International Baccalaureate Chemistry Higher Level Extended Essay

Investigating the Faraday Constant of the Electrolysis and Synthesis of Water in a Reversible Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Name: Kleopas Palate Candidate number: 003083-007 Date: March 5, 2011 Center number: 003083 Supervisor: Dr. George Georgiadis School: Pascal English School Larnaca Word count: 3977

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Abstract: The aim of this essay is to investigate the relationship between the volume of hydrogen gas converted by a fuel cell and the amount of charge that passes through its circuit. The research question this essay investigates is: Does the Faraday constant apply to fuel cell technology? Essentially, the Faraday constant is derived by investigating the forward (electrolysis) and reverse reaction (synthesis of water) that hydrogen fuel cell technology utilizes. The experiments only deal with a demonstration Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) reversible hydrogen fuel cell, at room temperature and pressure, with a controlled power supply and load, to limit the scope. According to the developed hypothesis, the Faraday constant of the reverse redox reaction for the production of water will be less than the literature value and along with the Faraday constant for the forward redox reaction (electrolysis of water), it can be used to determine the Faraday efficiency. Also, the Faraday constant of the forward reaction will equal the literature value within experimental uncertainties. A method of measuring the charge passing through the circuit (using an automatic data logger) while also recording the change in the volume of gas was used. From the current-time graph produced by the data logger and the change in volume of hydrogen gas it is possible to calculate the Faraday constant. The conclusion of the essay is that the hypothesis was correct. Answering the research question: the Faraday constant was found not to apply to fuel cell technology. More specifically, it does not apply to PEM hydrogen fuel cells according to this study and within the experimental uncertainties. The Faraday constants for the forward and reverse reactions were found to be 94900 2000 C/mol and 77700 3000 C/mol, respectively. The percent modified Faraday efficiency was found to be 81.9 5%.

Word count: 299

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Contents
Research question:.................................................................................................................................. 4 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Background Theory:................................................................................................................................ 5 Faradays Laws of electrolysis:............................................................................................................ 5 The Chemistry of the PEM Fuel Cell.................................................................................................... 6 PEM Fuel Cell Redox reactions:....................................................................................................... 7 Reaction Mechanism....................................................................................................................... 7 Aim: ......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Hypothesis: ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Variables: ................................................................................................................................................ 8 Apparatus:............................................................................................................................................... 9 Procedure:............................................................................................................................................... 9 Cylinder ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Burette method (used for electrolysis trials only) .............................................................................. 9 Digitizing Graph images ....................................................................................................................10 Hoffman apparatus method (both electrolysis and synthesis trials)................................................12 Experiment 1: Investigation of Faraday constant of electrolysis:.........................................................13 Sample Calculations: .........................................................................................................................13 Table 2: Electrolysis trials..................................................................................................................18 Graph 2: Scatter plot of all of the electrolysis trials with best fit, maximum, and minimum .......... 19 Experiment 2: Investigation of Faraday constant of water synthesis: .................................................21 Table 4: Water synthesis trials.......................................................................................................... 22 Graph 4: Scatter plot of all of the synthesis trials with best fit, maximum, and minimum.............. 23 Result Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 24 Table 5: Experimental Faraday constants with uncertainties and errors......................................... 24 Conclusion:............................................................................................................................................ 26 Evaluation: ............................................................................................................................................ 26 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 28

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Research question: Is the value of the Faraday constant, as derived by the investigation of both the electrolysis (forward reaction) and the synthesis of water from its elements ( reverse reaction) by a reversible hydrogen fuel cell, the same (within the bounds of the experimental uncertainties)? Introduction The purpose of this extended essay is to investigate the application of the Faraday constant to the electrolysis and synthesis of water using a reversible hydrogen fuel cell. A reversible fuel cell can electrolyze distilled water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases and also can convert these gases back into water to produce a current. The electrolysis reaction is expected to have a Faraday constant which equals the literature value within experimental uncertainties. On the other hand, the same is not expected for the water synthesis (reverse) reaction. This has to do with the mechanism of the Proton exchange membrane (PEM) of the fuel cell. Essentially, it is expected that some of the hydrogen (either in diatomic or monatomic form) will diffuse through the membrane without first being reduced into ions. Evidence of this effect can be identified if lower-than-expected amounts of charge are found for a volume of hydrogen gas consumed. A lower Faraday constant is therefore anticipated for the water synthesis reaction. Fuel cells are devices that work on the same principle as a battery with the exception that the chemicals are continually replenished. The hydrogen fuel cell converts the chemical energy of the supplied gases (Hydrogen and Oxygen) into electrical energy and water. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)1 is a scientific intergovernmental body established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)2 The stated aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to: human-induced climate change and its impacts3 options for adaptation and mitigation

Hydrogen and fuel cells have the potential in reducing green house gas - CO2 emissions.4
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Hydrogen gas does not occur in nature but in its combined form, water, is the most abundant element on Earth. It is a clean fuel and can be produced by the electrolysis of water, using photovoltaics, wind or other renewable energy sources. It is termed an energy carrier since energy is required to produce it in the first place, so it is only useful to do so if it is produced during times when renewable sources are available, i.e. during daylight, and used during periods of demand, i.e. evenings. Recent technology advances have increased attention for the use of hydrogen and fuel cells as a substitute or complement for oil fuels and internal combustion engines in transport. The clear advantage of using hydrogen in fuel cells is that the high efficiency of fuel cells can be combined with zero CO2 emissions. There are a number of obstacles on the path to a hydrogen economy including: High cost of fuel cells The absence of an infrastructure for getting hydrogen to consumers Storage challenges

There are also safety concerns because hydrogen: has a wide flammability and detonation limit, a low ignition energy, and high flame speed.

Background Theory: Faradays Laws of electrolysis: Michael Faraday found that the mass of a substance involved in reaction at the electrodes is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the solution. [Faradays 1st law] is independent of temperature, pressure, or the nature of the solvent, as long as the latter can promote ionization of the solute. 5 Faradays 2nd Law of electrolysis states that: The second law states that the number of moles of electrons required to discharge one mole of an ion at an electrode equals the number of charges on the ion 6
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The value of the Faraday constant is determined by multiplying the charge of an electron (1.602E-19 Coulomb) by Avogadros number (6.022E23), in short it is the total charge produced by one mole of electrons. The value of which is 96485 C/mol. The Chemistry of the PEM Fuel Cell The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is at the heart of a PEM fuel cell. The electrodes are coated with 0.1-0.5 milligrams of platinum per square centimetre and finely distributed and deposited onto specially treated polymer membrane carbon mats. The latter are then hot-press-bonded with the polymer membrane (Nafion). The membrane extends into the porous electrode structures, and the catalyst must have simultaneous contact with the gas, the proton conductor (polymer membrane) and the electron conductors (electrodes). Nafion consists of Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) chains, commonly known as Teflon forming the backbone of the membrane. Attached to the Teflon chains, are side chains ending with sulphonic acid (HSO3) groups. Chemical structure of a PEM fuel cell membrane. Long chains of PTFE (Teflon) with side chain ending with sulphonic acid (HSO3). Close-up of a PEM fuel cell membrane shows long spaghetti-like chain molecules of Teflon surrounding clusters of hydrated regions around the sulphonate side chains. An interesting feature of this material is that whereas the long chain polymers molecules are hydrophobic, the sulphonate side chains are highly hydrophylic. For the membrane to conduct ions efficiently the sulphonate side chains must absorb large quantities of water. Within these hydrated regions, the hydrogen ions of the sulphonic acid groups can then move freely, enabling
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the membrane to transfer hydrogen ions, in the form of hydronium ions H3O+ from one side of the membrane to the other. The Teflon chains form the backbone of the membrane. The hydrated regions around the sulphonate electrolyte. side chains become the

(Source: Larminie & Dicks,

February 2000) The two half-cell electrochemical reactions in a PEM fuel cell, as with all redox reactions, take place simultaneously. The oxidation reaction at the anode leads to a loss of electrons from the hydrogen whilst a reduction reaction at the cathode leads to a gain of electrons by the oxygen. The resulting product of the reaction is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gases. In electrolysis the anode and cathode are immersed in an electrolyte usually a weak solution of sulphuric acid, which allows ions to be transferred from one side to the other. In a PEM fuel cell the electrolyte is a solid acid supported within the membrane and this is saturated with water so that the transport of ions can proceed. PEM Fuel Cell Redox reactions: Anode reaction: Membrane reaction: Cathode reaction: Overall reaction: Reaction Mechanism At the anode: 1. Hydrogen molecules diffuse to the catalyst surface. 2. Hydrogen molecules adsorb onto the platinum catalyst forming weak H-Pt bonds. 3. The hydrogen atomizes into single hydrogen atoms. 4. Each hydrogen atom releases its electron, by an ionization process to form a proton and the electron travels around the external circuit to the cathode (referred to as electrical current).
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H2 2H+ + 2e2H+ +2H2O 2H3O+ O2 + 2e- + 2H3O+ 3H2O H2 + 1/2 O2 H2O

5. The hydrogen proton then bonds with a water molecule on the membrane surface, forming a hydronium ion (H3O+). 6. The hydronium ion diffuses through the membrane to the cathode, leaving the platinum catalyst site free for the next hydrogen to repeat this process.

Figure 1: Cross section of a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell 7 Note that it is also possible for the hydrogen gas to diffuse through the membrane directly and then combine with the oxygen directly without the electrons flowing around the external circuit. Aim: The aim of this essay is to investigate the relationship between the volume of hydrogen gas converted by a fuel cell and the amount of charge that passes through its circuit. Hypothesis: If the Faraday constant (96485.34 Coulombs/mole of electrons) 8 applies for the electrolysis of water but a different value is obtained during the recombination of its constituent molecules, then a basis can be established for the Faraday efficiency () to be determined for a PEM Hydrogen fuel cell. Variables: Independent: Volume of hydrogen gas produced Dependent: Charge (product of current and time) Control: Temperature, Pressure, same Fuel cell used
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Apparatus: Syringe(s) Hoffman voltameter (0.10 cm3) Burette (0.10cm3) Deionized water Pinch clamp Beaker Rubber tubing Gas storage cylinders Renewable energy monitor (automatic multimeter) Leads (wires included in kit) Fuel cell kit chassis with motor Reversible fuel cell Battery pack Stopwatch

Procedure: Cylinder Some of the initial trials were conducted using the cylinders from the fuel cell car kit. There are graduations on the side of the cylinder however the displacement of water due to the inner cylinders and rubber tubes made accurate volume difficult to obtain using the cylinder marks alone. The cylinders were calibrated gravimetrically by weighing the mass of water required to fill a cylinder between two graduated marks to improve the accuracy of the readings.* *Upon analysis, the random error of the cylinder trials was deemed too great, and another measurement procedure was devised. Burette method (used for electrolysis trials only) Experimental description: In this experiment I used the reversible fuel cell to electrolyze distilled water. I collected the hydrogen gas produced in an inverted burette. I measured initial and final volumes, the duration of electrolysis, and the current using the datalogger. Procedure: 1. Fill a beaker and burette with water
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2. Cover opening of burette, invert it and submerge into beaker 3. Attach the burette to a lab stand leaving space between the bottom of the beaker and the opening of the burette 4. Detach bell cap from the tubing on the hydrogen side of the fuel cell 5. Feed the tube into the beaker and up into the burette 6. Pinch off the end of the tube at the hydrogen side with pinch clamp 7. Remove the short tube on the other opening of the hydrogen side and attach a syringe filled with deionized water, unclamp the other tube, and inject distilled water to remove air bubbles. 8. Replace clamp, remove syringe, and replace the short tube with end pin 9. If there is too much air already in the burette, then withdraw some from the opening at the top. 10. Rehydrate the oxygen side of the fuel cell 11. Record the initial volume of gas in the burette (note that number are all upside down) 12. Connect fuel cell leads to output sockets on automatic multimeter and connect battery leads to input. 13. Run data logging program and start recording 14. Switch on battery pack and start stopwatch simultaneously 15. Stop the stopwatch, disconnect one of the output leads, and stop the data recording in the program 16. Record the final volume of gas 17. Take snapshot of graph of current over time

Digitizing Graph images Process description: The renewable energy monitor software can record data values at various intervals (e.g. 5 readings per second, 1 reading per second, ect.) One reading per second was the interval used for all of the trials that follow. Even though the program can record data, there is no option to export the data collected. All the program can do is to take a snapshot of the graph on the screen. To extract the data points from the graph snapshots, another program
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called Dagra9 was used. Using Dagra, I fit a Bzier curve onto the graph images and exported the data points into Excel

1. First record data with the Renewable Energy Monitor program 10 (from step 13 above) 2. Adjust scale and switch on only the necessary variables to graph (normally only the current was graphed) 3. Click play and pause as the last sample is plotted. 4. Take a snapshot by clicking the snapshot button in the program 5. Find the JPEG file of the snapshot (labeled with the time and date automatically) and open the file in an image viewer 6. Run Dagra 7. Choose extract data from snapshot 8. Take a snapshot of the graph image 9. Fit the x and y axis to the image of the graph and enter the correct scales 10. Now fit a Bzier curve onto this image which passed through the datapoints 11. Copy the data points into a spreadsheet application.

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Figure 2: Screenshot of Darga taken Feb. 28, 2011 at 8:34 am Hoffman apparatus method (both electrolysis and synthesis trials) Experiment description: The electrolysis data obtained with the burette used only the initial and final volumes. To show more than just the total change in volume and total coulombs produced, another experimental set up was required. The burette setup could have worked for this purpose. By measuring the volume at regular intervals and calculating the total charge at the same intervals, a wider range of data points can be plotted (not just one point as is the case when calculating only the total change in volume). The reason the burette setup was only used for charging trials, was because the rubber tubes were too small to fit on the nozzle of the burette. The solution to this problem was to use the Hoffman voltameter. This apparatus was not used for its intended purpose (i.e.to electrolyze water), but instead was used to measure the volumes of hydrogen gas. The nozzle openings were slightly smaller, and with the addition of some wider rubber tubing, it was possible to connect the nozzles of the apparatus to the nozzles of the fuel cell. The other advantage of using the Hoffman voltameter was that the markings are not upside down as they were with the inverted burette. The volume was recorded at regular intervals and the coulombs were calculated at the same intervals.
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Experiment 1: Investigation of Faraday constant of electrolysis: After conducting the electrolysis and water synthesis trials, the data needed to be manipulated to find the Faraday constant for each trial, and the average Faraday constant of all the trials. Below are sample calculations showing, step by step, how the Faraday constant is found for a trial. The example is of an electrolysis trial using the burette, but the same process is used to calculate the Faraday constant of all of the electrolysis and synthesis trials. Sample Calculations: Raw Data: Initial volume: 49.4 0.10 ml Final volume: 16.5 0.10 ml Time: 4minutes 20 sec = 260 seconds

Figure 3: Snapshot taken of burette trial Calculating moles produced: Volume of H2 produced: Initial Volume: 49.4 0.10 ml
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Final Volume: 16.5 0.10 ml Volume of gas produced= 49.4 16.5 = 32.9 0.20 ml To calculate moles produced, first the volume of gas per mole at the experimental temperature and pressure must be. PV=nRT Rearranging we get V/n=RT/P ( ( Moles of H2 produced: 32.9 ) = ) 10 1 = =

1 10

23721

Theoretical measured coulombs are found by integration: = d

1 23721

= 1.39 10

I vs. t
1.4 1.2 1 Current (Amps) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 Time (seconds)

Figure 4: Graph showing how data extracted from snapshot is integrated

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The integration was done by multiplying the current at 10 second intervals by 10 (the product is the charge that has passed through the circuit in that interval. Finding the sum of these products gives the total amount of charge (Q) that has passed through the circuit. Q= 257.73 coulombs Consider that the uncertainty of the current is 0.05 amps. If 0.05 is added to the values for current and the new points are integrated, then charge for the maximum current is obtained. Repeating the process, but instead of adding, this time subtracting 0.05 gives charge for the minimum current. Maximum current: 259.08 Minimum current: 256.38 The uncertainty is the difference between the maximum and the minimum divided by two. 2 = 259.08 256.38 = 1.35 2

Now the charge should be expressed to 3 significant figures (s.f.) because both current and time were expressed to3 s.f. on the graph. Uncertainty should be expressed to 1 s.f. Q= 258 1 coulombs

Finding the Faraday constant: One Faraday is equivalent to 1 mole of electrons, or 96485.3415 coulombs of charge per mol. To derive this constant, simply divide the charge in coulombs (found by integration) by the moles of electrons in the Hydrogen gas produced (difference of measured volume). There are 2 moles of electrons per mole of H 2. = 1.39 10 1 =
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2 1

= 2.774 10 = 93008 /
15

257.7 2.77 10

Uncertainty: The Faraday constant is directly proportional to the charge calculated and inversely proportional to the volume of Hydrogen produced. Therefore the Faraday constant is largest when calculated using the maximum charge and minimum volume; it is smallest when using the minimum charge and maximum volume. (The uncertainty of temperature, which affects the volume, has also been considered. On the days these experiments took place the temperature was 18 1C) The maximum and minimum values for the Faraday constant were calculated, so that the uncertainty could be found. Maximum Faraday constant: 94263 Minimum Faraday constant: 91771 = 2 = 94263 91770 = 1246.5 2

Faraday constant= 93000 1000 C/mol (3 s.f.) Calculating the percent error: = = 96485 93000 100% = 3.6 1% 96485 100%

A total of 6 separate electrolysis trials were conducted, and 15 data points were produced. The data points mostly came from the two Hoffman trials.

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Table 1: Burette and Hoffman electrolysis results Trial Name Change in volume (cm3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Burette 1 Burette 2 Burette 3 Burette 4 Hoffman 2 Hoffman 3 32.9 10.0 10.2 7.7 9.0 8.4 Uncertainty of volume 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Time (s) 1 260 100 114 60 120 121 Charge (coulombs) 258 75.3 76.2 53.6 72.1 66.6 Uncertainty of Charge 1 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6

Graph 1: Volume vs. time graph for the burette and Hoffman electrolysis trials

Volume v. Time
60 50 Volume H2 (cm3) (0.2) 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 150 Time (s) (1) 200 250 300 Burette 1 Burette 2 Burette 3 Burette 4 Hoffman 2 Hoffman 3

To find the Faraday constant: There are 15 data points for the electrolysis trials. Most of the data points are instantaneous measurements taken during the Hoffman trials.
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Each trial produced one or more set of values (depending on whether only the initial and final volumes were used or not) which were processed to find the Faraday constant for that trial and its uncertainty. The results can all be found in Table 1. Table 2: Electrolysis trials Vol H2 (cm3) 2.2 2.8 4.4 4.9 6.4 7.0 7.7 8.0 8.4 9.0 10.0 10.0 10.2 14.0 32.9 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 9.28E-05 1.18E-04 1.86E-04 2.07E-04 2.70E-04 2.95E-04 3.25E-04 3.37E-04 3.54E-04 3.79E-04 4.22E-04 4.22E-04 4.30E-04 5.90E-04 1.39E-03 18.9 20.5 35.4 38.6 50.6 55.9 53.6 73.1 65.6 72.1 75.3 89.1 76.2 126 258 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 1 0.6 0.6 0.5 2 0.6 3 1 Uncert. Mol H2 Vol Charge (C) Uncert. Mol Charge Faraday Uncert. % error Unc. % error 5.7% 6% 7% 1% 3% 3% 2% 3% 6% 3% 2% 2% 6% 2% 5% 1%

electrons Constant Faraday e1.86E-04 2.36E-04 3.71E-04 4.13E-04 5.40E-04 5.90E-04 6.49E-04 6.75E-04 7.08E-04 7.59E-04 8.43E-04 8.43E-04 8.60E-04 1.18E-03 2.77E-03 (C/mol) 102000 86800 95400 93400 93800 94700 82600 108000 92600 95000 89304 106000 88600 107000 93000 Constant 10000

7000 10.0% 5000 5000 4000 4000 1.1% 3.2% 2.8% 1.9%

3000 14.4% 6000 11.9% 3000 3000 2000 6000 2000 4.0% 1.5% 7.4% 9.9% 8.2%

5000 10.9% 1000 3.6%

Below all of the points of Table 2 are displayed on a scatter plot of charge versus change in volume. The gradient is used to calculate the average Faraday constant using the same techniques as the example from the sample calculations above.
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Graph 2: Scatter plot of all of the electrolysis trials with best fit, maximum, and minimum

Charge v. Volume
250 Faraday Constant y = 8.1351x

Best Fit: y = 8.0017x R = 0.989 200

Maximum: y = 8.1924x R = 0.9846

Charge (Coulombs)

150

Minimum: y = 7.8138x R = 0.9919

100

50

0 0 10 20

Electrolysis Trials - Best Fit Faraday Constant Minimum Maximum 30

Volume H2

(cm3)

*uncertainties vary, for actual values see Table 2

To find the average experimental value of the Faraday constant from the electrolysis trials, the gradient of Graph 2 which has units C/cm3 is converted to C/mol
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The volume of one mole of gas under the experimental conditions was 23721 cm 3 8.0017 23721 1 2 = 94903 / Faraday Constant (C/mol e-) 92674 97614

= 8.0017

Minimum Maximum

Gradient (C/cm3) 7.8138 8.1924

Uncertainty of Faraday constant: = 2 = 97614 92674 = 2470 2

Faraday constant= 94900 2000 C/mol (3 s.f.) Calculating the percent error: = = 100%

96485 94900 100% = 1.6 0.2% 96485

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Experiment 2: Investigation of Faraday constant of water synthesis: The same analysis and calculations were carried out for the 15 discharge data points. Table 3: Hoffman synthesis results Trial 1 2 3 Name Hoffman 0 Hoffman 1 Hoffman 2 Change in volume (cm3) Uncertainty of volume 3.4 0.2 3.6 0.2 0.8 0.2 Time (s) 1 120 120 30 Charge Uncertainty (coulombs) of Charge 22.6 0.6 22.5 0.6 4.59 0.2

Graph 3: Volume vs. time graph for the Hoffman synthesis trials

Volume v. Time
45

Volume H2 (cm3) (0.2)

40

35 Hoffman 0 30 Hoffman 1 Hoffman 2 25 0 20 40 60 80 Time (s) (1) 100 120 140 160

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Table 4: Water synthesis trials Vol H2 (cm3) 0.80 0.80 1.10 1.50 2.00 2.10 2.80 2.80 3.40 3.60 6.30 8.28 8.29 10.8 12.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 3.37E-05 3.37E-05 4.64E-05 6.32E-05 8.43E-05 8.85E-05 1.18E-04 1.18E-04 1.43E-04 1.52E-04 2.66E-04 3.49E-04 3.49E-04 4.57E-04 5.04E-04 4.92 4.59 6.03 9.53 12.0 14.0 18.4 17.8 22.6 22.5 36.4 56.5 54.4 77.5 74.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 1 2 2 2 2 Uncert. Mol H2 Vol Charge (C) Uncert. Mol Charge Faraday Uncert. % error Unc. % error 21% 21% 10% 10% 9% 10% 8% 8% 7% 6% 2% 3% 3% 3% 2%

electrons Constant Faraday e6.75E-05 6.75E-05 9.27E-05 1.26E-04 1.69E-04 1.77E-04 2.36E-04 2.36E-04 2.87E-04 3.04E-04 5.31E-04 6.98E-04 6.99E-04 9.14E-04 1.01E-03 (C/mol) 72900 68000 65000 75400 71200 79100 77900 75400 78800 74100 68500 80900 77900 84800 73700 Constant

20000 24.4% 20000 29.5% 10000 32.6% 10000 21.9% 9000 26.2% 10000 18.0% 8000 19.3% 8000 21.9% 7000 18.3% 6000 23.2% 2000 29.0% 3000 16.2% 3000 19.3% 3000 12.1% 2000 23.6%

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Graph 4: Scatter plot of all of the synthesis trials with best fit, maximum, and minimum

Charge v. Volume
80 Best Fit: y = 6.5554x R = 0.9895

70

Faraday Constant y = 8.1351x

60 Maximum: y = 6.8352x R = 0.9894 50

Charge (Coulombs)

40

Minimum: y = 6.2747x R = 0.9865

30

20

Synthesis Trials - Best Fit 10 Faraday Constant Minimum Maximum 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Volume H2

(cm3)

*uncertainties vary, for actual values see Table 4

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To find the average experimental value of the Faraday constant from the water synthesis trials, the gradient of Graph 4 which has units C/cm3 is converted to C/mol = = 6.5554

The volume of one mole of gas under the experimental conditions was 23721 cm 3 6.5554 23721 1 2 = 77749 / Faraday Constant (C/mol e-) 74420 81068

Minimum Maximum

Gradient (C/cm3) 6.2747 6.8352

Uncertainty of Faraday constant: = 2 = 81068 74420 = 3324 2

Faraday constant= 77700 3000 C/mol (3 s.f.) Calculating the percent error: = =

Result Evaluation

96485 77700 100% = 19.5 0.3% 96485

100%

The Faraday constants found for both experiments are displayed below. Table 5: Experimental Faraday constants with uncertainties and errors Faraday constant (C/mol e-) Electrolysis (forward) Synthesis (reverse) 94900 77700 Uncertainty Faraday constant 2000 3000 Percent error Uncertainty Percent error 0.2% 0.3%

1.6 % 19.5 %

Faraday efficiency (Faraday) is the number of Faradays found experimentally over the Faraday constant.
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Finding the Faraday efficiency of the reverse reaction (Reverse)11 over the Faraday efficiency of the forward reaction (Forward)12 gives the modified Faraday efficiency (Faraday) During this study the Faraday constant found for the forward reaction was (within its uncertainties) equal to the literature value. The modified Faraday efficiency is a substitute for the Faraday efficiency of the water synthesis reaction which also takes into consideration the forward Faraday efficiency and its uncertainties. It provides a comparison that takes both reactions which occur in a reversible fuel cell into account. 96485

96485

Modified Faraday efficiency calculation: = = 77700 3000 / 94900 2000 / 0.819 0.05

Percent modified Faraday efficiency: % = (0.819 0.05) 100% = 81.9 5%

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Conclusion: Based on the results found, the answer to the research question: does the Faraday constant apply to fuel cell technology? is that it does not apply within the experimental uncertainties. The hypothesis was correct, and the modified Faraday efficiency ( Faraday) was found to be 0.819 0.05. The Faraday constant for the electrolysis of water was found to be 94900 2000 C/mol, The actual literature value is within this uncertainty, therefore the Faraday constant is shown to apply to the electrolysis reaction. The Faraday constant for the synthesis of water was found to be 77700 3000 C/mol, which is outside the uncertainty of the literature value.

Evaluation: A percent modified Faraday efficiency of 81.9 5% indicates that synthesis reaction is not as efficient as the forward reaction. The main losses contributing to a reduction in the efficiency of a fuel cell include: 1. Activation losses. As stated in a previous section (Background theory) the reaction taking place requires that the catalyst use provides an alternative path way of lower activation energy to initiate the reaction. The fuel cell used in this study utilises a Pt catalyst. Although this is an excellent catalyst it is still limited by the speed at which the reactions can take place. The reduction of oxygen at the cathode is about 100 times slower than that of the hydrogen reaction at the anode, and as a consequence the cathode reaction limits power density. 2. Fuel crossover and internal currents. Fuel crossover and internal currents are a result of fuel that crosses directly through the electrolyte, from the anode to the cathode without releasing electrons through the external circuit, thereby decreasing the efficiency of the fuel cell. 3. Ohmic losses. Ohmic losses are a result of the combined resistances of the various components of the fuel cell. This includes the resistance of the electrode materials, the resistance of the electrolyte membrane and the resistance of the various interconnections.

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4. Mass transport or concentration losses. These losses result from the reduction of the concentration of hydrogen and oxygen gases at the electrode. For example, following the reaction new gases must be made immediately available at the catalyst sites. With the build up of water at the cathode, particularly at high currents, catalyst sites can become clogged, restricting oxygen access. Random error: Initially the volume was measured using the cylinders that came with the fuel cell kit. These cylinders were found to give volume measurements with great random error. The displacement of water by inner cylinders made the gradations unrepresentative of the true volumes. Systematic error: The Renewable Energy Monitor program posed a challenge for data collection. Other than the lack of an export feature for the data points, the program also occasionally suffered an error which caused the recorded points to be lost. Certain trials were lost completely and some partially. Limitations: In order to establish the extent of hydrogen diffusion across the membrane of a PEM cell, it is necessary to conduct further experiments. The efficiency quoted was evaluated for only one demonstration PEM reversible hydrogen fuel cell. In order to establish efficiency applicable to hydrogen PEM cells further experiments are necessary. In future investigations, other fuel cell technologies (e.g. ethanol) should be considered as well.

Word Count: 3977

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