Primary Alcohol--->Aldehyde (acidified potassium dichromate=Oxidation) Aldehyde--->Primary Alcohol (NaBH4=Reduction) Aldehyde--->Carboxylic Acid (Acidified potassium dichromate or tollens reagent)

Aldehyde--->2,4DNP derivative (2,4DNP) Carboxylic acid--->Salt (neutralisation=Na or NaOH or Na2CO3) Carboxylic acid--->Ester (esterification=conc H2SO4 catalyst, alcohol, reflux) Ester--->Carboxylic acid + alcohol(Hydrolysis=H+/H2O) Ester--->Carboxylate + alcohol (Hydrolysis=H2O/OH-) Alcohol--->Halogenoalkane (Nucelophilic substitution=HX, acid catalyst) Halogenoalkane--->Alcohol(nucleophilic sub=NaOH in water) Halogenoalkane--->Amine(Nucleophilic sub=NH3, Ethanol) Amine-->Ammonium salt(neutralisation reaction=acid). Secondary Alcohol--->Ketone(Oxidisation=Acidified potassium dichromate) Ketone--->secondary alcohol(reduction=NaBH4) Ketone--->2,4 DNP derivative(2,4 DNP) Benzene-->bromobenzene(FeBR3) Benzene--->chlorobenzene(AlCl3) Benzene--->nitrobenzene(Conc HNO3,Conc H2SO4, 50degrees) Nitrobenzene--->Phenylamine(Sn/conc HCl reflux) Phenylamine--->Benzenediazonium chloride(NaNO2/HCl(aq)under 10degrees) Benzenediazonium chloride--->Azo dye(phenol, NaOH).

Amino Acids. Peptide=compound made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. General formula for an amino acid= RCH(NH2)COOH. Zwitterions= dipolar ionic form of an amino acid that is formed by the donation of a hydrogen ion from the acidic carboxyl group to the basic amine group to form an internal salt. A proton is transferred from the acid carboxyl group to the basic amine group. Zwitterions has no overall charge as the charges cancel each other out. Isoelectric point=pH value at which the amino acid exists as a zwitterion.-when there is no electrical charge. Amino acid in acid conditions=amino acid behaves as a base and accepts a proton from acid.-amino acid forms a positively charged ion. Amino acid in alkaline conditions=amino acid behaves as an acid and donates a proton to the base.-amino acid forms a negatively charged ion. Polypeptides and proteins.-Amino acids join together by peptide linkages to form peptides. Wehn 2 amino acids join a dipeptide is formed with the elimination of water=condensation reaction=one in which 2 small molecules react together to form a larger molecule eg H2O. It is possible to form a different dipeptide from 2 amino acids.Polypeptide=long chain of amino acids joined together by peptide linkages. The chain is made by condensation reactions of amino acids. Hydrolysis of polypeptides=Acid hydrolysisusing 6mol dm-3 HCl for several hours reflux. Molecule of water needed to break each peptide link to form a mixture of the amino acids that make up the protein. During acid hydrolysis, amino acids formed are positevely charged due to presence of H+ ions from the acid. Alkaline Hydrolysis=NaOH at 100degrees. Polypeptide is broken down into amino acids in the form of their sodium salts. Optical isomerism arises in organic molecules which has a carbon atom attached to 4 different atoms/groups. Optical isomer/enantiomer=are stereoisomers that are non superimposable mirror images of each other. Optical isomers are chemically identical but optical isomers rotate plane-polarised light in different directions. A racemic mixture has no effect on plane polarised light as the rotation cancel each other. Stereoisomer= species with the same structural formula but with a different

arrangement of atoms in space eg E/Z isomerism. Condensation polymerisation-is the joining of 2 monomers to form a larger molecule with the loss of a small molecule.-condensation polymerisation needs monomers with 2 different functional groups. Polyesters-ester made from carboxylic acid and alcohol.-In forming a polyester, monomer units are bonded together by ester linkages and water is lost.-monomers have a COOH and a OH group. 2 types of polyester=1-polyesters made by reacting 2 different types of monomer units.-one monomer is a dicarboxylic acid and the other is a diol. 2-polyesters made by reacting just one type of monomer unit containing COOH and OH groups. Condensation polymerisation of polyamides.-amide linkages join the monomer units together to make a polyamide with the loss of water. In a polyamide monomers have a COOH and a NH2 group. Addition polymerisation=alkenes undergo addition polymerisation to produce saturated chains containing no double bonds.-addition polymers are made from one type of monomer only.no product other than polymer. Hydrolysis of polyesters.-either basic or acidic conditions. Basic conditions=aqueous base in the presence of heat.-each ester linkage is hydrolysed to the sodium salt of a carboxylic acid, COO-Na+. A hydroxyl group. Acidic conditions=aq acid in presence of heat.-monomer units of the ester are produced. Hydrolysis of polyamides=Aciddicarboxylic acid and ammonium salt of the diamine produced. Basic-sodium salt of the dicarboxylic acid and the diamine are formed. Degradable polymer=polymer that breaks down into smaller fragments when exposed to light, heat or moisture. Biodegradable polymer=polymer that breaks down completely into carbon dioxide and water. Production of single isomer advantages=risks from undesired side effects are reduced.-drug doses are reduced. Test for phenol-bromine water. NaBH4. pack tightly together,van der waals.. hex-3-enal