1

Clay Minerals and Soil

Stabilization
Dr. M.HAFEZ
Soil88@gmail.com

Details of Lecturer
Course Lecturer: Dr. Mohd Hafez
Room Number: T1-A13-A11Tower
1.0, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Email: Soil88@gmail.com
Tel. No. : 55 43 64 15
office Hours: 8.30 a.m. to 5.0 p.m
(Monday to Friday)

Course outcomes:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:-

a.Understand the objectives of ground improvement

b.Propose types of ground improvement for different ground condition

c.Design ground improvement techniques for a given site condition

d.Propose a suitable method and economical stabilization techniques

e. Understanding the concept of ground contamination from the geotechnical point of
view.

f. Acquire methods of identification, classification and interpretation of ground
contamination types.

g. Propose suitable and economical remediation for different type of ground
contamination materials.

h. Describe the contamination process cycle and acquire the methods of testing of the
level of ground contamination.
1.0 Introduction to Ground Improvement Techniques
1.1 Ground modification methods
1.2 Choice of method and suitability to ground condition
1.3 limitations, advantages and disadvantages
2.0 Mechanical Methods - design and analysis
2.1 Static and dynamic compaction
2.2 Vibro-compaction and vibro- repJacement
2.3 Blasting
2.4 Dynamic Consolidation
2.5 Stone columns
2.4 Dynamic Consolidation
2.5 Stone columns
SYLLABUS CONTENT
3.0 Hydraulic Methods - design and analysis
3.1 Ground water control
3.2 Preloading
3.3 Vertical Drains
3.4 Dewatering
3.5 Electro~osmosis
4.0 Chemical and Physical Methods - design and analysis
4.1 Lime stabilization - surface and deep mixing
4.2 Lime-slurry injection
4.3 Application of lime piles
4.4 Grouting and its engineering application..
5.0
Soil Reinforcement Method - design and analysis
5.1 Types of soil reinforcement
5.2 Soil nailing designa and application
5.3 Lightweight material and its application
6.0





7.0
Geotextile as Soil Improvement Material- design and analysis
6.1Application as a reinforcement, separator, filter and drainage
material
6.2 Application for embankment, slope stability and retaining
structure
6.3 Application for highway construction

Prediction of Subsidence
7.1 Method of predicting subsidence
7.2 Soil subsidence due to tunneling, excavation, groundwater and
liquefaction
7.3 Sinkhole due to underground cavities
8.0 Geoenvironmental Problems and Regulations
8.1 Geoenvironmental and contaminated land
8.2 Soil contamination
8.3 The problem and its investigation
8.4 Geoenvironmental and contamination problems in Malaysia
8.5 Risk assessment and management
8.6 Remediation standards and regulation

9.0 Environmental Geology
9.1 Brief review of geological fundamentals
9.2 Rock and soil classification in engineering geology and geotechnics
9.3 Mapping, site investigation and logging
9.4 Environmental geohazards
9.5 Environmental geochemistry

10.0 Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Transport
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Groundwater motion
10.3 Groundwater flow modeling
10.4 Groundwater quality
11.0 Waste Containment Systems and Development of Landfill Sites
11.1 Characterization of urban wastes and its engineering properties
11.2 Review on engineering properties of soil
11.3 Soil-waste interactions
11.4 Waste containment systems (sanitary landfills)
11.5 Engineering problems associated with landfill


12.0 Remediation of Contaminated Land
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Site characterization
12.3 Geostatistics
ASSESSMENT
-Assignment (3)
- Tests (2)
45%
55%
Total : 100 %
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOK
1- Hansbo, S. (2003). 'Ground Improvement', GEO Forum Nil
REFERENCES
1.Bell, F.G. (1 993),'Engineering Treatment of Soils', E & F N Span.
2.British Standard Institution (1995), 'Code of Practice for Strengthened f Reinforced
Soil and Other Fills', BS 8006, HMSO.
3.Koerner, RM. (1985), 'Construction and Geotechnical Methods in Foundation
ENGINEERING', McGraw Hill.
4.Miura, N. and Bergado, DT (1998), 'Improvement of Soft Ground:
Design, Analysis and Current Researchers', Asian Center for Soil Improvement and
Geosynthetics, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
1.National Coal Board (1975), ' Subsidence Engineers Handbook', Mining
Department'
2.U.S. Department of Transportation, 'Geotextile Engineering Manual'.
Manfred, R.H. (1998), 'Engineering Principles of Ground Modification, McGraw
Hill.
1.Journal of Ground Engineering.
2. International Conf. On Ground Improvement Techniques
Geosynthethics International Journal
9.0 Daniel, D.E. Geotechnical practice for waste disposal , Chapman and Hall,
London .
Objectives
-1- Increase strength, reduce erodibility
-2-Reduce distortion
-3-Reduce compressibility
-4-Control shrinkage/ swelling
-5-Control permeability
-6-Reduce liquifaction
Application
-1-Improve sub grade or sub base reduce pavement thickness
-2-Improve traffic ability on construction sites
-3-Prepare ground for shallow foundations
-4-Stabilize slopes
-5-Reduce erosion internal seepage
-6-Construct embankments
-7-Form load bearing column (in situ) (grouted auger piles)
-8-Reduce traffic dust
-9-Contain hazardous wastes
-10-Rehabilitate polluted ground
Chapter 1.0
Chemical ground improvement techniques

BACKGROUND








More than 70% of the 5000 km of Malaysia coastal line is made of a
layer of soft soil, with thickness ranged between 20 to 40 meters.
The WEAK nature of the soft clay has been a deterrent towards
economic and tourism development.
Resorting to deep concrete pile system in order to build a medium
size structure ( 2-3 stories) is considered a very expensive alternative.
Where the foundation costs much more than superstructure.
Newly sand reclamation on the soft soil generates negative skin
friction, which almost doubles the length of the concrete pile as well as
costs.


Such soil must be improved in order to take the loads from building,
roads and other objects.
Deep Mixing Method ( DMM) includes the Dry Jet Mixing ( DJM)
and Wet method (slurry) is quite new techniques, first time was reported
in1957








- The main processes were developed in 1970s simultaneously in
Sweden and Japan
-DMM is technique where soil is mixed with one or two stabilizing
agents often cement or lime.
-The two main ways of transporting the stabilizer down to the depth to
be treated can be identified as Wet or Dry.

Purpose of deep stabilization
Reduction of settlement
Increase of stability
Increase of bearing capacity
Prevention of sliding failure
Protection of structures close to excavation
Reduction of vibration
Liquefaction mitigation
Remediation of contamination ground

APPLICATION Of Lime- Cement
columns
17
Outline
1. Clay Minerals - Background
2. Identification of Clay Minerals
3. Specific Surface (S
s
)
4. Interaction of Water and Clay Minerals
5. Interaction of Clay Particles
6. Soil Structure and Fabric
7. Soil Fabric-Natural Soil
8. Soil Fabric-Clay Soils
9. Soil Fabrics-Granular Soils
10. Loess
11. Suggested Homework
12. References
18
Background
The term clay refers to a number of earthy materials that are composed
of minerals rich in alumina, silica and water. Clay is not a single mineral,
but a number of minerals. When most clays are wet, they become
"plastic" meaning they can be formed and molded into shapes. When
they are "fired" (exposed to very high temperatures), the water is driven
off and they become as hard as stone. Clay is easily found all over the
world. As a result, nearly all civilizations have used some form of clay
for everything from bricks to pottery to tablets for recording business
transactions. The minerals that make up clay are so fine that until the
invention of X-ray diffraction ( XRD) analysis, these minerals were not
specifically known. Under extremely high magnification, one can see
that clay minerals can be shaped like flakes, fibers, and even hollow
tubes. Clays can also contain other materials such as iron oxide (rust),
silica, and rock fragments. These impurities can change the
characteristics of the clay. For example, iron oxide colors clay red. The
presence of silica increases the plasticity of the clay (that is, makes it
easier to mold and form into shapes).
19
Clay
The term clay is used in 3 different ways: to designate a diverse group
of fine-grained minerals, as a rock or sediment term, and as a particle-
size term. Clay is generally defined as any very fine grained, natural,
earthy material, which is generally plastic at appropriate water contents
and hardens when dried or fired. Despite the lack of a standard
definition for clay among geologists, agronomists, engineers, and soil
scientists, the term clay is generally understood by all who use it. As
industrial minerals, clays are a complex group, encompassing diverse
mineral commodities, each having somewhat different mineralogy,
geologic occurrence, manufacturing technology, and uses.
20
18 APRIL 2007
LIME STABILIZE CLAY 21

Flaky
shape
Plate like
structure
22
Elements of Earth
12500 km dia
8-35 km crust
% by weight in crust
O = 49.2
Si = 25.7
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6
82.4%
23
Soil Formation
Parent Rock
Residual soil
Transported soil
~ in situ weathering (by
physical & chemical
agents) of parent rock
~ weathered and
transported far away
by wind, water and ice.
Parent Rock
~ formed by one of these three different processes
igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic
formed by cooling of
molten magma (lava)
formed by gradual
deposition, and in layers
formed by alteration
of igneous &
sedimentary rocks by
pressure/temperature
e.g., limestone, shale
e.g., marble
e.g., granite
25
Residual Soils
Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock
26
Transported Soils
Transported by: Special name:
wind Aeolian
sea (salt water) Marine
lake (fresh water) Lacustrine
river Alluvial
ice Glacial
27
28
Basic Structural Units
0.26 nm
oxygen
silicon
0.29 nm
aluminium or
magnesium
hydroxyl or
oxygen
Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural units.
Silicon tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron
29
Tetrahedral Sheet
Several tetrahedrons joined together form a
tetrahedral sheet.
tetrahedron
hexagonal
hole
30
31
32
Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets
For simplicity, lets represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:
Si
and alumina octahedral sheet by:
Al
Kaolinite
Si
Al
Si
Al
Si
Al
Si
Al
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation
0.72 nm
Typically
70-100
layers
joined by oxygen
sharing
34
Montmorillonite
Si
Al
Si
Si
Al
Si
Si
Al
Si
0.96 nm
joined by weak
van der Waals bond
easily separated
by water
also called smectite; expands on contact with water
35
Montmorillonite
A highly reactive (expansive) clay
montmorillonite family
used as drilling mud, in slurry trench walls,
stopping leaks
(OH)
4
Al
4
Si
8
O
20
.nH
2
O
high affinity to water
Bentonite
swells on contact with water
36
Illite
Si
Al
Si
Si
Al
Si
Si
Al
Si
0.96 nm
joined by K
+
ions
fit into the hexagonal
holes in Si-sheet
37
Summary - Montmorillonite
Montmorillonites have very high specific surface,
cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water.
They form reactive clays.
Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is frequently used as
drilling mud.
Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+),
plasticity index and activity (1-7).
38
A Clay Particle
Plate-like or Flaky Shape
39
40
41
42
43
44
Soil Structure and
Fabric
45
Clay Fabric
Flocculated
Dispersed
edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact
46
Clay Fabric
Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,
cations present in the water) during the time of
sedimentation influence clay fabric significantly.
Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the load applied on them.
47
48
Specific Surface
surface area per unit mass (m
2
/g)
smaller the grain, higher the specific surface
e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7
10 mm cube
1 mm cube
spec. surface = 222.2 mm
2
/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm
2
/g
49
force l Gravationa
force related Surface
mass / surface surface Specific
volume / surface surface Specific
=
=
g / m 3 . 2
cm / g 65 . 2 m 1
m 1 6
S
cm / g 65 . 2 , cube m 1 1 1
g / m 10 3 . 2
cm / g 65 . 2 cm 1
cm 1 6
S
cm / g 65 . 2 , cube cm 1 1 1
2
3 3
2
s
3
2 4
3 3
2
s
3
=


=
=
=

=
=

Example:
Surface related forces: van der
Waals forces, capillary forces, etc.
S
s
is inversely
proportional to
the particle size

Preferred
50
Typical Values
Montmorillonite
Illite
Kaolinite
50-120 m
2
/gm (external surface)
700-840 m
2
/gm (including the interlayer surface)
65-100 m
2
/gm
10-20 m
2
/gm
Interlayer surface
51
Iso-morphous Substitution
substitution of Si
4+
and Al
3+
by other lower valence
(e.g., Mg
2+
) cations
results in charge imbalance (net negative)
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
positively charged edges
negatively charged faces
Clay Particle with Net negative Charge
52
Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)
capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of
the net negative charge of the clay particle)
measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)
milliequivalents
known as exchangeable cations
The replacement power is greater for higher valence and
larger cations.
Al
3+
> Ca
2+
> Mg
2+
>> NH
4
+
> K
+
> H
+
> Na
+
> Li
+

53
Cation Concentration in Water
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
cations
cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
clay particle
double layer free water
54
Adsorbed Water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin
1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
more viscous than free water
adsorbed water
55
Clay Particle in Water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
free water
double layer
water
adsorbed water
50 nm
1nm
56
2.
Identification
of Clay
Minerals
57
Scanning Electron
Microscope
common technique to see clay particles
plate-like
structure
qualitative
58
59
2.1 X-ray diffraction








The distance of atomic planes d can be determined based on the Braggs
equation.
BC+CD = n, n = 2d sinu, d = n/2 sinu
where n is an integer and is the wavelength.
Different clays minerals have various basal spacing (atomic planes). For
example, the basing spacing of kaolinite is 7.2 .
Mitchell, 1993
60
2.2 Differential Thermal Analysis
(DTA)
For example:
Quartz changes from the o to | form at 573 C
and an endothermic peak can be observed.
Differential thermal analysis
(DTA) consists of simultaneously
heating a test sample and a
thermally inert substance at
constant rate (usually about 10
C/min) to over 1000 C and
continuously measuring differences
in temperature and the inert
material AT.
Endothermic (take up heat) or
exothermic (liberate heat) reactions
can take place at different heating
temperatures. The mineral types
can be characterized based on those
signatures shown in the left figure.
(from Mitchell, 1993)
AT
Temperature (100 C)
61
Casagrandes PI-LL Chart
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x
A-line
U-line
montmorillonite
illite
kaolinite
chlorite
halloysite
62
2.3 Other Methods
1. Electron microscopy
2. Specific surface (S
s
)
3. Cation exchange capacity (cec)
4. Plasticity chart

63
4. Interaction
of Water and
Clay Minerals
64
Adsorbed layers
3 monolayers
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction
1. Hydrogen bond
Kaolinite
Oxygen
Hydroxyl
C
l
a
y

S
u
r
f
a
c
e
s

Free water
Bulk water
The water molecule locked in the adsorbed
layers has different properties compared to
that of the bulk water due to the strong
attraction from the surface.
O
OH
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
65
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
The water molecules
wedge into the interlayer
after adding water
2. Ion hydration
Dry condition
(Interlayer)
Clay
layers
cation
The cations are fully hydrated,
which results in repulsive forces
and expanding clay layers
(hydration energy).
Na
+
crystal radius: 0.095 nm
radius of hydrated ion: 0.358 nm
66
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
The concentration of cations is higher in the interlayers (A) compared with that
in the solution (B) due to negatively charged surfaces. Because of this
concentration difference, water molecules tend to diffuse toward the interlayer
in an attempt to equalize concentration.
3. Osmotic pressure
From Oxtoby et
al., 1994
A
B
67
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)
Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and
sodium kaolinite
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
68
5.8 Swelling Potential
Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for
potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of
montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be around
the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the potentially
swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation
69
Outline:
1- Chemical Method
2-Lime
3- Lime Stabilization
4- Mechanism of Lime Stabilization
5- Hydration
6- Ion Exchange and Flocculation
7- Pozzolanic Reaction
8- Carbonation
9-Effect of Lime on The Physical Properties of The Soil

M.HAFEZ
Soil88@gmail.com

Lime Stabilization
The Dry Mix Methods or Deep Stabilization has been
employed for the following specific purposes:
-Reduction settlements
-Increase of stability
-Increase of bearing capacity
-Prevention of sliding failure
-Protection of structures close to excavation sites
-Reduction of vibration
-Liquefaction mitigation
-Remediation of contaminated ground
Methods of Mixing
Types of auger used in mixing tools
Types of auger used in mixing tools
Differences between concrete pile and lime or cement clay
columns in term of load transferring
77
Chemical Stabilization
The main objective of chemical soil stabilization is to favorably change the soil-water
interactions. Chemical soil stabilization is intended to modify the interaction between
water and soil by surface reactions in such manner as to make the behavior of the
soil with respect to water effects most favorable for the given purpose. There are
many types of chemical soil stabilization such as cement stabilization, bitumen
stabilization, sodium silicate stabilization and calcium acryl ate stabilization.

The transitional nature of chemically modified clay is both physical and chemical.
Physically, the modified clay is transitional between natural saturated soft clay and
composite material, and therefore exhibit properties of both the chemical additives
and natural soft clay. In the chemically modified clay, it is the physicochemical
phenomena that influence its engineering properties. The interatomic and
intermolecular bonding forces hold matter together and the unbalanced forces exist
at phase boundaries. The nature and magnitude of all these forces influence the
engineering properties of chemically modified clay. Long term particle interaction
due to physicochemical changes in the modified clay specimen generates many types
of bonds within the specimen
78
When lime added to clay, reacts with wet soil, it alters the nature of the absorbed
layer by base exchange. Calcium ions replace the sodium or hydrogen ions. The
double layer is usually depressed due to an increasing in the cation concentration .
However, sometimes the double layer may expand due to high pH value of lime.
Lime reacts chemically with available silica and alumina in the clay. A natural
cement composed of calcium alumino silicate complex is formed which causes a
cementing action. The reaction depends upon the effective concentration of the
reactants.
LIME Stabilization
Lime in the form of quicklime (calcium oxide - CaO), hydrated lime (calcium
hydroxide Ca [OH]2, or lime slurry can be used to treat soils. Quicklime is
manufactured by chemically transforming calcium carbonate (limestone - CaC03)
into calcium oxide. Hydrated lime is created when quicklime chemically reacts
with water. It is hydrated lime that reacts with clay particles and permanently
transforms them into a strong cementitious matrix. Most lime used for soil
treatment is "high calcium" lime, which contains no more than 5 percent
magnesium oxide or hydroxide. On some occasions, however, "dolomitic" lime is
used. Dolomitic lime contains 35 to 46 percent magnesium oxide or hydroxide.
Dolomitic lime can perform well in soil stabilization, although the magnesium
fraction reacts more slowly than the calcium fraction.
79
Soil stabilization by lime means the admixture of this material in the form of
calcium oxide (CaO) or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OHh) to the soil, and the
compaction of the mixture at the optimum water content. Lime treatment is
commonly resorted to in order to improve the strength and stiffness properties of
road foundations, reduce the swell-shrink potential of expansive soils and
improve soft clay properties by surface mixing of lime and soil. Deep mixing
techniques may also be used such as creation of lime columns and lime piles or
in situ stabilization of soil by lime slurry injection. More recently lime has also
been used to treat chemically contaminated soils. Lime-clay reactions occur via
two distinct processes:
(i) Rapid ion exchange reactions known as soil improvement or modification
and
(ii) slower soil-lime pozzolanic reactions known as stabilisationl-solidification.
Lime modification reactions occur from replacement of exchangeable ions of the
soil with calcium ions released by lime. The increased exchangeable calcium ion
concentration increases the flocculation of clay particles and transforms the
plastic soil to a granular and less plastic material. Lime stabilization
solidification occurs at lime additions in excess of the Lime Modification
Optimum or Initial Consumption of Lime value. According to BS 1924 (1990)
80
the Initial Consumption of Lime gives an indication of the minimum
quantity of lime that must be added to a material to achieve a
significant change in properties. During lime stabilisationl-
solidification reactions the highly alkaline soil pH (soil pH =12.4)
promotes dissolution of siliceous and aluminous compounds from the
clay mineral lattice. The compounds dissolved from the clay mineral
lattice react with calcium ions in pore water to form calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium aluminates hydrate gels, which coat the soil
particles and subsequently crystallize to bond them.
Mechanism of Lime Stabilization
The major strength gain of lime treated clay is mainly derived from
three reactions; dehydration of soil, ion exchange and pozzolanic
reaction. Short-term reactions include hydration (for quicklime) and
flocculation (ion exchange). Longer-term reactions are cementation
and carbonation.
81
Hydration
A large amount of heat is released when quicklime (CaO) is mixed
with clay. This is due to hydration of quicklime with the pore
water of the soil. An immediate reduction of water contents occurs
when quicklime is mixed with cohesive soil, as water is consumed
in the hydration process. If a reduction of the natural water content
in a cohesive is desirable, quicklime instead of calcium hydroxide
is used. It is important that the water content of the base clay must
be sufficient for the complete slackening of the quicklime.
CaO + H
2
0 Ca(OH)2 + HEAT (280 Cal /gm of CaO)
The calcium hydroxide from the hydration of quicklime or when
using calcium hydroxide as a stabilizer, dissociates in the water,
increasing the electrolytic concentration and the pH of the pore
water, and dissolving the Si0
2
and AlO3 from the clay particles.
This process will result in ion exchange, flocculation, and
pozzolanic reactions Ca(OH)2 Ca ++ + 2(OH)
82
Ion Exchange and Flocculation
When lime is mixed with clay, sodium and other cations adsorbed to
the clay mineral surfaces are exchanged with calcium. This change in
cation complex affects the structural components of the clay mineral.
Within a period of a couple of minutes up to some hours after mixing,
the calcium hydroxide is transformed again due to the presence of
carbonic acid in the soil. The presence of carbonic acid in the soil is
due to the reaction of carbon dioxide of the air in the soil and the free
water. The reaction results in the dissociation of the lime into Ca++
(or Mg++) and (OH)- which modifies the electrical surfaces forces of
the clay minerals. A transformation of the soil structure begins, i.e
flocculation and coagulation of soil particles into larger sizes
aggregates and an associated increase in plastic limit. Lime causes the
clay to coagulate, aggregate or flocculate. These reactions tend to
decrease the liquid limit, increase the plastic limit, decrease the
plasticity index, increase the shrinkage limit, increase the workability,
and improve the strength and deformation properties of a soil.
Plate 2.4 the cation exchange process
between minerals and additives
Plate 2.5 shows the effect of ion exchange
Plate 2.6 The mechanism of load
Transformation in the stabilized soil
Lime Reacts Chemically with Clays
to Alter Molecular Interactions
Untreated clays have a
molecular structure similar to
some polymers, and give plastic
properties. The structure can
trap water between its molecular
layers, causing volume and
density changes.
In treated clays Calcium atoms (from
Lime) have replaced Sodium and
Hydrogen atoms producing a soil with
very friable characteristics

On-going reaction with available Silica
and Alumina in the soil forms complex
cementatious materials (the
POZZALONIC effect.
Flocculation/Agglomeration
Unstabilized Clay Particles
Flocculation/Agglomeration
Clay after flocculation / Agglomeration
Lime Reacts Chemically with Flyash
to provide Cementatious Result
Reactions between lime and
the Silica and Alumina in
flyash form complex
cementitious materials

Lime and Flyash provide a
filler for larger particles of
sand or gravel based soils
Essential to the treatment of non-clay soils and aggregates
Pozzolanic Reaction
Calcium Hydroxide
From lime or cement
Cementitious
Material from
pozzolonic reactions
[CSH and CAH]
Clay Particle

Ca (OH )
2
Ca (OH )
2
Ca (OH )
2
Ca (OH )
2
Microscopic View
18 APRIL 2007
LIME STABILIZE CLAY 87
Pozzolonic Reaction
The formation of cementing materials
Calcium Silicate Hydrate & Calcium
Aluminates Hydrate (C-S-H and C-A-H) to
strengthen the soil.
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 C-S-H
Ca(OH)2 + Al2O3 C-A-H


Hydrated gel
from soil from lime

Plate 2.7 the forming of CSH matrix gel
In order to have additional bonding forces produced in the cement-clay mixture,
the silicates and aluminates in the material must be soluble. That will be associated
with dropping of pH during pozzolanic reaction and a drop in the pH tends to
promote the hydrolysis of C3S2Hx, to form CSH. The cement hydration and the
pozzolanic reaction can last for months, or even years, after the mixing, and so the
strength of cement treated clay is expected to increase with time.
89
The gel of calcium silicate cements the soil particles in a
manner similar to the effect produced by the hydration of
Portland cement, but the lime cementing is a much slower
reaction, which requires considerably longer time than the
hydration of cement. The solubility of the pozzolans and
thus their inclination to react with lime is depends on the
pH of the soil water. The rate of reaction also increases
with increased soil temperature.
Carbonation
Lime reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere or in the soil to
form relatively weak cementing agent, such as calcium carbonate
or magnesium carbonate. The strength of calcium carbonate, which
is formed by this process, can be discounted. The carbonation is
probably a deleterious rather than helpful phenomenon in the soil
stabilization.
90
3- Effect of Lime on The Physical Properties of The Soil
Considering the process described above, one can conclude that lime addition affects
all physical properties of the soil. Owing to the coagulation, the grain-size distribution
curve will obviously change and, a number of other characteristics will undergo
similar changes due mainly to this cause. Changes in the grain-size distribution curve
however, are rather difficult to determine, as the usual hydrometric method does not
render a true picture, so these changes should be expressed numerically on the basis of
another characteristic property. Figures below illustrates the time dependent process of
plasticity index (PI) reduction, which incidentally is also characteristic of the
development rate exhibited by the process described in the section above. Generally,
quick lime will bring about a faster reaction. The effect of calcium treatment on the
volume change of the various soils is similarly significant, as swelling will be almost
completely eliminated, and the volume change greatly reduced. It shows a typical
reduction in liquid limit as a result of lime treated. As more lime was added to the
natural clay the liquid limit (LL) decreased while the plastic limit (PL)
increased. This can also be seen as a reduction in the plasticity index (PI). When the
PI of the soil is at a minimum the soil is said to be fully modified. This trend
continued from L6 to L18% , while adding more lime above 18%. The trend reversed
between 18 to 24% . the reverse trend can be as result of excessive lime in the
mixture, the extra lime works as inoperative element stimulates the de-bonding
phenomena in the mixture.
91
Effect of lime on Atterberg limits
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 6 12 18 24 30
Lime %
W
c

%

LL PL PI
The effect of Mixture of lime on Atterberg limits
92
The effect of Additive on MDD and OMC
OMC and MDD of Lime group
O
M
C
O
M
C
O
M
C
O
M
C
O
M
C
M
D
D
M
D
D
M
D
D
M
D
D
M
D
D
23
23.5
24
24.5
25
25.5
26
26.5
27
27.5
28
0 6 12 18 24 30
Lime Content %
O
M
C

%
13
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.8
15
M
D
D

(

K
N
)
The relation between OMC & MDD for Lime group
93
Optimum Moisture Content was increased with increasing lime
contents from 0.0 to 12% and reached to its peak around 14%. Than the
trend was reversed after 14% to 24% indicating that most of water
content in the mixture have been utilized fully in creating bonds
between lime and clay particles. While, the extra lime particles in the
mixture were not used in any modification process. And it might act as
inoperative element in the modification process. However, it can be
suggested here to look to the Proctor standard compaction test results
as primary method to determine the optimum lime content for each
type of clay soil. In this analysis, the 14% lime is considered the
optimum lime content for this type of clay. However, The value of the
maximum dry density was falling greatly once lime was added, the
more lime added to the clay the less MDD could obtained. This is
result of replacing clay by lime particles which is slightly larger and
lighter than clay particles.
94
Predominant Factors That Control Hardning Characterstices of Lime Modifed Clay
-Type of Lime
The efficiency of lime stabilization depends in part on the type
of lime material used. Quicklime is generally more effective
than hydrated lime (Kezdi, 1979), but generally it needs care
in handling for soils with high moisture contents. Unslaked
lime or quicklime is more effective since water will be
absorbed from the soil and more importantly, the hydration will
cause an increase in temperature which is favorable to
strength gain (Brams, 1984).
TEST RESULTS
Part A: Clay soil with no blending of Lime-Rice Husk Ash (LRHA)
Physical Properties
Natural moisture content, w
N

Moisture content (disturbed)
Specific Gravity, Gs
Liquid Limit, LL
Plastic Limit, PL
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Plasticity Index, PI
Maximum Dry Density,
d

Optimum Moisture Content
Grain size distribution:
- Coarse particles
- Fine particles
- Clay
- Silt
71.38
18.32
2.60
83.59
37.34
15.82
55.25
1.32 gr/cm
3

34
9.24
5.00
30.50
80.76
70.50
Chen (1975) classified
soil with PI > 35%,
having very high swell
potential
Properties Lime Cement
Finesses ( cm
2
/g ) 2975.00
Specific gravity 3.12
Chemical Properties
Silica (SiO2) 1.25% 20.44
Alumina ( AlO3 ) 5.50
MgO 1.59
Iron Oxide ( Fe2O3)
Calcium Oxide ( CaO) 73.7 64.86
3CaO.SiO2 66.48
2Ca.SiO2 10.12
3CaO.Al2O3 8.06
4CaO.Al2O3.FeO3 9.43
Potassium Oxide (K2O)
Magnesium Oxide ( MgO) 1.59
Sodium Oxide (Na2O)
pH 12.06
SO
3
1.96
Loss on Ignition 23.15
Physical Properties
Colour White
Density 3.345
Hardness 3.5-Copper Penny
Composition of RHA
minerals (Wen-Hwei, 1986)
Mineral Composition (%)
SiO
2
86.90 - 97.30
K
2
O 0.58 - 2.50
Na
2
O 0.00 - 1.75
CaO 0.20 - 1.50
MgO 0.12 - 1.96
Fe
2
O
3
~ 0.54
P
2
O
5
0.2 2.85
SO
3
0.1 1.13
Cl ~ 0.42
97
-Lime Content
The strength of lime soil mixtures, provided they are properly cured,
increases as the lime content is increased. There appears to be no
optimum lime content which produces a maximum strength in a lime
stabilized soil under all conditions. However, it can be stated that for
a particular condition of curing time and soil type, there is a
corresponding optimum lime content which causes the maximum
strength increase (Herrin and Mitchell, 1961).
- Lime Fixation Point
The lime fixation point is defined as the point at which the percentage of
lime is such that additional increments of lime produce no appreciable
increase in the plastic limit. Handy et a!. (1965) referred to this point as the
"lime retention point". Based on extensive investigations at Iowa State
University, the concept of the lime fixation point was suggested. Lime
contents equal to the lime fixation point for a soil will generally contribute to
the improvement in soil workability, but may not result in sufficient strength
increases (Hilt and Davidson, 1960),
98
* Optimum Lime Content
Methods of determining the optimum lime requirement for lime
stabilization have been proposed. Eades and Grim (1966) suggested that
the amount of lime consumed by a soil after one hour affords a quick
method of determining the percentage of lime required for stabilization,
i.e., the lowest percentage of lime required to maintain a pH of 12.6 is
the percentage required to stabilize the soil. However, a strength test is
still necessary to show the percentage of strength increase. McDowell
(1959) pointed out that short-time or quick tests probably will not
identify optimum lime contents, but are essential in checking against the
use of non-reactive soils for treatment of lime. On the other hand, while
long-term tests would do a better job of identifying optimum lime
contents, they may be impractical from the stand-point of time, and may
even suggest the use of insufficient amounts of lime due to the ideal
conditions under which they are run. Hilt and Davidson (1960) gave a
correlation which showed that the amount of lime fixation is in
proportion to the type and amount of clay present and is independent of
the absorbed cation present in the clays. The relationship is given as:
Optimum Lime Content = % of clay / 35 + 1.25
99
* Curing Time
Broms (1984) reported that the shear strength of stabilized clays will normally
be higher than that of untreated clay after mixing. Figure 6.4 shows a typical
plot of the increase of shear strength with time for various types of soils. The
shear strength of clay stabilized with lime will normally be higher than that of
undisturbed clay about one to two hours after mixing even when the sensitivity
of the clay is relatively high (Broms, 1984). The undrained final shear strength
of stabilized clay can be, under favorable conditions, as high as 10 to 50 times
the initial shear strength (Assarson et al. 1974). The shear strength of the
stabilized soil gradually increases with time through pozzolanic reactions when
the lime reacts with the silicates and aluminatesAn the soil (Broms, 1984). The
rate of increase is generally rapid at the early stage of curing time; thereafter,
the rate of increase in strength decreases with time. Lime has an initial reaction
with soil taking place during the first 48-72 hours after mixing, and a secondary
reaction which starts after this period and continues indefinitely (Taylor and
Arman, 1960). Several attempts have been made to express the strength of lime
stabilized soils as a function of curing time.
100
Lime 12% - 100 mm
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Strain %
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

K
g
/
c
m
2
L12-1d L12-7d L12-14d L12-28d L12-56d Clay-O-100mm
the strength development over curing time - 12% lime
Broms (1984) found that the shear strength of stabilized soils as determined by
unconfined compression tests increased linearly with time when plotted in log-log
scale (log Cu. log t). Brandl (1981) and Okamura and Terashi (1975), however.
found that the time- dependent increase in shear strength was approximately
linear with the logarithm of time.
101
- Type of Soil ( Clay Content )
For lime treatment to be successful, the clay content of the soil should
not be less than 20% and the sum of the silt and clay fractions should
preferably exceed 35%, which is normally the case when the plasticity
index of the soil is larger than 10 (Brams, 1984). The shear strength
increase of the stabilized soil is highly dependent on pozzolanic
reactions, i.e., the reactions of lime with the silicates and aluminates in
the soil.

The following graph shows the relationship between clay
content of soils and 28-day unconfined compressive
strength of soils treated with 5% portland cement or 5%
lime, and (( compacted immediately.)) Adapted from
Christensen, 1969

102
103
104
Relationship between clay content of soils and 28-day
unconfined compressive strength of soils treated with 5%
portland cement or 5% lime, and (( compacted after a 24-
hour delay.)) Adapted from Christensen, 1969.
105
Linear relationship between cation exchange capacity and clay
content of untreated soil. The deviation of soil No. 10 with 75% clay
content was attributed to the presence of calcite and quartz.
Adapted from Christensen, 1969.
106
Linear relationship between plasticity index and clay content of
untreated soil. Adapted from Christensen, 1969.
Laboratory testing
pH test
Standard Proctor Test
Curing Specimen
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
109
Grain Size Distribution
The increase in strength with time is in general highest for
normally consolidated silty clays, with low plasticity index and a
low water content. The strength increase in lime treated organic
soils is often very low; even a relatively small amount of organic
material can have a large effect on the strength increase (Brams,
1984). Gypsum has often been used together with unslaked lime
to stabilize organic soils when lime alone is not effective (Broms
and Anttikoski, 1983). Generally, the effect of lime decreases with
increasing water content (Holm et al. 1983; Miura et al. 1987).

The particle size and shape also influence the properties of soils.
As the ion exchange in illite and kaolinite takes place primarily at
the interface and edges, the cation exchange capacity of soils in
their presence may be different as particle size and shape are
changed.

110
* Clay Minerals
Eades and Grim (1966) reported that the quantity of lime needed
to effectively treat a clay is dependent on the type of clay mineral
present. Eades and Grim (1966) observed that although
kaolinites, illites~ montmorillonites and other mixed-layered
clays all react with lime to give greater strength "; the quantity
of lime needed to treat a clay is dependent on the type of mineral
present. Hilt and Davidson (1960) found that from the unconfined
compression test results, kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clayey
soils are effectively stabilized with lime alone. Whereas illitic
clays require addition of fly-ash to obtain a significant strength
gain. Lee et at. (1982) found that in terms of strength increase,
lime treatment has a greater effect in montmorillonites than
kaolinitic soils.
111
* Soil pH
Lime addition will increase the pH of the water content in the soil,
and give rise to increased solubility. The base exchange is low when
the pH-value is less than 7. The long-term chemical reactions in
lime stabilized soils are favored by a high pH-value (PH> 12) since
the reactions are accelerated due to the increased solubility of the
silicates and aluminates (pozwlans) present in the clays (Broms.
1984), Davidson et al. (1965) suggested that a minimum pH of
approximately to.5 is necessary for pozzolanic reaction to take
place, while Eades and Grim (1966) suggested that the lowest
percentage of lime required to maintain a pH of 12.40 is the
percentage required to stabilize a soil. Broms (1984) pointed out
that the pH of the treated soil will normally exceed 12 even when
only a few percent of lime has been added to the soil.
112
pH vs Lime Content
From the graph, it shows the optimum lime content to change
the pH value of soil is 6%.
114
Solubility of Ca(OH)2 in water at 25C and the resulting pH of
the solution. Adapted from Boynton, 1980.
pH vs Lime Content
115
Curing Temperature
The chemical reactions in the soil are favored by a high temperature
(Broms, 1984). For lime-soil mixture at the same age, the effect of
increasing the curing temperature is to increase strength (Ruff and Ho,
1966). The curing temperature has been found to affect the long term
reactions between lime and clay. Broms (1984) attributed the favorable
effects of high curing temperature to the increased solubility of the
silicates and aluminates (pozzolans) in the clay at high temperatures. For
lime stabilized clays, Metcalf (1964) found that the curves (UC strength
versus temperature) were different for different clays, and that there was
an abrupt change in the slope in the vicinity of 45C. Ruff and Ho (1966)
extended the work of Metcalf (1964), and suggested that different reaction
products are formed at different curing temperatures and that the cut-off
temperature is from 23C to 40C. Furthermore, it was found that there
was increase of strength with time at all temperatures, with greater rate of
increase at the higher temperature. Chaudry (1966) reported that the
compacted lime stabilized Bangkok clay cured at lOOF had higher
strength values than those cured at 70F.
116
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILIZED PROPERTIES
Only limited information is available regarding how various
factors influence the engineering properties of a stabilized soil.
While the contributory parameters are many (Felt, 1955), some
of the more important ones are listed below.
1. Stabilizer dosage
2. Mixing conditions
3. Compaction method and effort
4. Gradation and pulverization
5. Curing period and conditions
6. Delayed compaction
7. Climatic conditions
Stabilization additive
The selection additive is depending on;
The type of soil to be stabilized.
The purposed which the stabilized layer will be used.
The type of soil improvement desired.
The required strength and durability of the stabilized
layer.
Cost and Environmental Condition.
118
Stabilizer Dosage
The amount of stabilizer determines the supply of calcium, the
most necessary component for clay soil stabilization, and calcium
may be supplied from various sources. The presence of
a stabilizer may not only supply calcium to the system, but its
other characteristics may also contribute to the overall properties
of a stabilized soil. This is true particularly in the case of Portland
cement or lime stabilization of clayey soils.
In the case of time-dependent effects, some of the improvement
may occur too late to be of interest or to be applied in design
considerations. In addition to the supply potential, there is also a
lower limit of the stabilizer dosage below which the necessary
mixing uniformity cannot be achieved in normal construction
operations in the field as opposed to the laboratory.
119
Procedures for Designing Soil-Lime Mixes.
In order to determine the necessary lime dosage, a number of mixture
design procedures are available for lime. These procedures, listed in the
State of the Art Report on Lime Stabilization (State of Art Report, 1976,
1987), are given below with the properties these tests are based upon.
California Procedure: Optimum moisture content and unconfined
compressive strength of lime-soil mixes with various lime content.
1- Eades and Grim Procedure:
This measures pH to determine the design lime dosage. The amount of
lime necessary to achieve a pH of 12.4, the saturation pH of Ca(OH)2, is
considered to be adequate.
2- Illinois Procedure:
This procedure is designed for two stabilization objectives: base or sub
base stabilization, and sub grade modification. The criterion used for the
former is based upon the unconfined compressive strength and that for
the latter is based upon the reduction in Plasticity Index (PI).

120
3- Oklahoma Procedure:
This is based upon the Eades and Grim procedure. However, a PI
reduction criterion is also used as an alternative.
4- South Dakota Procedure:
Initial lime requirements are determined using the pH procedure of
Eades and Grim. Supplemental strength data are generated through
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and unconfined strength
measurements.
5- Texas Procedure:
Unconfined compressive strength is used as the criterion (AASHTO T-
220).
6- Thompson Procedure:
This procedure is more elaborate than the others and separate criteria
are used for subgrade modification and for base and subbase materials.
It combines a number of properties, such as maximum dry density,
unconfined compressive strength, PI reduction, etc.
121
7- Virginia Procedure:
This is based upon the compressive strength measurements of cured
mixtures of soil and various dosages of lime. It will be noted that
strength is usually a secondary criterion, and that durability criteria
are notably absent. Where CBR is used as a strength criterion, clearly
the advantage of stabilized clay soils resides in their lesser loss of
bearing strength after saturation, as the CBR in "dry conditions can
be extremely high for clays but is almost entirely lost upon soaking.
122
The pH limitations:
The pH method suffers from a few limitations. It takes no account of
any interaction between lime and soil that may result in a strength
increase. In fact, recognizing this limitation, Eades and Grim (1996)
stated explicitly: "The 1 hr pH or 'Quick Test' can be used only to
determine the lime requirements of a soil for stabilization. Since
strength gains are related to the formation of C-S-H, and as their
formation varies with the mineralogical components of the soil, a
strength test is necessary to show the percentage of strength increase.
Another limitation is that the stabilizer amount determined in this
method is only applicable to lime, and it may lead to a wrong estimate
if the stabilizer (such as Portland cement) contains compounds such as
alkali sulfates or chlorides that are highly soluble in water. the pH of a
fresh cement paste reaches values of 12 to 13 within a few minutes and
before the system becomes saturated with respect to calcium hydroxide.
Thus, when used to determine the amount of Portland cement required
for soil stabilization, the Eades and Grim method can be misleading.

123
While the above procedures help to identify the lime content that
will provide the greatest strength, many factors influence the strength
of soil-lime mixtures. The variability of these factors makes it
practically impossible to pinpoint the strength that may be achieved
for lime stabilization of a particular soil. Therefore, strengths of soil-
lime mixtures must be verified through strength tests such as CBR,
unconfined compressive strength, or resilient modulus.
Lime contents between 2 to 10 percent are typically capable of
producing significant strength gains (Little, 1995). While there is no
universal definition of significant strength gain, most design
procedures implement a requirement for a compressive strength
increase of 50 psi for lime stabilization to be a viable option (Chou,
1987).
124
Cement Stabilization
Stabilization Mechanism
Strength gain in soils using cement stabilization occurs through the
same type of pozzolanic reactions found using lime stabilization.
Both lime and cement contain the calcium required for
the pozzolanic reactions to occur; however, the origin of the silica
required for the pozzolanic reactions to occur differs. With lime
stabilization, the silica is provided when the clay particle is
broken down. With cement stabilization, the cement already
contains the silica without needing to break down the clay mineral.
Thus, unlike lime stabilization, cement stabilization is fairly
independent of the soil properties; the only requirement is that the
soil contains some water for the hydration process to begin.

125
Similar to lime stabilization, carbonation can also occur when using
cement stabilization. When cement is exposed to air, the cement will
react with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce a
relatively insoluble calcium carbonate. Thus, similar to lime, proper
handling methods and expedited construction procedures should be
employed to avoid premature carbonation of cement through
exposure to air.
126
Cement Stabilization mechanism
The formation of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), upon hydration of
Portland cement, is attributed to the development of its strength.
Therefore, the formation of C-S-H may further strengthen a soil that is
stabilized with the Ca(OH)2 produced as the by-product of cement
hydration. The formation of C-S-H upon hydration is an inherent
characteristic of Portland cement, but not of lime. Additional C-S-H
can form in both the Portland cement-soil and lime soil systems due to
the reaction between Ca(OH)2 supplied by either cement or lime and
the silica supplied by soil. This process is known as a pozzolanic
reaction. Calcium may also react with alumina and produce C-A-H that
is cementitious in nature.
The reactions are as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 > C-S-H
Ca(OH)2 + Al2O3 > C-A-H
127
Soil Type Cement Usage UCS Permeability
Sludge
240 to 400 kg/m
3

(400 to 700 lbs/cy)
70-350 kPa
(10-50 psi)
1x10
-6
cm/sec
Organic silts and
clays
150 to 260 kg/m
3

(260 to 450 lbs/cy)
350-1400 kPa
(50-200 psi)
5x10
-7
cm/sec
Cohesive silts & clay
120 to 240 kg/m
3

(200 to 400 lbs/cy)
700-2100 kPa
(100-300 psi)
5x10
-7
cm/sec
Silty sands and sands
120 to 240 kg/m
3

(200 to 400 lbs/cy)
1400-3500 kPa
(200-500 psi)
5x10
-6
cm/sec
Sands and gravels
120 to 240 kg/m
3

(200 to 400 lbs/cy)
3000-7000 kPa
(400-1000 psi)
1x10
-5
cm/sec
Typical strength and permeability characteristics of treated soils.
128
Unconfined
Compressive Strength,
Standard Compaction
Energy, kPa
Unconfined Compressive Strength, Modified
Compaction Energy, kPa
Clay
Types
Optimum
OMC
1% Above
Optimum
Optimum
Moisture
Content
1% Below
Optimum
with
lime
withou
t lime
with
lime
withou
t lime
with
lime
withou
t lime
with
lime
Without
lime
Clay1
1,395 124 2,235 120 2,980 280 2,725 225
Clay2
1,293 105 1,935 70 2,765 145 2,458 140
Clay3
1,195 50 1,820 85 2,275 160 2,150 155
The Relation between Unconfined Compressive Strength, Modified Compaction Energy,
kPa
Effect of Compaction Energy and Molding Moisture Content on
Unconfined Compressive Strength
129
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILIZED PROPERTIES
In general, most clay soils can be successfully stabilized with portland
cement or lime. However, the achieved engineering properties of a
stabilized soil are dependent upon a number of parameters as discussed
in the following sections. Besides all the engineering properties, the
clay mineral composition of a soil is one of the most dominant factors
determining the chemical and physical properties of a soil. The
presence of a small amount of montmorillonite, with the highest cation
exchange capacity, can greatly influence the physical properties of
soils.
Christensen (1969) investigated a total of 11 soils and observed a linear
relationship (see Figure 7) between the clay content of soils and cation
exchange capacity. The characteristics of these soils are shown in Table
1. A linear relationship (see Figure 8) was also observed between the
clay content and the plasticity indices.
130
A combination of these two linearities indicates that there 12 should be
a linear relationship between cation exchange capacity and the
plasticity index (PI). The particle size and shape also influence the
properties of soils. As the ion exchange in illite and kaolinite takes
place primarily at the interface and edges, the cation exchange
capacity of soils in their presence may be different as particle size and
shape are changed. Only limited information is available regarding
how various factors influence the engineering properties of a stabilized
soil. While the contributory parameters are many (Felt,1955), some of
the more important ones are listed below.
1. Stabilizer dosage
2. Mixing conditions
3. Compaction method and effort
4. Gradation and pulverization
5. Curing period and conditions
6. Delayed compaction
7. Climatic conditions
131
The 28-day unconfined compressive strength of pulverized soils treated with
various amounts of lime. Size designations: Fine-100% passing No.2.0mm
sieve; Medium-80% passing No. 2.0mm; Coarse-60% passing No. 2.0mm
sieve. Adapted from Petry and Wohlgemuth, 1988.
132
The 28-day unconfined compressive strength of pulverized soils treated with
various amounts of Cement Size designations: Fine-100% passing No.2.0mm
sieve; Medium-80% passing No. 2.0mm; Coarse-60% passing No. 2.0mm
sieve. Adapted from Petry and Wohlgemuth, 1988.
133
Variation of unconfined compressive strength, normalized by the
differences in dry unit weights, with gradation of soil stabilized with
either 10% lime or cement. Adapted from Petry and Wohlgemuth, 1988.
134
Conductivity Test Analysis
Electrical conductivity test is a test used to study the electrochemical
properties of modified clay and to predict the interaction between the
additive and clay. Although the concept of ion migration from fine-
grained modified soils is easy to understand, the associated
physico-chemical reactions of the modified clay is complex. The
experimental results show that the approach is a valid step towards a
better understanding the physics and chemistry involved during the
treatment of soft clay. Strong electrolytes are substances that are fully
ionised in the modified clay sample solution. As a result, the
concentration of ions in the solution is proportional to the concentration
of the electrolyte added. They include ionic solids and strong acids, for
example Ca(O)2. Solutions of strong electrolytes conduct electricity
because the positive and negative ions can migrate independently largely
under the influence of an electric field. Weak electrolytes are substances
that are not fully ionised in the solution. Ionic mobilities of H+ and OH-
are considerably higher than that of other ions due to bonding and
debonding between the ions and water molecules (Alberty 1983).
3.15. How is conductivity measured?
Conductivity may be measured by applying an alternating electrical
current (I) to two electrodes immersed in a solution and measuring the
resulting voltage (V). During this process, the cations migrate to the
negative electrode, the anions to the positive electrode and the solution
acts as an electrical conductor
Plate 3.28 Migration of ions in solution
Plate 3.29 Accumulation of ionic species at electrode surface
136
Unsaturated Lime
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
6% 5.6 8.9 11.2
12% 15.4 30.1 38.5
18% 47.3 51.5 56.3
24% 57.9 63.8 65.1
7 days 56 days 100 days
Conductivity of Unsaturated Lime samples
137
Saturated Lime
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
6% 11.5 8.4 6.5
12% 19.2 15.6 11.9
18% 31 24.2 15.8
24% 41.9 37.6 45.4
7 days 56 days 100 days
Conductivity Values of Saturated Lime samples
138
Conductivity reading of small, medium and high unsaturated lime
content dosages had shown increasing ionic ability to transfer current
by the time. There are more free ions in the sample at day 100 than day
7. This can be attributed to incomplete ongoing reactions; thus allowing
more free ions. The free ions are produced in the debonding process due
to the lack of water to complete the reaction . The high conductivity
reading of the high lime content of the unsaturated samples (L18 + L24)
was due to the concentration of ions from electrolyte contributed by the
Ca(O)2 in the solutions as result of uncompleted or broken bond.

The conductivity readings of all saturated lime samples exhibited reverse
trend compared to the trend of unsaturated lime samples. All unsaturated
lime sample readings increased by curing time, contrary to the trend of
its saturated counterpart. These indicate that, the saturated samples are
more chemically stable than the unsaturated ones. The conductivity
reading of L12 saturated at 7 days had dropped gradually by 38% within
100 days, indicating a slow ongoing ionic activity within the sample, and
the strong possibility of being reduced by over time to a lesser value and
more stable bonding.
139
Unsaturated Cement
0
5
10
15
20
25
6%
5.1 6.3 6.9
12%
8.4 11.2 12.8
18%
9.9 11.8 12.5
24%
17.1 19.9 22.4
7 days 56 days 100 days
Conductivity Values of Unsaturated Cement Samples
140
Saturated Cement
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6%
3.1 3.3 3.6
12%
3.9 4.4 4.1
18%
2.8 3.4 3.3
24%
5.5 6.3 5.8
7 days 56 days 100 days
Conductivity Values of Saturated Cement Samples
141
The range difference in conductivity reading of the unsaturated cement
samples are much less than range of lime samples, which can be
interpreted as less free ions able to conduct electricity; meaning that the
unsaturated cement samples are chemically more stable than its lime
counterpart. The general trend indicates slow chemical reaction over
time. Samples with small dosages of cement are chemically more stable
than samples with high dosages. C12 and C18 show degrees of
similarities where the difference between 100 days and 7 days
conductivity reading is almost steady.
Saturated cement samples have shown great ionic stability from the
early stage where the range of conductivity reading for the all saturated
cement samples was between (3.1) and (6.3). The range of reading
differences was very small compared to any other samples. Even the
general trend was not really clear as the saturated lime, but the
inconsistency can be attributed to the narrow reading range. In lime
samples where the high difference in reading of 7 days and 100 days can
be easily detected by the device, it is not the same when it comes to
detecting a difference less than 1 s in saturated cement samples.

142
Determine the effective moisture content (EMC).
Water content of all chemically modified clay samples
were predetermined in the laboratory through the
mechanical standard proctor compaction test, where the
OMC (Optimum Moisture Content) and the MDD
(Maximum Dry Density) were calculated for each additive
dosage. The reverse conductivity trend between the
unsaturated and saturated sample shows a relation between
conductivity and water content where the conductivity
reading is indicative of the existence of an effective zone
between the two reverse trends, where chemical additive
would have an effective aqueous environment to maximize
its reaction with the clay.

.
143
Effective Water Content
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
OMC=28% 15.4 30.1 38.5
Wc= 35% 12.1 19.9 27.4
Wc=40% 9.8 11.2 12.5
Wc=45 10.2 12.9 15.7
Wc=50% 12.4 12.8 14.4
Saturated 19.2 15.6 11.9
7 56 100
Conductivity values of L12 with different water contents
144
In brief, it can be concluded that the mechanically predetermine
moisture content (OMC) value for chemically modified clay, was
not the effective amount of water to maximize the creation of
bonding matrix between the chemical additive and the clay. The
conductivity test is a supporting test to determine the effective
amount of water for chemically modified clay and better
compressive strength.
THE FLOW OF GROUND
IMPROVEMENT
INPUT
Existing ground conditions (i.e., strata depth, thickness and
geotechnical properties and groundwater conditions)
Expected foundation loads and allowable settlement
Is weak stratum
stressed by
foundation load ?
Is calculated bearing
capacity, stability &
settlement acceptable ?
Treatment not
necessary
NO
NO
YES
YES
Heavy
loading?
Large area
treatment ?
Can soil above
competent layer be
improved within
time/budget constraint ?
Consider GROUND IMPROVEMENT
YES
YES
NO

Consider piled foundation
YES
NO
NO

CASE STUDY

of Lime in
Road Construction
The Uses and Value
Lime in Soil Modification
Lime Based Mix Designs for
Different Soil Types
A A S H T O
G r o u p
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
S o i l
T y p e
U n i f i e d
G r o u p S y m b o l
R e c o m m e n d e d
A d d i t i v e s
G W G P G M G C S W S P S M S C M L C L O L M H C H O H P T
A - 1 - a A - 1 - a A - 1 - b A - 1 - b A - 1 - b
A - 1 - b
o r
A - 3
A - 2 - 4
o r
A - 2 - 5
A - 2 - 6
o r
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A - 4 A - 6 A - 4 A - 5 A - 7 - 6 A - 7 - 5 A - 8
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LIME (Stabilization & Modification)
LIME PLUS TYPE F Coal Fly Ash (Stabilization)
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Lime (or Lime-Flyash)
in asphalt FDR (Full Depth Reclamation)
Easy to apply in
FDR process
Provides Pozzolanic
effect to provide
strength to the
reclaimed base
material
Water resistance
Strength gain over
time

Old
road
surface
New base
mixture
ready for
compaction
Lime
added
Variable mixing
chamber with milling
and mixing rotor
Working
Direction
Summary Areas of Application
for Lime Stabilization
Base Stabilization
Roads (all grades)
Parking lots / Public areas
Upgrades marginal base material
making it usable
Asphalt FDR
Structural Fills and Embankments
Site Preparation


Scarification before lime application
Soil windrow used to contain
lime before mixing
Example of lime slurry application
Scarification after lime spreading
Dry lime application with mechanical spreader4
Example of lime slurry application
Scarification after lime spreading
Adding water after dry lime
application
Rotary mixer used for initial mixing
Rotary mixer with water truck attached
Mixing and pulverization
Sheepsfoot (above) & padfoot
(below) rollers

Steel roller
MIXING TOOL
The function of the tool is to remold the clay at the
drilling phase downwards and to mix the binder and the
soil as well as to compact the mixed soil during the
uplift.
The blade have an angle towards the rotation, like a
boot propeller.
By using a rotation speed high enough and a restricted
lifting speed, it is possible to compact the mix soil as
well as provide the mixing. Usually 100 to 200 rotations
per minute (rpm) are used, with a lifting speed equal to
15 to 25 mm per revolution.
The binders are injected through hollow, rotated mixing shafts
tipped with some type of cutting tool.
The shaft above the tool may be further equipped with
discontinuous auger lights and/or mixing blades or paddles.
These shafts a remounted vertically on a crawler-mounted, and
range in number from one to eight (typically two to four) per
carrier, depending on the nature of the project, the particular
variant of the method, and the contractor.
Column diameters typically range from 0.6 to 1.5 m, and may
extend to 40 m in depth.
In some methods, the mixing action is enhanced by
simultaneously injecting fluid grout at high pressure through
nozzles in the mixing or cutting tools.
The mixing level is expressed by the number of mixing per meter
in depth against the amount of the stabilizer injected into the
ground
SKECTHES FOR PRAPARATION
OF INSTRUCTION DRAWING
Sketches of Representative
Mixing Mechanism


Example of Augers
Schematic showing mixing operation in dry DSM process
Rate of rotation ranges between 120 and 150rpm
Rate of withdrawal ranges between 15 and 30mm per revolution
Dry deep soil mixing construction sequences
The Soil mixing
tool is rotated into
the ground at a
predetermined
location
Once the tools has reached
the required depth
cementitious powder begins
to be jetted into the
disturbed soil from a nozzle
located above the blade
The tool is rotated at
high speed during its
withdrawal to blend
the dry mix materials
with the soil
Sketches of Drilling Pattern Completed
overlapping and complete treatment or known as
Wall Type Treatment Pattern in Marine Conditions
(Yang, 1997)
Description
- Rotation of multiple axis shafts create
relatively movement and shear in soil for
soil reagent mixing.
Number of mixing shafts
- 4 shafts
Major additives
- Lime and cement

MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
Lime cement are widely referred to as binders and can be
introduced in dry or slurry form.


Table: Chemical Composition
CONSTRUCTION / INSTALLATION
METHODOLOGY
Bearing capacity of the Lime clay
column
Ultimate bearing capacity
H
Proposed Three
storey house
Proposed Column
( )
2
,
2.25
ult soil col u
Q dH d C t t = +
B = Width cf column group
L = Length of column group
H = Height of column group
d= Diameter of Column
Cu= Ave. undrained shear strength of the surrounding soft clay
( )
2
,
2.25
ult soil col u
Q dH d C t t = +
Assumption:
Cu= 20 Kpa
H col = 12 m
d = 0.3 m

( )
2
,
2.25
ult soil col u
Q dH d C t t = +
Lime as a column (cont.)
a = relative column area (NA col/BL)
N= Total number of column
q= applied unit load
M col = confined modulus of column
material
M soil = confined modulus of untreated
soil.
1
(1 )
col soil
qH
h
aM a M
A =
+
Settlement of the column;
Lime as a column (cont.)
Schematic of plate load test
Typical Result of plate load test