Native Groups, Economies, and Cultures

Although population estimates of groups before definitive census records are problematic, probably about 500,000 Native peoples lived in Canada on the eve of European contact in the late fifteenth century. Scholars place the range between a low of 300,000 and a high of 2 million, but the 500,000 figure has gained a measure of acceptance. The size of various tribal units and affiliated groups varied dramatically, with the largest populations clustered near plentiful resources and in more temperate climatic zones, such as along the present-day British Columbia coast, southern Ontario, and the lowlands along the St. Lawrence River. At least twelve major linguistic families, the two largest being the Athabaskan of the West and North and the Algonquian that dominated in the East, encompassed Canadas Native peoples. A third linguistic branch, smaller in range but of critical importance for understanding Canadian history, was the Iroquoian group located in present-day New York state. For important moments in Canadian history, they ranged into southern Ontario and along the St. Lawrence River. Within these linguistic groups, defined by similar languages and cultures, over fifty distinct languages were spoken by Canadas Amerindians. The culture of Canadas Native peoples is as hard to characterize in a brief space as it would be to lump various ethnic groups from Africa, Asia, or Europe. Nonetheless, it is possible to make generalizations that fairly characterize the peoples whom the Europeans first encountered. These behaviors were also partially responsible for the destructive clashes, due in part to a lack of understanding of cultural differences, that largely defined European-Amerindian relations for centuries.

Native peoples displayed generally egalitarian qualities, and tribal units worked according to consensus. While Amerindians had chiefs, the leaders authority rested largely on an ability to hold power to represent the common will. The belief system of Native peoples suggested a close relationship with the land and animal kingdom that provided food and clothing. Amerindian life was thoroughly intertwined with the living beings and inanimate objects of the universe. Religious behavior, characterized by a host of spirits and communal rituals, was left largely to the individual. The balance between the needs of the group and the individual was a complex one that varied from one tribe to another, but in general Amerindians highly prized personal power and skill. In addition, Native peoples played sports, such as lacrosse, and clearly demonstrated a sense of humor that transcended cultures. The economies of tribal units varied greatly as well, from highly socialized groups such as the Iroquois and West Coast Bella Coolawith their multiple family units and elaborate villages, to nomadic family units of hunters and gatherers such as the eastern Algonquian tribes. The vast majority of Native peoples were hunters and gatherers, and the interior of what would become Canada was honeycombed with well-plied trade routes. Some tribes, such as the Huron, honed their trading skills long before Europeans arrived. Other units based much of their economy on agricultural pursuits. A trademark of Iroquoian peoples was their expertise in raising corn, beans, squash, and other vegetables. Some scholars estimate that the Huron raised by farming

seventy-five percent of what they consumed in bountiful years. In the prairies, tribes employed sophisticated hunting tactics to slaughter buffalo for food and clothing. West Coast Amerindians were adept at catching fish in the rich coastal waters and river systems; theywere also exceptional woodworkers. The totem pole became one of the most recognizable symbols of North American Amerindians yet was the creation of West Coast Native peoples. Although tribal groups clearly had a sense of territory and familiarity with hunting, trapping, and fishing regions, they had no clear ownership tradition that a contemporary European would recognize or honor. One of the most enduring and discernible contributions of Native peoples was their technological creations. Europeans would adapt so completely a host of Amerindian-designed tools and transportation devices that these would literally end up being considered emblematic of present-day Canada. A partial list would include the bark canoe, snowshoes, toboggans, and dogsleds. In addition, the techniques that Native peoples developed in growing edible plants, trapping animals, and curing pelts would be adopted wholesale by whites who were eager to exploit the resources of North America for their own use and European markets. Indeed, Amerindians pointed the way to the development of raw materials that would become the backbone of colonial and postcolonial economic development. The lucrative fur trade was a prime example. Although the documentary evidence of the lives of Native peoples is more abundant after Europeans appeared, and tragically the postcontact era was rife with violent clashes between the cultures,

enough evidence survives to suggest that Amerindians regularly warred on neighboring tribes in the precontact period. Native peoples typically took captives into their tribes and made hostages of women and children to facilitate intricate trading relationships over the generations. Adoption of captives and intermarriage between tribes was not uncommon, and while countless wars and skirmishes defined in part the Amerindian life cycle, scholars are in some agreement that the utter destruction of tribes in warfare, while it might have occurred, was probably not a typical objective strategy for warring groups (see Champlains Assessment of Native Peoples in the Documents section).