI Penicillin. Milwaukee, WI: World Almanac Library, 2006.
Print. This is a secondary source about Sir Alexander Fleming discovery of penicillin. It also
elaborates on how the mold Penicillium kills the bacteria Staphylococcus, and how penicillin is
used in the modern day.

The Discovery of Penicillin (1964). Perf. Alexander Fleming. 1964. Youtube. Web. 4 Feb. 2013.This
film summed up our whole project on penicillin. It described its discovery, purification, and
mass production in extensive detail. The video clips displayed are collections of primary and
secondary sources.

"Europeana." A Happy Accident: Fleming's Penicillin. N.p., Aug.-Sept. 2012. Web. 01 Nov. 2012.
<http://blog.europeana.eu/2012/08/a-happy-accident-flemings-penicillin/>.
This website provides wonderful images and a link to view the first page of Alexander Flemings
paper on penicillin. Also, it provides background information on Alexander Fleming's life and
information about the processes he took to render the publication of his research.

Ewald, Paul W. "The Endless War and The Prepared Mind." Plague Time: How Stealth Infections Cause
Cancers, Heart Disease, and Other Deadly Ailments. New York: Free, 2000. 77+. Print. This
book explains the negative effects of antibiotics. Paul Ewald tells how antibiotics benefit the
individual, but not the future of society. This is because the more people use antibiotics, then the
easier and more likely that bacteria will develop resistance to the medication. Because of this,
scientists have to keep coming up with new antibiotics, and they cannot do this as quickly as
pathogens are becoming immune to antibiotics.

Fradin, Dennis B. "Alexander Fleming." With a Little Luck: Surprising Stories of Amazing Discoveries.
New York: Dutton Children's, 2006. 98-114. Print. This book provided extensive information
regarding Alexander Fleming's childhood, and his journey to becoming a medical researcher. It
tells stories of his experiments on human tears and mucus, which led him to discover that certain
body parts are resistant to bacteria. They produce lysozymes, which are natural substances that
destroy bacteria. The discovery of lysozymes assisted in his findings and work with penicillin

Hantula, Richard. Alexander Fleming / by Richard Hantula. Milwaukee, WI: World Almanac, 2003.
Print. This biography describes the bacteriologist's (Alexander Fleming) many contributions to
medicine and his awards including a 1945 Nobel Prize. The book includes information about
how Fleming was born on a Scottish farm in 1881 and ends with his death in 1955. Hantula
explains the importance of his subject's discoveries. Also, the book includes pictures of bacteria
and of penicillin crystals.

"Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain." Homepage of the Chemical Heritage Foundation. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. Extensive information concerning Howard Florey and Ernst Boris
Chain's continuation and completion of Fleming's work on penicillin is provided in this article.
Florey and Chain were the one's responsible for purifying penicillin into a safe drug with
antibacterial properties. They also made commercial sales of the drug possible, which was
crucial to the Allies' victory in World War ll.

Jiang, Chengcheng. "When Penicillin Pays: Why China Loves Antibiotics a Little Too Much." TIME
World. N.p., 5 Jan. 2012. Web. 29 Dec. 2012. This article from TIME's online news relates the
dangers of the overuse of antibiotics. Instead of only using antibiotics when suffering from
bacterial infections, the Chinese go to their local hospital to receive an antibiotic drip just when
suffering from a cold. Chinese doctors' motto is to prescribe antibiotics to "be on the safe side,"
because they believe it cannot hurt. The excessive use of antibiotics in China is causing bacteria
to become immune to these drugs, and with time, antibiotics may completely lose their
effectiveness in this country.

Jones, Cyndy L.A. "Is It Bad to Take Antibiotics?" The Antibiotic Alternative: The Natural Guide to
Fighting Infection and Maintaining a Healthy Immune System. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts,
2000. 87+. Print. Alternative solutions to antibiotics are described in this book, such as using
herbal remedies and other homemade medicines. One of the chapters explained how physicians
prescribe antibiotics for common colds, respiratory infections, and other viral diseases. This is
possibly because they are not properly educated, or they feel that their patients expect a
prescription, and they want their clients to be satisfied.

Kalvaitis, Katie. "Penicillin: An Accidental Discovery Changed the Course of Medicine."
Http://www.healio.com/endocrinology/news/print/endocrine-today/%7B15AFD2A1-2084-
4CA6-A4E6-7185F5C4CFB0%7D/Penicillin-An-accidental-discovery-changed-the-course-of-
medicine. British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 1929; 10:226-236., Aug.-Sept. 2008. Web.
Oct.-Nov. 2012. The website demonstrates how Sir Alexander Fleming, a Scottish researcher,
was credited with the discovery of penicillin in 1928. Also, it offers examples of the numerous
uses of penicillin, such as how the soldiers in World War ll used it as an antibiotic to heal fatal
wounds.

"Ketogenic Diet." Ketogenic Diet. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. This website explains how the
ketogenic diet functions. This diet is used when the body has no more glucose for energy, so it
has to resort to burning its stored fat. The ketogenic diet keeps the body low on sugars so it will
continue to burn Iat. Alexander Flemings boss wanted him to quit his research with penicillin
and work on the ketogenic diet.
Lax, Eric. The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat: The Story of the Penicillin Miracle. New York: H. Holt, 2004.
85-113. Print. This book introduces Norman Heatley, a man who considerably helped Florey
and Chain with purifying penicillin. Heatley had stayed at Oxford to study, and Florey asked if
Heatley would assist them with their work on purifying penicillin. Luckily he accepted the offer,
or it may have taken penicillin many more years to become a drug, costing millions oI soldiers
and citizens lives.

Macfarlane, Gwyn. Alexander Fleming, the Man and the Myth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1984. 65-
127. Print. Alexander Fleming, the Man and the Myth, shows the number of trials Fleming
perIormed to recreate the antibacterial mold paste from the Penicillium mold. Additionally,
this book conveys the Oxford teams success puriIying Penicillium, and the Iact that it took them
twelve years to release penicillin as a usable drug in World War II. The latter finally happened in
1940.

Macfarlane, Gwyn. Alexander Fleming, the Man and the Myth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1984.
27+. Print. This book tells about Fleming experimenting at St. Mary's Hospital, where he
worked, Flemings experiences in medical school, and his liIe in London. Also, it goes into great
detail about the pre-World War II years and the Inoculation Department.

Mailer, John S., Jr., and Barbara Mason. "Penicillin: Medicine's Wartime Wonder Drug and Its
Production at Peoria, Illinois." Penicillin: Medicine's Wartime Wonder Drug and Its Production
at Peoria, Illinois. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.This article gave a thorough description of
molds, penicillin's discovery, and the drugs used in World War ll. It explained how penicillin
was able to be mass produced, which was from finding the lactose liquid of fermented corn, and
mixing this paste with the extracted Penicillium.

"Medicine, History of." Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online School Edition.
Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2012. <http://www.school.eb.com/eb/article-
35674>. In the 1950s especially, it was realized that penicillin does not cure every bacterial
disease, and that other antibiotics were necessary. This article talks about this situation, and how
the over use of penicillin was causing bacteria to develop immunity to the drug. Researchers
have now developed modern drugs that dispatch the bacteria that had become immune to
penicillin.

"Penicillin." Personal interview. 10 Dec. 2012. Doctor James Schnell was interviewed about
information on penicillin. He answered questions on antibiotics used before penicillin, which
was sulfa. He explained how a cousin to penicillin, Cephalosporin, has evolved. This medicine
has less allergic reactions. "Penicillin is a safe drug with very few side effects, however some
patients can develop allergies to penicillin; they often develop a rash." -Doctor James Schnell

"Penicillin Side Effects." Drugs.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Dec. 2012. Like all medications, penicillin has
numerous side effects. This website explained many of the reactions that can be caused by
penicillin, the most severe being swelling of the face, tongue or lips, hives, and trouble breathing.
Usually the reason people experience side effects from this drug is from overdose or not
completing the prescription. Not finishing the prescribed medication does not kill all the bacteria,
thus causing these pathogens to grow stronger and develop immunity to the drug.

Pharmaceutical industry." Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online School Edition.
Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2012.
<http://www.school.eb.com/eb/article-260295>. This website communicates what medications
were used before the invention of penicillin. Arsphenamine was a medicine used prior to
penicillin to treat the plague like disease, syphilis.

Sherman, Josepha. The War against Germs. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2004. Print. This book
offered information about what germs are, how they were unknown in Ancient and Medieval
History, and the way pathogens are currently fought. The book also provided background
information on how the medical field was before antibiotics, how Sir Alexander discovered
penicillin, and descriptions on how the drug has evolved throughout the years.

Smith, Dale. "Penicillin: Invention of War." Interview. Modern Marvels. The History Channel. N.d.
Television. Dale Smith states that since ancient times, doctors and patients alike dreamed of a
medicine that would cure diseases miraculously. A substance of the mold Penicillium was the
answer. The discoverer, Alexander Fleming, was not able to purify or mass produce the mold, so
it was forgotten. Then in World War II, its mass production was necessary. Smith tells, "It (mass
production of penicillin) was almost the equivalent of the Manhattan Project, in the effort to get
penicillin in sufficient quantities to take care of all the soldiers wounded."

Walker, Richard. Epidemics & Plagues. Boston, MA: Kingfisher, 2006. Print. This book gave a
thorough history of the discovery that pathogens caused infectious diseases. It gave an insight
into pathogens and how they cause illness. Also, this book describes the bodys deIenses to
germs, which is the skin and white blood cells, known as lymphocytes. It explains how
lymphocytes track and destroy bacteria. If all of these defenses fail, then antibiotics come in,
such as penicillin. BeIore penicillins discovery in 1929, iI these protections Iell short, then there
was naught anyone could do to cure the disease.


Wainwright, Milton. Miracle Cure: The Story of Antibiotics. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1990.
38-50. Print. While reading these pages, people can discover how The Oxford group got
together and purified penicillin and about the long process that it took for penicillin to be purified
and the first documented cures that penicillin did.

Wainwright, Milton. Miracle Cure: The Story of Antibiotics. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1990.
65-79. Print. This section of the book describes how hard it was to mass produce penicillin so
there was enough to be used in the war, and how it was considered to be a wonder drug. Also,
it illustrates how Fleming and Florey became friends and worked together so they could purify
penicillin and become able to mass produce it.

Wainwright, Milton. Miracle Cure: The Story of Antibiotics. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1990.
87-96. Print. This book indicates how penicillin influenced other scientists to start trying to find
other cures for diseases. People can see how the discovery of penicillin provided the spark that
provoked and encouraged other scientists to search for additional treatments.

Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. The History of Medicine. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First
Century, 2006. Print. This book provides information on the benefits of antibiotics, and the way
they work. It also gives a history on the discovery and mass production of penicillin. This source
shows how the medicine was a life saver in World War ll, and how crucial its discovery has been
to the world. The finding of this antibiotic led to the discovery of many more antibiotics, and
now people can be easily cured from diseases that were once plagues, such as pneumonia.


Primary Sources:

"Banquet Speech." Sir Alexander Fleming -. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Dec. 2012. This website provides a
phenomenal primary source, Sir Alexander Flemings speech at the banquet while receiving his
Nobel Prize. He makes great points such as "We all know that chance, fortune, fate or destiny -
call it what you will has played a considerable part in many of the great discoveries in science."
Also, the website provided amazing information about Fleming, his biography. It included a
fantastic and educational live Iilm oI Flemings speech when he received the Nobel Prize.

D-Day: Historical Film Footage. N.d. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. National Archives.
Web. The invasion of Normandy, France, by the Allied forces in World War ll was displayed in
this primary source video. Real footage of World War ll soldiers is shown, and background
information on this significant invasion, which could not have succeeded without the use of
penicillin.

Fleming, Alexander. "First Page of Alexander Fleming's Paper on Penicillin." Europeana. European
Library, 1929. Web. 01 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/9200105/A2D519C83B773E348DFABBA59E5F57513
4FB6981.html>. This primary source allows people to visually see what Alexander Fleming put
in the first page of his research book. It provided information about the date his research was
published, 1929. A year after, he discovered the mold, which was infesting his petri dish of
bacteria, after returning to his lab from a two week trip.
Fleming, Alexander. "On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference
to Their Use in the Isolation of B. Influenzae." Clinical Infectious Diseases 2.1 (1980): 129-39.
Abstract. On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to
Their Use in the Isolation of B. Influenzae. (n.d.): 512-16. Print. This is a primary source from
American Decades, Primary Sources from 1920-1929. Flemings view oI the mold he Iound
growing in his petri dish is displayed in this lab report excerpt. The toxicity of penicillin, and
how it was demonstrated to be an eIIective product is also shown Irom Flemings perspective.

Fox Movietone News Story 52-278: Penicillin, Miracle Drug of War. Prod. Jack Haney. Perf. Lowell
Thomas. University of South Carolina Libraries | MIRC. Fox Movietone News, n.d. Web. 19
Dec. 2012.This video clip shows the process undertaken to make penicillin. Workers put the
lactose liquid in bottles, which will help grow Penicillium. "Penicillin girls" sterilize the mold to
rid it of germs.
"How Penicillin Kills Bacteria." How Penicillin Kills Bacteria. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. This
website is about how cells and bacteria Iunction. It proves how peoples immune systems can
become immune to diseases. Also, this website provided phenomenal images and videos of cells
and bacteria.
Howard, Carol, and Harris Howard. "Penicillin and Antibiotics in the Early 1900s." Telephone
interview. 6 Jan. 2013. Carol Howard was born in 1933, and Harris Howard was born in 1923.
They explained that Sulfa Drugs were used as antibiotics before and during World War II by the
public. Carol Howard told how she was sick out of school for months around 1942. Doctors
finally gave her Sulfa, and she quickly recovered. The Howards also said that penicillin was
eventually introduced to the public after World War II, while it was saved for soldiers' use during
the war. Carol tells about life before penicillin and says, "If you got something (a disease) really
bad, maybe you got better and maybe you didn't."

"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945: Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst B. Chain, Sir Howard
Florey." Nobelprize.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2013.This website provides information on
Fleming, Chain, and Florey's winning of the Nobel Prize. It contains their banquet speeches
given when they received their awards. This website would be considered a primary source
because it offers the original transcripts of these scientists' speeches, and information from
historians of that time.
Normandy Invasion: penicillin and plasma. Video. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.school.eb.com/eb/art-40417>. The purification, mass production, and testing of
penicillin on live rats is shown in this informative video clip. This video shows Alexander
Fleming examining cultures of penicillin.
Penicillin. Video. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 14 Nov. 2012. <http://www.school.eb.com/eb/art-
67753>. This video clip displays Alexander Fleming examining and researching penicillin, as
well as the purification and mass production of the drug. It gives a brief background on the
discovery of penicillin, and goes into how Fleming did not figure out how to purify the drug,
Howard Florey and Ernst Chang accomplished this feat. This video enlightens people on how
the mass production of penicillin was crucial to the Allies, because it saved countless of their
soldiers lives in World War ll.
"Penicillin Shown to Cure Syphilis." The New York Times 16 Dec. 1949: 424-25. Print. This newspaper
article explained how devastating a disease syphilis was to people during the 1940s. It also
displays how penicillin was proven to cure syphilis. This source explained that thanks to
penicillin, people would no longer have to worry about dying from syphilis.

Reyn, Alice, Bent Korner, and Michael Weis Bentzon. "Effects of Penicillin, Streptomycin, and
Tetracycline on N. Gonnorrhoeae Isolated in 1944 and in 1957." British Journal of Venereal
Diseases 34 (1958): 227-39. PMC National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health.
Web. 6 Dec. 2012. This article from the British Journal of Venereal Diseases explains how the
continuous use of penicillin with the N. gonorrhoeae species decreases its impact and
effectiveness. The body can become immune to this medicine if used too frequently. The
excerpt compares the effects of penicillin on these bacteria to streptomycin and tetracycline
effects. The performance of penicillin became weaker, so this source demonstrates some
possible negative aspects of the drug.

Spencer, Steven M. "The Dangers of Penicillin." Saturday Evening Post 23 May 1959: 31+. Science
Reference Center. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. This magazine article shows a different point of view of
the invention of this drug. It proves that there were some negative aspects of penicillin. This
source is a primary source because the magazine article was a firsthand account of what the
world was experiencing with penicillin in the 1950s.

"The Virtual Oxford Science Walk." The Virtual Oxford Science Walk. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/features/walk/loc2.htm>. This source tells Alexander Fleming's
observation of one of his culture plates. His observations were of a mold that killed bacteria,
which led to the wartime development and production, initially in Oxford and later in America,
of penicillin.

Wainwright, Milton. "Alexander Fleming Is Interviewed for the 1934 RAE." Microbiology
Today Aug. 2004: 130-31. Web. 30 Oct. 2012. This source shows what Alexander Fleming was
at work on concerning the research of penicillin. It expresses what he was experiencing at his
work, and conveys that at first people did not believe penicillin would become a successful
medicine. His boss, Almroth Wright, did not think that they should invest money into research
on penicillin. In fact, Wright thought that the ketogenic diet, which is burning stored fat instead
of glucose for energy, would be much more successful than penicillin, and insisted that Fleming
drop his work concerning penicillin and focus on the diet.

Wassenaar, Dr. T. M. "The Virtual Museum of Bacteria." Antibiotics. 6 Jan. 2009. Web. 10 Dec. 2012.
This website explains how antibiotics work, the system the human body uses to fight them, how
they were "wonder drugs," and many more facts. It also describes how the use and misuse of
antibiotics has negative side effects and how antibiotics remain in the body for some time after
use.