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Outline
Introduction
Electrical conductivity Electrical current in conductive media Charge accumulation
2D and 3D imaging
Array and survey geometry Inversion
Induced polarization
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Energy Source
Images
(surface / subsurface)
Measured Data
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Inject direct current into conductive ground. Measure the voltage produced on the surface or in boreholes. Always involves four electrodes.
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Conceptual model
Given the above configuration: One would measure higher voltages over a resistive body and lower voltages over a more conductive body (to be discussed soon). The voltage senses the change in resistivity or conductivity.
Historical Development
The first S.P. survey conducted in 1820 by Fox in England.
S.P. over a massive sulfide body
1940s and 50s: multiple position & multiple offset used in mineral exploration 1950: Induced Polarization (IP) for disseminated sulfides
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Electrical Conductivity
Ohms Law: R = V/I Resistance = Voltage/Current Voltage is directly related to resistivity: Voltage increases when resistance increases.
L V
Express in current density (j) in terms of electric field (E) and material property (resistivity !).
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(Ward, 1990)
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Anisotropy
! in general, electrical conductivity is really a tensor! ! The conductivity values are different in different directions
Simple Example: The conductivities in longitudinal and transverse directions are different
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On a planar boundary: (all quantities in the two media are labelled with a subscript of 1 and 2, respectively)
Integration along a rectangular loop,
Current density is continuous across the boundary (i.e., normal components are continuous)
Summary Current density does not change across the interface. The electric field is discontinuous across the interface. The only field generator of static electric field is electrical charges
There must be accumulation of the electrical charges at the interface.
This leads to the only conclusion: There must be charges accumulating on the interface!
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The questions are then: What is the sign of the charge and how much is there? Lets approximate the charges locally as an infinite sheet with surface charge density, , which produces an electrical field normal to the interface. The normal field is given by
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How does the current flow? Combining the two boundary conditions to derive the angle of current flow with respect to the normal vector
i.e., current bends towards normal when entering resistive medium, and away from normal when entering conductve medium!
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Charge
Electrical current Bends towards the normal Bends away from the normal
(Burger, 1992)
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Arrowed lines are current flow; dashed lines are supposed to be equipotential lines.
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1. Mise-a-la-masse method Direct application of charge accumulation Charge an in-place conductive body, creating charges on the surface of the body as current flows outwards. Measure the potential at the surface. Similar to gravity, except in this case you are measuring potential.
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Mise--la-masse surveys: delineated the extent of sulfides method for correlating drill hole ore intersections guide drilling during a deep exploration program.
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B
1000 m
Linear scale
log scale
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Linear scale
log scale
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The anomalous potential can be either constructive or destructive to the primary field, depending on location. Over a conductive body: we measure a central low with two positive side lobes Over a resistive body: we measure a central high with two negative side lobes
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Apparent Resistivity:
Lets define a quantity, apparent resistivity. It should:
Be constant over a uniform half-space (preferred) have the units of resistivity
Uniform half-space
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The geometrical factor depends on the type of survey, based on the electrode and voltmeter positions. Generally:
However, apparent resistivity is NOT the primary data. Measured voltages are the primary data, which are used by most modern inversion algorithms In true 3D acquisition where the MN and AB electrodes are not aligned in the same direction, we may NOT be able to define an apparent resistivity, because the geometric factor is undefined (infinite).
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A (-1000 m) MN=20 m
A (+1000 m)
Apparent resistivity map from a middle gradient Survey at the Ballenger Ranch, NM
Two surveys merged AB1: (-20,60 ) (280,60) AB2: (-40,0) (260,0) MN= 10 m
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Schlumberger sounding
Designed to work over 1D earth MN located in the center between A & B Measure electric field
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Schlumberger Sounding
Geometrical factor:
When
Consider a half-space with 2 layers of differing resistivity. Resistivity of top layer is and the bottom layer is . At small AB, the current does not flow deep enough to significantly detect the deeper layer. Most current flows in the top of the first layer. The potential reflects the resistivity of the top layer. At large AB, most of the current flows in the deeper layer. The potential reflects the resistivity of the bottom layer.
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However, the current flow depends strongly on electrical conductivity. Less current goes to the depth when there is a more conductive surface layer: smaller depth of investigation More current goes to the depth when there is a more resistive surface layer: greater depth of investigation
(Burger, 1992)
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Depth of investigation as a function of MN spacing (in VES over 1D earth only) For a given AB separation, an increase in MN separation leads to decreased depth of investigation. The reason:
As M and N electrodes move apart, they each become closer to the current electrode A or B Correspondingly, the relative contribution to the measured voltage by deeper charges decrease, so the data are more sensitive to shallower conductivity.
An end-member scenario: As MN separation approaches AB separation, the depth of investigation becomes zero.
Exapnding MN causes the curve to shift to the right! -- decreasing depth of investigation
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3-Layer Cases
1. A: 2. Q: 3. K: 4. H:
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1D Interpretation
Curve matching by manual approach (ancient): comparing measured curve with pre-calculated curves to find a macthing one, thus the resistivities and thickness Works for two- and three-layered cases Least-squares solution to find the resistivities and thicknesses of a small number of layers. Generalized nonlinear inversion to find a minimum structure function of resistivity as a function of depth.
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Theoretically: Uniqueness Theorem: Lange 1932 1D: perfect data for all AB offset and fixed MN Practically: Many similar solution exists because we have only finite number of data with measurement errors. Least-squares solution (parametric inversion): find the resistivities and thicknesses so as to minimize the data misfit between observed and calculated apparent resistivities.
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We solve a non-linear least squares problem to find the values of that would have produced the measured apparent resistivity data. This is done by minimizing the following data misfit function;
Because the forward modeling is non-linear, this is solved iteratively by starting from an initial guess for
As long as the transverse resistance (K type) or the longitudinal conductance (H type) remains the same, resistivity profiles with different middle layer thickness will produce the same apparent resistivity curve within error tolerance.
Transverse resistance Longitudinal conductance
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2D imaging of subsurface
Multiple measurements at different surface locations with fixed array geometry: detects lateral variation of electrical conductivity Multiple measurements at the same locations with expanding array geometry: detects vertical variation of electrical conductivity To detect the variation of conductivity horizontally and vertically in the surface, we require measurements at multiple locations using expanding arrays (multiple electrode off-set) Equivalently: multiple source locations and multiple measurements for each source location
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Pole-pole
Pole-dipole (R)
Pole-dipole (L)
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Pole-pole
Pole-dipole (R)
Pole-dipole (L)
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Comments on psudo-sections
Pseduo-section were developed as an easy way to organize and plot the data It has little to no correspondence to real geo-electrical sections
Recall: each datum is affected by the entire charge accumulation associated with electrical conductivity variation in the subsurface (volumetric effect) Thus: CANNOT make one-to-one correspondence between a given datum and a point in the subsurface
Earlier interpretation using on pseudo-section was based on matching anomaly patterns in the pseudo-section with known conductivity anomalies in the subsurface
Can be effect when the subsurface is simple (such as a single conductivity anomaly) Difficult when multiple anomalies or geological noise is present
Resistivity model
Ohm-m
Pseudo-section
Pseudo-section
Dipole-dipole; n=1,8; a=10m Simple scenario: clear anomaly pattern and interpretable Multiple bodies: overlapping anomalies dominated by effect of shallow conductivity variations
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Region of interest
Parameterize the conductivity by a piece-wise constant 2D function, such that the number of cells is much greater than the number of data Inversion finds the conductivity values in all cells
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Data misfit
N: number of data !i is the standard of error in ith datum Model objective function
m=ln("): model used in inversion (log conductivity) m0 is a reference model (we want the inverted model to be close to it)
Inversion solution
Obtain the solution by Tikhonov regularization:
where is the regularization parameter determines the balance between the two parts We look for an optimal balance between the two components so that we fit the signal in the data, but not the noise one simple condition: data misfit equal to it expectation Solution obtained iteratively by starting with an initial guess
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Pole pole
m0 = 40 "m
m0 = 4000 "m
"-m
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Regions of investigation
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IP effect is characterized by a phase lag between the observed potential and input current in the frequency domain
Definition of chargeability
Primary property characterizing the IP effect in a rock unit is the chargeability # : ratio of secondary potential over total potential The secondary potential is a function of delay time, so is the chargeability
Intrinsic chargeability (measured on rock samples)
A similar quantity, apparent chargeability can be defined for field measurements using co-linear arrays
Commonly used as IP data, but not always defined just as apparent resistivity
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The weighting factors in the equations are called IP sensitivities (see next slide) This relationship also forms the basis for the most practical IP inversion used in interpretation.
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At n=1, #a = 0.0608
I V
At n=5, #a = -0.0897
I V
At n=2, #a = 0.0358
At n=6, #a = -0.0103
Inversion of IP data
A two-stage process First, we invert the accompanying DC resistivity data to recover the conductivity distribution Second, we use that conductivity to invert IP data
use the recovered conductivity to calcuate the sensitivities in Siegels dilation equation Invert the IP data (apparent chargeabilities) using a similar approach as in the DC resistivity inversion: finding a simple intrinsic chargeability model that predicts the observed apparent chargeabilities. We also impose the condition that the chargeability must be positive
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Pole pole
mrad
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Overburden is delineated.
Observed data mS/m Recovered model
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