Indian Astronomical Epoch (-) 3101CE 18 February:

Implications of Āryabhata’s Works to Indian Chronology

K. Chandra Hariƒ
Abstract
Present paper is an attempt to discuss the implications of the correct reading of the Gītikā 5 of
Āryabhatīyam on Indian Chronology. Prevailing reading ‘Bhāratāt pūrvam’ and interpretation
links the Yugādi -3101CE epoch of Āryabhatīyam with the Mahābhārata War even though the
epic itself offered contradicting references. Innumerable efforts have taken place in the past to
date the Mahābhāratā War around -3101CE based on Epic astronomical references with no
success. Paper explains the anomalous situation by rendering the correct reading for Gītikā 5 as
‘Bharatāt pūrvam’ – interpreting the verse as referring to the Bharata, universal emperor of the
Jain myths whose reign corresponded to the beginning of Apasarpini Kaliyuga as per the Jain
tradition. Similar is the situation in the case of the Aihole inscription which followed the
Āryabhata and Jain reckoning of Kaliyuga.
Prevalence of Kalidina reckoning in Kerala before the time of Āryabhata is given illustration
with many examples of chronograms or dates in alpha-numeric notation known through
legends. Astronomical rationale underlying the chronogram ‘Bhūmaubhūpoƒyam prāpya’ is
explained and CE215 is shown to be the anchor point of Kerala tradition and the Mahā-Maghā
congregation. Impact of Mahā-Maghā of Kali 3601 on the Āryārdharātra epoch of Kali 3600 or
21 March CE 499 is explained bringing to light the close quarters that Āryabhata had with Cera
capital of Tondi (modern Ponnāni) and Tirunāvāya, the place of Mahā-Maghā congregation.
Discussion is made of the beginning of Kollam Era against the backdrop of the astronomical
tradition of Kerala. Calendar reckoning in Kerala and the New Year at the earliest epoch of
215CE is shown to have been based on the zenith transit of Sun at the latitude 10N51 of
Tirunāvāya, the venue of the Mahāmaghā congregation. Āryabhata epoch of 499 CE, Haridatta
epoch of 684CE and Kollam Era epoch are shown to be based on the same astronomical
rationale and observation at 10N51. Sidereal epoch of Kollam Era 25 Aug 825CE is shown to
have considered the zenith transit of Sun at 100N, marked by the Trkkākkara temple.
Key Words:
Āryabhata, Indian Chronology, Bhārata War, Bharata, Jain tradition, Kaliyuga, -3101CE,
Aihole, Kerala, Chronogram, Mahā-Maghā, Keyapperumāl, 215CE

I. Introduction

ƒ ƒ
B6-103, ONGC Colony (East), Chandkheda (P.O), PIN:382424, Gandhi Nagar (District),
Gujarat. chandra_hari18@yahoo.com.

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One of the cardinal axioms upon which the edifice of Indian Chronology was attempted to be
built by section of the historians had been the presumption that the siddhāntic beginning of
Kaliyuga on 18 February -3101CE marked also the epoch of Mahābhārata war1. Attempts to
understand the Epic and Purānic chronology vis-à-vis genealogies of the Kings always faced the
insurmountable difficulty of reconciling the same with the Kaliyugādi imported from the
astronomical tradition viz., Mean sunrise at Ujjayinī on 18 February 3102 BC. Earliest
references to the Yugas as available in the Yugapurāna2 (dated to 25 BC) contain no mention of
any planetary conflagration as indicative of any of the four Yugas viz Krta, Tretā, Dvāparā and
Kali. It becomes therefore apparent that the Epic or Purānic allusions to the astronomical
Kaliyuga as having historical significance had their origin most likely after the time of
Āryabhata 3 who defined the epoch of Kaliyugādi by equating Śaka 421 or AD499 with 60x 60
= 3600 years of Kaliyuga.
The mainstream of Indian historians and archaeological evidences that have become available
discount the historical relevance of the epoch of -3101CE to the Mahābhārata War. But a
minority claiming deeper scale of antiquity for Indian history had been intent upon arguing and
fabricating humbug depictions of Indian antiquity linking the Mahābhārata War with the
astronomical epoch -3101CE of Āryabhata. Basic arguments of this alternate school of thought
are:
1. Greek sources Pliny and Arrian have referred to legends of Maurya times (-300CE) that
suggest Calendar and genealogical reckoning in India from – 6677 CE.
2. Centennial Calendar having cycles of 2700 years (Saptarsi Era) is traceable to such antiquity
as – 6677CE.
3. Āryabhata had mentioned the Bhārata War to have taken place 3600 years prior to the epoch
of his Ārdharātrika siddhānta (CE499) and this place the War in -3101CE.
4. Mumbo jumbo discussions on the dating of the incoherent astronomical references in the
Mahābhārata with which the War got dated to a 100 epochs from say -5500 to – 800 CE.
Innumerable results of the astronomical dating itself offers a commentary on the quality of
the astronomical references in the Epic and the Purānas.
5. Āryabhata's Yugādi epoch even though interpreted as referring to the Bhārata War, none has
produced any astronomical evidence from the Mahābhārata to substantiate the same. In fact
the Epic itself places the Yugādi 36 years after the Mahābhārata War not as is being
interpreted out of Āryabhatīya.

Present work is an effort to rescue the name of Āryabhata from the chronological conflicts
associated with the Mahābhārata War in the light of the Jain myth underlying Āryabhata's

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reference to the -3101CE epoch. Effort has been made also to place the works of Āryabhata
against the background of Mahā-Maghā festival, the tradition of which may be traced to 3
centuries before Āryabhata based on chronograms known through legends vis-à-vis the
Brahmnical text Keralolpatti.

II. Historicity of the Mahābhārata and Ascribed Dates for the War

The riveting plot the epic story, the fratricidal war at Kuruksetra according to most scholars
may have a historical element. But the epic narration is a mix up of cosmological speculations,
myths and history, the beginning of which are lost in the mist of time. Undoubtedly, it sums up
the happenings over a long period of time which the bards may have been singing and reciting through the
prehistoric ages, gāthas, ākhyānas etc, all mythicized in course of time by not one single person but by a
succession of poets adept in articulation. The historical context of the epic according to modern
studies can be summarized as:
1. The Indus or Harappan civilization is scientifically dated to 2700 – 1300 BC, but most of the
scholars treat it as a different development than the Vedic civilization.
2. Upanisads, the later Vedāntic texts originated during the time of Buddha -550CE whose
contemporary Ajātaśatru is one of the characters in the dialogues of Brhadāranyaka.
3. Epic phase appears rather late and the chronological placement of the Kuruksetra War
remains a much debated issue even today. Scientific notions prevailing on this topic as
emerged from modern studies may be understood from the following:
(a) Rajesh Kochhar dated the Mahābhārata war to have taken place in 856 BC and as regards
the astronomical clues available in the text makes the following observations:(2)
“Astronomical data in the Mahābhārata have been interpreted by a number of scholars to yield a
wide spectrum of dates ranging from 3140 BC to 1151 BC. A 2000-year spread in the time
bracket shows that the astronomical dating of the literary texts on the basis of stray statements
in them is a highly dubious exercise. This bracket is no improvement on the dates assigned
otherwise. It is however significant that no one has ever suggested for the Bhārata battle a date
very much younger than 900 BC”.
(b) Pusalker also has expressed the same opinion on the astronomical data available in the
Mahābhārata:(3)
“According to the Aihole inscription of Pulakeśin II (seventh century AD) the Bhārata War took
place in 3102 BC., which is the starting point of the Kaliyuga era according to the astronomical
tradition represented by Āryabhata. But Fleet has pointed out that the reckoning was not found
in Vedic times; it was first started about 3500 years after the time for the purposes of

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calculation, and was not known to astronomers before Āryabhata. Another school of Hindu
astronomers and historians, represented by Vrddha-Garga, Varāhamihira and Kalhana, places
the Bhārata War 653 years after the Kaliyuga era, i.e. in 2449 BC. These two schools thus
present conflicting views, and as they are based on a hypothetical reckoning of a late date, we
can hardly attach much importance to them….”
It is therefore apparent from what is stated by Pusalkar that the historians have made Āryabhata
a party to the conflict on the date of the Mahābhārata War and the inscriptional support to the
notion is available in the Aihole inscription of AD634.

III. Truth of Āryabhata's Statement and Aihole Inscription

As shown elsewhere4 Āryabhata did not at all refer to the Bhārata War and the popular notions
of the kind expressed by Pusalkar originated out of a misreading of verse 5 of Daśagītikā –

Kāho manavo dha manuyugāh śkha gatāste ca manuyugāh chūna ca

Kalpāderyugapādā ga ca gurudivasācca bhāratāt pūrvam (5)

Scholars since the time of Āryabhata had construed and interpreted this verse wrongly with the
ending words as 'Bhāratāt pūrvam' to see the Mahābhārata war in the above verse. According to
Mahābhārata the Kaliyuga as per the Smrtis began 36 years after the Kuruksetra war when
Dvāraka got engulfed by the sea. It was only when Dvāraka got engulfed by the sea that the
Pandavas could understand that Kaliyuga had begun with the exit of Krsna from the world.
Gāndhārī's curse upon Krsna for the destruction of the Yādava clan was also for 36 years after
the war at Kuruksetra. How can then Āryabhata say that the Kali Era began before the Bhārata
war as is interpreted out of the Gītikā 5?
In fact the correct reading of the verse is - Bharatāt pūrvam – ¦É®úiÉÉiÉ {ÉÚ´ÉÈ – i.e. before the time of
Bharata, the son of Rsbhanātha Tīrthaňkara from whom Bhāratavarsa received its name.
Bharata is the first universal emperor of Jains and Yugādi marked his accession to the throne
when Lord Rsbha retired to the forests. It must be noted here that according to Jaina legends
Bāhubali the brother of Bharata was the first saint to attain liberation in the Apasarpinī kāla
coinciding with Kaliyuga and hence the time of Yugādi was of importance to Aśmaka where
Bāhubali did penance after enthroning Bharata. Bharata in Jaina legends symbolized Apasarpinī
yuga by his wish to conquer the material world and become Cakravarty which got thwarted by
saintly Bāhubali who achieved liberation.5
Influence of the Jaina text Tiloyapannatti6 is very clear from the Yuga cycle given as per Jain
canons and as such Āryabhata had no reasons to refer to the Bhārata war as a chronological
marker in the Jaina cycle of Yugas or definition of Mahāyuga/Kalpa. In fact, it will be a

4
contradiction if we are to presume that the great astronomer who rejected the Purānic, epic and
smrti based Yugas shall resort to define the Yugādi based on such Brāhmnical treatises.
Aihole Inscription7
Apart from the above cited misreading of Āryabhatīya verse, the major plank of the school
which postulates the Bhārata War epoch as -3101CE is the Aihole inscription which is of
critical significance in view of the light it casts on the limits of many Indian chronological
problems like date of Kālidasa and the first known use of the Kaliyuga Era as defined by
Āryabhata. But in the lines of Aihole inscription7 too, it is the misreading that brings in Bhārata
War. Relevant lines may be read keeping in mind that –
(a) Pulikeśi-II was a Jain King and the inscription begins with the praise of Jina Mahāvīra8.
(b) Translation of the verses 33 – 35 and the incongruities between the contents and the
Purānic data are illustrative of the fact that the reading Bhārata is out of context as such a
usage of the term to refer the War is strange.
(33) When thirty (and) three thousand and five years besides, joined with seven hundred
years, have passed since the Bhārata war; (3735 years = 634CE)
(34) And when fifty (and) six and five hundred years of the Saka kings also have gone by in
the Kali age; (556 years of Saka Era = 556+78 = 634)
(35) This stone mansion of Jinendra , a mansion of every kind of greatness, has been caused
to be built by the wise Ravikirti, who has obtained the highest favour of that Satyashraya
whose rule is bounded by the three oceans.
(c) Translation gives the word War but the inscription has no such term and is the outcome of
the misreading of the inscription. The Sanskrit text of the inscription is –
ËjɶÉiºÉÖ Êjɺɽþ»Éä¹ÉÖ ¦É®úiÉÉiÉ +ɽþ´ÉÉÊnùiÉ&* ºÉ{iÉɤnù¶ÉiɪÉÖHòä ¹ÉÖ ¶ÉiÉ乴ɤÉnäù¹ÉÖ {É\SɺÉÖ**
{É\SÉɶÉiºÉÖ Eò±ÉÉèEòɱÉä ¹É]õºÉÖ {É\SɶÉiÉɺÉÖ SÉ* ºÉ¨ÉɺÉÖ ºÉ¨ÉiÉÒiÉɺÉÖ ¶ÉEòÉxÉɨÉÊ{É ¦ÉÚ¦ÉÖVÉÉÆ**
It has been brought out that the use of the word 'Bharatāt' is the right reading instead of
Bhāratāt in Gītikā 5 of Āryabhatīyam. Here too the right reading is Bharatāt and not
Bhāratāt as is being read to interpret and make Bhārata War synchronous with Kaliyuga
beginning as given by Āryabhata as per the Jain tradition.
(d) It is far fetched imagination that the War had been such a chronological pointer as to
personify it or identify it in AD522 or AD 634 as synonymous with the epic name Bhārata.
(e) Further, synchronizing the Bhārata or Epic War with the Kaliyugādi is in contradiction of
the well known details available in the Purānas. As evidence it may be noted that the well
known commentator of Āryabhatīya, Parameśvara had interpreted the misreading 'Bhāratāt'

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 to mean the day of Mahāprathāna by the Pāndavas after the demise of Krsna and the
destruction of Dvāraka. i.e. 36 years after the War according to the Epic and other Purānic
sources.Śāstri and Śarma9 have given a detailed discussion in reference (9).
(f) Śāstri and Śarma have also mentioned the Jinavijaya tradition 10 according to which
Yudhisthira got crowned only in 2634BC. Varāhamihira too has mentioned a similar notion
in Brhatsamhitā while referring to the motion of the Saptarsis.
"The Saptarsis were stationed in Maghā when king Yudhisthira was ruling over the Earth. Śaka
Era began 2526 years after the coronation of the Great Jain Monarch"11
(g) How could Varāhamihira place Yudhisthira in 653 Kali of Āryabhata if the notion of
synchronicity of Bhārata War and Kaliyuga as is being interpreted out of Aihole inscription
existed at the time of Varahamihira?
It is apparent from the above discussion that the tradition of synchronizing the astronomical
beginning of Kaliyuga viz. epoch of -3101CE with the Epic War has no sound footing in the
traditional historical sources like Āryabhatīya or the Aihole inscription of the Jain King
Pulikesi-II. Purānic and Epic references contradict the notion interpreted out of the misreading
of the inscription that the Kaliyugādi was synchronus with the Bhārata War. Epoch of -3101CE,
as introduced by Āryabhata vide his classification of the Yugas as per the Jain tradition and as
appearing in the Aihole inscription chronologically refers to the date of coronation of Bharata,
the Universal Emperor of the Jains who succeeded Rsabha.

IV. Tradition of Kaliyugādi or Kalidina in Kerala

Even though the historical records, literary and inscriptional of the North India and Deccan are
silent about the Kaliyuga reckoning, in legends of Kerala we meet with many dates expressed as
Kalidinam in the Katapayādi notation.12
1. Bhūmaubhūpoyamprāpya, Kalidina of 1211454, 30th November, 215CE, correspond to
the beginning of the 12 year reign of Ceran Keyapperumāl on Mārgaśīrsa Krsna sastī and
Maghā naksatra, also known as Skanda Sastī, mythical lunar date of Skanda’s ascension
as the General or Perumāl of the ‘Army of Gods’(Devasenāpati).
2. Vararuci, the legendary author of the Gīrnaśreyādi Candravākyas and the father of
Agnihotri can be dated to the 3rd century CE based on the two chronograms available
about the life of Agnihotri. Agnihotri is said to have ignited the sacrificial fire for the
first time in Kerala on the Kalidina of 'Yajnasthānamsamraksyam' 1270701,
corresponding to 13 February 378 CE. Date falls on amāvāsya and it is likely that
Agnihotri lighted fire on Phālguna-pratipada the next day.

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 3. Kadavallur Śrī Rāma temple according to legends was established on the Kalidina
"Kadavallūranyonyam" 1123411 which corresponds to Śukla-navamī (Rāmatithi) of
Mārgaśīrsa and the date 13 November -26CE.
4. Śrivallabha temple in Tiruvalla had the idol installed on the Kalidina of 1111526
corresponding to 29 April -58CE which corresponds to Uttarabhadra, and Daśamī tithi
auspicious for such functions.
5. Tirumandhāmkunnu temple had its renovation on the day "Cembakadeśeramye"
1258116 corresponding to 31st August 343 AD, Pusya naksatra of Kanyā and tithi is
Daśamī.
6. Peruvanam Siva temple gives "Āyātuśivalokam" Kalidinam 1345610, 18 March 583 CE.
Chronograms known in Kerala tradition have the colloquial name ‘Paralperu’ which may be
translated into a more familiar terminology as ‘Aksarasamkhya’. Numerals, especially large
ones like the Kalidina count of days derived using the ‘Parals’ or cowries were given an alpha-
numeric representation by the technique called Katapayādi.13 It was a method of expression that
could be handled by scholars and especially astronomers who were adept in computing the
Kalidina and tithi-naksatras of date. Because of this reason, chronograms associated with
historical events may have an astronomical basis related to the event and the respective date and
event may be validated if we can find supporting astronomical details. An ordinary person or
novice of ulterior motives could not have invented a chronogram for interpolating the same into
a text after hundreds of years. Further, we must keep in mind that the purpose of Kalidina
reckoning was astronomical computations and as such every chronogram may have some
astronomical and socio-religious significance.
When viewed against the above computational and astronomical background of alpha-numeric
chronograms, it becomes very clear that the chronograms like Bhūmaubhūpoyamprāpya,
Kalidina of 1211454 cannot be brushed aside as the handwork of some novice who compiled
the Keralolpatti.
It is therefore evident that the Kalidina reckoning and the astronomical computations have been
prevalent in Kerala centuries before Āryabhata. In fact the notation in which the alpha-numeric
chronograms were given viz. Katapayādi was not used by Āryabhata even though the technique
was prevalent in Kerala in his times (522CE). So it can rightly be judged that the Yugādi notion
and Kalidina reckoning had the same method and notation before and after Āryabhata. It is
pertinent to note here that the notation that Āryabhata introduced to give the numbers failed to
take root in Kerala even though the name of Āryabhata is held in high esteem in Kerala.
Author has shown elsewhere 14 that the Keyapperumāl epoch of 215CE characterized by
Vrscika- Guru is astronomically related to the later epochs in Kerala history like the beginning

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of Perumāl reigns of 820CE and 844CE and also to the epochal beginning of Kollam Era in
825CE. 30th November 215CE, Mārgaśīrsa Krsna Sastī, mythical day of coronation of Skanda
as Devasenāpati and the Mahā-Maghā are inter-related by the fact that the Mahā-Maghā
celebrations began with the Pausa-Paurnamī on Pusya, the celebrated birth day of Skanda and
ended with the Maghā naksatra of Māgha, which is celebrated even in modern times as the most
important festival day associate with Bhagavati or Durga at Cottanikkara.

V. Āryabhata and the Parahitaganita Adopted in Mahā-Maghā Congregation

Haridatta 15 is known to be the promulgator of ‘Parahita-ganita’ in Kerala through his work

Grahcāranibandhanam. It is known from legends that in Kerala astronomical tradition the
Parahitaganīta of Haridatta got accepted in the Pantīrāntu Sabha of AD 683 or 684. But this
legend is fraught with the following infirmities:

According to the Vrścikā-Guru rationale identified above Mahā-Maghā Satram (Pantīrāndu-
sabha) was not possible in AD 683 or 684, the date of Haridatta.

Haridatta13 had introduced only bījas or corrections to the Āryabhata system16 and as such it
may not have been as important as of the introduction of a new Siddhānta or reckoning as in
Āryabhatiyam to be referred to as a new system called Parahitaganitam which was to
continue in Kerala till the 19th century CE despite the introduction Drgganita by
Parameśvara in 1451CE.
It can therefore be inferred that the legends concerning Parahita in fact refer to the system of
Āryabhata which got accepted in a Pantīrāndu Sabha or Mahā-Maghā session when Jupiter was
in Vrścikā.
Origin of the Kali 3600 epoch – Ardharātrikapaksa Epoch: Kalidina 1314931
When the Ārdharātra-siddhānta epoch Kali 3600 elapsed i.e. Kalidina 1314931.5, JD:
1903397.0, 21 March CE 499, 12:00 Ujjain Noon, is viewed against the backdrop of the Mahā-
Maghā tradition in Kerala, it strikes immediately that the epoch had Jupiter in Tulā, the sign
preceding Vrścika in the Zodiac. It is therefore likely that Āryabhata may have chosen the
epoch Kali 3600 for presenting the same in the Pantīrāntu Sabha of Kali 3601 or CE 500,
Vrścikā-Guru, when Mārgaśīrsādi Calendar began on Friday, Pratipada, 22 November.
Pantīrāndu Sabha would have been from 22 December 500CE to 20th January 501CE.
It may be noted here that the place of Āryabhata, Camravattam (10N51, 75E45) is same as
Ponnāni, the ancient capital of Ceras and a port known for merchandise since ancient times,
described as Tondi in chronicles of foreigners. Thus Āryabhata must have been familiar with

8
the Cera tradition and also of the Mahā-Maghā congregation at Tirunāvāya – on the banks of
Bharatappuzha – river named after the legendary Emperor Bharata of Jains. I would like to
elaborate further for the sake of those who are not familiar with the geography of Kerala that the
place of Āryabhata was in the neighborhood of the place where Mahā-Maghā was held with a
periodicity 12 years decided by Jupiter. We can see a similar situation in North India in the case
of Kumbha Mela held once in every 12 years based on Jupiter. Mahā-Maghā as per the solar
calendar in Kerala happened in the solar month of Kumbha when Moon occupied the Maghā
naksatra.
Mahā-Maghā of Kali 3601 and the location of Āryabhata close to the ancient port of Tondi and
Cera capital which had trade relations with Greek, Roman and Babylonian sources render
support to the notion that Āryabhata improved the prevalent native astronomy using Greco-
Babylonian contacts available at the place.

Āryabhatīyam also supports the above contention because the Kali year Girituňga (3623)
was Kanyā-Guru i.e. Jupiter in 2 signs behind Vrścikā and hence the completed Siddhānta
could have been presented in the Mahā-Maghā session of Kali 3625 in which Mārgaśīrsa
had its beginning on 29 November 524CE with Krsna pratipadā after the heliacal rise of
Jupiter. Mahā-Maghā in Mārgaśīrsa was on 1st or 2nd December while Māghā-Māghā
Pantīrāntu Sabha could have been from 27 December 524 CE to 25th January 525, Māgha-
Maghā paurnamī.

The fact that Āryabhata had used Greco-Babylonian resources in creating the new Siddhānta
was known to the assembly is evidence from the name 'Parahita-Ganita' (Ganita of others)
given to it by the Pantīrāndu Sabha.

Extinction of Ārdharātrasiddhānta in Kerala and elsewhere
Above discussion on the role of Mahā-Maghā tradition and the Parahitaganitam explains the
disappearance of Ārdharātrasiddhāntam even from its birth place viz., Kerala. As shown above,
the Ārdharātrika introduced to the Pantīrāntu Sabha in 500CE was superseded by Audayika
siddhānta or Āryabhatīyam in Kali 3625 and as is well known the decrees of the assembly had
to be adhered to and so it can be inferred that the Ārdharātrasiddhānta fell into disuse in Kerala
as early as CE524 and then disappeared. Nothing was known in Kerala about it through any
work of the Keralites unless we are to assume that Bhāskara belonged to Kerala and migrated to
Vallabhi. Even during the times of Bhāskara-I, Āryabhatīyam had been in limelight and only
Brahmagupta adopted and worked on Ārdharatrika Siddhānta to produce his work
Khandakhādyakā.

VI. Origin of Kollavarsam in Kerala

9
 (a) Historical Information Available17
From a historian's point of view no definite information is available about the Calendar reform
that we see in Kerala in 825CE. A number of legends can be found, like –
1. Cyrian Christian Merchants who arrived in Kollam (Quilon Port) started this reckoning
which came to be known as Kollam.
2. Marks the death of Sundaramūrthi Nāyanār or Ceramān Perumāl
3. Started from the foundation day of the Kollam Port
4. Venād King Udayamārthānda Varma had the consecration of the Siva temple at Kollam
and began the New Calendar on the insistence of Śaňkarācārya. The chrongram of the
beginning date is given as "Ācāryavāgabhedyā" Kalidinam 1434160, 25 August 825 CE,
1st day of Solar Kanyā, Mahānavami, Mūlam naksatram. The tithi and naksatra suggest
that the legend regarding the consecration of the temple may be right.
5. Śarma has quoted Logan18 as reference for the above alpha-numeric chronogram and
inadvertently has quoted the date wrongly as 25 September 824CE. He has also
demonstrated the conflict of legends relating to the two Kollam ports viz., Pantalāyani
Kollam in North Malabar where the Ceramān Perumāl is said to have embraced Islam
and Kollam in South Kerala where the Venad king is believed to have founded a Śiva
temple.
Even though the tithi and naksatram suggests the occasion at which the Era was introduced, we
are in dark as to what rationale may have impelled them in the choice of the particular year. The
Kalidina cited at the beginning, "Bhūmaubhūpoƒyamprāpyā" and the epoch we identified viz
215CE as marking the reign of the new Perumāl comes to our rescue here. When we look at the
intervening 610 years with solar year length of Ārdharātrika Siddhānta, we can find:
610x365.25875 = 222808 days = 7545 lunation
(b) Why and how the two Epochs 215CE and 825CE have got resemblance?
Beginning of Kollavarsam or the Kollam Era on 25 August 825 CE, with the 1st day of the solar
month of Kanyā gives us a very valuable clue on the cardinal principle under which Calendar
reforms took place in Kerala since 215CE.
Epochs: 25 August 825 CE, 12:00, Sun tropical λ = 155:33, sidereal λ = 150:30
25 August 215CE, 12:00, Sun tropical λ = 150:24, sidereal λ = 150:24
It is interesting to note that –

10
(i) The epochs are connected by the sidereal year but both the epochs differed by 50 in the
case of sun's tropical longitude. As such the solar phenomena may have been different if
the same place is considered.
(ii) But the two epochs as explained above had been with reference to North Kerala (215CE)
and South Kerala (825CE) respectively.
(iii) Calendar beginning with the solar month of Kanyā is still a Malabar custom (North
Kerala) and thus we may infer that the Kollam Era is an adoption of the Calendar
prevalent in North Kerala by the Kulaśekharas.19
(c) Identifying the Astronomical Rationale
The astronomical observation underlying the above Calendar reform in Kerala with a shift of
the seat of political power from North to South can be understood from the following data:20

Sun Transiting Zenith for the Latitudes of Kerala (80-120N)

Latitude Sun: ω = 240

φ λ1 for δ = φ λ2 for δ = φ
12 30.74 149.26
11 27.98 152.02
10.85 27.57 152.43
10 25.27 154.73
9.5 23.94 156.06
9 22.62 157.38
8 20.01 159.99

(i) 25 August 825 CE epoch at Mahodayapuram or Kollam corresponds to the date when
sun transited Zenith for the latitude 100N.
(ii) Further, it may be inferred that the Onam celebrations may be a relic of the New Year
celebrations of ancient times fixed on the basis of the Zenith transit of Sun.
(iii) Epoch 25 August 215CE marked the Zenith transit of Sun at Tirunāvāya or Tondi
(ancient Cera capital) which lay close to the place of Āryabhata (10N51, 75E45) who in
CE 499 and CE 522 reformed the computations with the Ardharātrika and the Audayika
siddhāntas.
(iv) Intervening Āryabhata Epoch of Kali 3600 elapsed: Kanyā year beginning on 23.08.499
CE with Bhādrapada Śukla-pratipada. New Moon occurred at 22.08.499 CE, 20:57 on
the Ujjayinī meridian with λsun = λmoon = 150000' precisely. Declination of the new

11
 moon Sun had been 11034' and two days after sun had transited the Zenith at 10N51 ≈
110N. Kanyā year beginning on 23.08.499 had the observation of Moon in Hasta after
sunset and the 10th day was Onam with Moon in Śravana naksatra. Calendar as above
reflects the thumb rule of Onam reckoning 'Attam Pattonam' i.e the 10th day is Onam. It
may be noted from the table that for tropical λ = 150 to 160, sun transits the Zenith for
the Kerala latitudes of 120N to 80N (Kanyākumāri).
(v) Rationale as seen in Āryabhatīyam
Golapāda verse 32 says:21
ÊIÉÊiÉVÉÉnÖùzÉiɦÉÉMÉÉxÉÉÆ ªÉÉ VªÉÉ ºÉÉ {É®úÉä ¦É´ÉäSUôRÂóEòÖ &*
¨ÉvªÉɼzÉiɦÉÉMÉVªÉÉ UôɪÉÉ ¶ÉRÂóEòÉäºiÉÖ iɺªÉè´É**
The Rsine of the sun's altitude at meridian transit is the greatest gnomon of the day. The
Rsine of the zenith distance of the sun at that time is the shadow of the gnomon.
Sun's zenith distance at mid-day = φ - δ. For zenith transit φ -δ = 0 or φ = δ, condition for
which λ1 and λ2 have been derived.

VII. Zenith Transit of Sun - Signatures in Kerala's socio-cultural traditions.

(a) Onam, is the relic of the New Year celebrations marked by the zenith transit of Sun at
10N51, the legendary location of the Mahāmaghā congregation and also the place of
Āryabhata.
(b) At the Epoch of Āryabhata (CE 499) Onam could be reckoned by the first visibility of the
crescent on Hasta Naksatra – the day on which sun transited Zenith in the North Kerala at
110N and in the following 10 days the Sun transited zenith at the southerly latitudes of
Kerala. For λ = 1600 sun transited the zenith at Kanyākumāri, the southern tip named after
Kanyā raśī.
(c) At the epoch of Kollam Era 25 Aug 825 CE, sun transited the zenith at 100N – place
precisely marked 10 KM west of Kochi as Trkkākkaraƒ, meaning the location of the sacred
Bamboo or Gnomon which underwent transformation as Vāmana (dwarf shadow of Sun or
Visnu during the 10 days of Onam season from Attam to Onam) temple. It is interesting to
note that Vāmana refers to a dwarf the condition of the gnomonic shadow at the zenith
transit of the Sun.

ƒ
Trkkākkara meaning Tiru+Kāl+Kara: Kāl means stick or Bamboo or Gnomon. Kālnāttuka is a
colloquial term used for planting Bamboo.

12
(d) Sun's zenith transit for λ = 1500 to 1600, corresponds to stellar area of the Seven Sages and
Draco spread across Kanyā. Ernākulam marks the mid-zone by the zenith transit of Sun and
therefore is said to be derived from "Rsi-Nāga kulam".
(e) Onam celebrations are marked by games like 'Play of Bears' and 'Play of Lions' in which we
meet the resemblance of names with the constellation Great Bear and the Leo. Further, the
swing marks the oscillatory movement of sun between the -ω and +ω declinations and the
circular flower carpet (Attappūkkalam) with the Bamboo on the high rise centre reflects the
ancient method of fixing the zenith transit using the gnomon.
(f) Haridatta22 Epoch of 684CE, Kali 3785 elapsed. A glance over the δ –λ relationship suggest
that the beginning of the solar month of Kanyā (1500 as per Siddhāntas) had a tropical
longitude of 152.70 in 684CE and therefore the sidereal New Year with Kanyā coincided the
zenith transit of Sun at the latitude of Tirunāvāya (10N51), the venue of Mahāmaghā,
Ponnāni, Camravattam etc. We see exactly parallel situation in 825CE when 1500of the
Siddhāntas had tropical λ of 155:03 and therefore the New Year coincided with the zenith
transit of sun at the latitude of 100.
These surmises on the antiquity of the Solar Calendar and astronomy of Kerala and also on the
antiquity of Onam find support in the historical information available about Onam. We can find
the following historical information from the Cultural Heritage of Kerala by A. Sreedhara
Menon:23
1. Tradition current in South and Central Kerala links the festival with the Purānic legend of
Vāmana defeating the legendary king Mahābali while in North Kerala the tradition is
associated with the Māmānkam (Mahāmaghā) festival.
2. There are references to Onam in ancient literature and inscriptions and the festival was
popular in Madurai during the Sangham age. Onam was celebrated at Trkkākkara during the
ages of Kulaśekharas of Mahodayapuram 800-1100CE under imperial auspices and it gave a
new impetus to the Vaisnava movement.
It is apparent that the festival has a long history of 2000 years and had different connotations to
people of south Kerala and North Kerala. Vāmana legend became popular in South under the
influence of the Kulasekharas who were ardent Vaisnavas while in North Kerala the festival is
looked upon as related to the Mahāmaghā tradition.
4. Solar Myths in Indian Antiquity
Related to the above legend of Onam are the Purānic and Samhitā24 references to Indradhvaja
celebrations which Prof. Sengupta has dated to be summer solstice observations of 4000BC.
Battotpala’s commentary on the Garga’s verses quoted by Varāhamihira says:25

13
"The Asuras on seeing that flag were struck by its brilliance, got confounded and of broken
ranks, defeated and fled in the month of Bhādrapada. The thousand-eyed Indra by his
thunderbolt killed the Asuras in the night in which the moon was at Antares, went to heaven
after winning the battle, on the night with the moon, whom he met on the way at the star
Śrāvanā (Altair)".
Sengupta has interpreted the legends as referring to gnomonic observations of shadow in
ancient times to fix the day of the solstice26. Contrasting the solstice myth of Visnu's incarnation
as Vāmana (Dwarf) on Śravana naksatra of Bhādrapada with the analogus legends that we see
in Kerala of Vāmana and Bali, is illustrative of the role of the celestial phenomena in the
creation of myths and also as to how the same celestial phenomena may lead to different
characterizations due to historical reasons or an older or foreign legend may be used to mystify
a different celestial observation at a different place. With Onam it is apparent that the
coincidence of the declination vis-a-vis zenith transit factor with the tithi of Indradhvajā
inspired people to modify the myth of Vāmana to suit the south latitudes.

VIII. Era of Paraśurāma and Kerala as Paraśurāma Ksetra

How the science of astronomy may get transformed to myths, legends and fictitious history
finds best illustration in the legends about Paraśurāma in Kerala. End of the Cera dynasty in
Kerala according to the legends compiled under the name of Keralolpatti, marked the end of the
Era of Paraśurāma. Brahmnical history eulogizes Paraśurāma as a legendary hero who led the
Āryans towards South from Ahiccatram in North India. In fact the whole legend is astronomical
as may be understood from the following facts:27
1. Paraśurāma according to legends was born on Aksaya-tritīyā i.e. Vaiśākha śukla-tritīyā, the
date which is east of summer solstice when the Sun had a declination of 12 to 80 as
explained earlier so that sun transits the zenith at latitudes 12 to 80 of Kerala.
2. λ1 and λ2 as shown below are placed symmetrical to the summer solstice and both
represented the same phenomenon of zenith transit of Sun.
3. To cite an epoch, 20th April 215 CE, 12:00 at 75E45, λ1Sun = 28035' and Sun transited the
zenith precisely over Tirunāvāya and at the confluence of Bharatappuzha (10N51). Moon
being at an elongation of 400 the elapsed tithi was Vaiśākha śukla-tritīyā. Just as the 499CE
epoch, new moon corresponded to 16 April 215CE, 20:18 Ujjayinī meridian and λ = 25004'
with δ = 100. Each tithi meant a declination increment of 15' and thus Sun transited the
Zenith at 10N51 for the Vaiśākha śukla-tritīyā.

Zenith Transits of Sun: 120N – 80N

14
 Latitude Sun: ω = 240
λ1 for δ = λ2 –λ1 λ1-λ2
φ λ2 for δ = φ
φ
12 30.74 149.26 118.52 241.48
11 27.98 152.02 124.05 235.96
10.85 27.57 152.43 124.86 235.14
10 25.27 154.73 129.45 230.54
9.5 23.94 156.06 132.12 227.88
9 22.62 157.38 134.76 225.24
8 20.01 159.99 139.98 220.02

4. Epoch of zenith transit of Sun λ1 received the name Paraśurāma as colloquial adoption of
the constellation name Perseus. Fig.1 may be noted and the fact that α - Perseus rose at 2
ghatis or 48 minutes earlier than sun at 04:58 (at 75E45) and α-Perseus could be seen rising
at the horizon coinciding with the beginning of twilight. For dates earlier to λ1 = 28, the
heliacal rise of α-Perseus was not visible at 10N51 and the heliacal rise of Perseus and the
zenith transit of sun coincided at 10N51.
5. α-Perseus of magnitude 1.82 rising at 04:58 had sun below by 120 and thus the star was only
just visible in twilight at 10N51. For higher latitudes and higher values of λ1, Perseus
increasingly became visible on the day of zenith transit of Sun. This phenomenon led to the
various legends that link Paraśurāma with the Konkan coast and places like Gokarnam (140).
On 29th April when Sun transited the zenith at Gokarnam, Perseus was visible in the early
morning well before the twilight as the sun was below by 170.
6. λ2 as given in the Table is separated from λ1 by nearly 4 months and λ2 is marked by the
heliacal rising of Delta Leonis (Uttara-Phālgunī), Regulus, α-Hydrae (Āślesā), Seven Sages
etc. Seven Sages or Saptarsis and α-Hydrae or the Water Snake rising heliacally at the time
when sun transited the zenith at 100N, gave the name 'Rsi-nāga-kulam' to Ernakulam.
It is apparent from the above discussion that astronomy had taken strong roots in the socio-
cultural life of Kerala since ancient times as 215CE. Three distinct stages like 215CE, 499CE,
684CE and 825CE can be identified in the Calendar history of Kerala. Prevailing solar calendar
and the tradition of Onam festival are relics of a scientific past when astronomical rationales
were followed without dilution to decide the Calendar. The place of Āryabhata (10N51, 75E45)
had been the epicenter of the astronomical tradition of Kerala in many ways.

VII. Conclusions

15
Above discussion on the implications of the works of Āryabhata to Indian Chronology thus
leads us to the following important conclusions:

1. Indian Chronology derived on the basis of equating Mahābhārta War with the
astronomical Kaliyugādi of -3101CE is erroneous as it is based on the misreading of the
Gītikā 5 of Āryabhatīyam.
2. Gītikā 5 of Āryabhatīyam by the words “Bharatāt Pūrvam” in fact refers to Bharata, the
Universal Emperor of Jain myths. ‘Bhāratāt pūrvam’ is a misreading as the epic itself
places the beginning of Kaliyuga 36 years after the Epic War and so no connection could
be possible for the epoch -3101CE with the Bhārata War.
3. Aihole Inscription also refers to Bharata of Jain myths and not Bhārata War. Therefore
the chronology that equates the -3101CE epoch and Kali zero year with Bhārata War has
no basis.
4. Facts as above explains the failure of the numerous attempts to convincingly date the
Bhārata War around -3101CE based on the astronomical references in the Epics which
have nothing to do with the distant epoch of -3101CE.
5. Notion of an antiquity that predates the Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro for the Epic events
thus stands totally refuted by the correct reading of the Gītikā 5 of Āryabhata and the
Aihole inscription which followed the Āryabhata tradition.
6. Illustration is given for the existence of Yugādi concept and Kalidina reckoning before
the time of Āryabhata in Kerala. Chronogram ‘Bhūmaubhūpoƒyam prāpya’ is shown to
represent the Perumal epoch of 215CE and the astronomical rationale underlying Mahā-
Maghā congregation has been presented.
7. Mahā-Maghā influence on the Āryabhata epoch of Kali 3600, 21 March 499CE is
explained. Reasons for the name ‘Parahita-ganita’ for the Āryabhata tradition, rejection
of the alpha-numeric notation of Āryabhata in Kerala and the obsolescence met by the
Ardharātrikapaksa in Kerala have been explained.
8. Astronomical rationale underlying the Kanyādi Solar Calendar of Kerala is shown to be
the Zenith Transit of Sun at latitudes 10N51 and the southerly ones up to 80N of
Kanyākumāri
9. Onam celebration is shown to be the relic of the ancient New Year marked by the zenith
transit of Sun at the latitude of Tirunāvāya, the venue of Mahāmaghā congregation.
10. Zenith transit of Sun at 10N51 leads us to the epochs 215CE, 499CE, 684CE and 825CE
through which we can see a continuity of Calendar and astronomical tradition. Further,

16
 it is demonstrated that the myths of Vāmana and Paraśurāma in Kerala had their origin
from the astronomical phenomena marking the date of the zenith transit of Sun.
11. Observational and mathematical Astronomy is shown to have influenced the socio-
cultural life of Kerala in a significant way at least from the epoch of 215CE.

VIII. References

1
Basham, AL., The Wonder That was India, Rupa &Co, New Delhi, 1997, p. 39. Basham says:
"According to the most popular later tradition, the Mahābhārata War took place in 3102 BC,
which in the light of all evidence is quite impossible"
2
Mitchiner, John. E., Then Yuga Purāna, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1986 furnishes an
elaborate account of the concept of Yugas independent of the later accounts seen in the Epic
Mahābhārata and Purānas.
3
http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/MahabharataII.pdf
4
Hari, Chandra. K., Paper under publication: Intricacy of Certain Verses of Āryabhatīya and Jain
Tradition – Identification of Asmaka as Sravanabelgola-Camravattam Jain Country
5
It may be interesting to note that at Camravattam the place identified to be that of Āryabhata
(10N51, 75E45) the deity installed is Śāsthā who too is regarded as a deity of Kaliyuga
(Kaliyugavarada) and in his later legends of Ayyappa he is portrayed as a Prince who relinquished
the kingdom and retired to forests for penance, in the same mould as the ancient legend of
Bāhubali.
6
Jain, LC., IJHS 12 (2), Nov 1977, p. 139, INSA, New Delhi-2
7
Engligh text of the inscription as is commonly accepted is available at the following site:
http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.
html.
8
"Victorious is the holy Jinendra--he who is exempt from old age, death and birth--in the sea
of whose knowledge the whole world is comprised like an island" (Verse 1 of the inscription).
9
Śāstri, Kuppanna, TS and Śarma, KV, The Untenability of the Postulated Śaka of 550 BC,
Journal of Indian History, XXXVII, pp.201-24, presents detailed discussion of the Purānic
evidences and of Rājatarangini of Kalhana.
10
Ibid, p.205, presents detailed discussion quoting various references.
11
Bhat, Ramakrishna, M., Brhatsamhita Part-1, Motilal Banarsidass (1988), Delhi, p.161 may
be noted for the verse Āsan Maghāsu Munayah...etc which gives the time of Yudhisthira.
12
Pillai, Balakrishna Pillai, A, Kesariyude Lokaňgal (in Malayālam), p. 20-30.
13
Śarma, KV., Kollam Era, Indian Journal of History of Science, 31 (1), 1996, pp. 93-99 INSA,
New Delhi-2. Paper presents a discussion on the Katapayādi notation.
14
Hari, Chandra, K. ‘On the Date of Early Cera Kings’ under submission to Current Science

17
15
Hari, Chandra, K Date of Hari Datta, Promulgator of the Parahita Astronomy in Kerala,
IJHS 37 (3), 2002, pp.223-236, INSA, New Delhi-2
16
Hari, Chandra, K Genesis and Antecedents of Aryabhatiya, IJHS 37(2), 2002, pp.101-113
17
Śarma, KV., Kollam Era, Indian Journal of History of Science, 31 (1), 1996, pp. 93-99 INSA,
New Delhi-2. Paper contains general information about the reckoning of Kollam Era. To
avoid confusion it is added that the epoch given in this work is wrong.
18
Logan, William, Malabar, Reprinted 1989, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi.
19
Śarma in reference 13, p.93 has pointed out the name Malabār Era for the Kollam Era
reckoning.
20
λ1 and λ2 are longitudes symmetrically placed to the summer solstice and having the same
declination for Sun equal to the local latitude φ. Basic relationship involved is Sinλ*Sinω =
Sin δ.
21
Shukla, KS and Sarma, KV., Āryabhatīyam, Indian National Science Academy, (1976),
p.144.
22
Śarma, KV, Observational Astronomy in Medieval India, Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol.
XXX, Nos.1-4, p.32. Kali year 'Mandasthala' or 3785 corresponding to 684CE is shown to be
epoch of Haridatta quoting original sources.
23
Menon, Sreedhara, A., Cultural Heritage of Kerala, S. Visvanathan Pvt. Ltd, Chennai, (1996),
pp.64-67
24
Bhatt, Ramakrishna, M., Brhatsamh itā Part-1,English translation, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,
1986, p.344-345
25
Sengupta, PC., Ancient Indian Chronology , p.90-92, University of Calcutta,1947.
26
Ibid., pp.155-164: “If we assume that the observation was made at the latitude of Kuruksetra
(about 300 N) and when the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 24015’, and the height of the
pole was taken equal to, say, 6ft., then:
(a) When the sun had a longitude of 800, the length of the noon shadow =7.44 inch.
(b) When the sun had a longitude of 870, the length of the noon shadow =6.98 inch.
(c) When the sun had a longitude of 900, the length of the noon shadow =6.93 inch.
Now 7.44 – 6.98 = 0.46 inch and 6.98 – 6.93 = 0.05 inch. Hence by use of any sort of
measuring rods, they could perhaps easily discern a change in the noon shadow of about half
an inch, but a difference of 0.05 inch was, of course, was quite impossible of perception with
them. They could thus infer that the sun remained stationary at the summer solstice for 7 days
when they used any measuring rods and when they used rougher methods they could
conclude that the sun remained stationary for 21 days at the summer solstice…
27
Astronomical allusions in Purānic and other ancient lore on mythical heroes is receiving
increased attention with the advent of planetarium software which accurately mimics the
ancient skies. Few remarkable papers in this respect are: (a) Iyengar, RN, Some Celestial
Observations Associated with Krsna–Lore, IJHS 41.1 (2006), pp.1-13, (b) Archaeoastronomy

18
at Bhubanesvar: A Polygonal & Mathematical Model – Tāraka. All over the world, celestial
phenomena have played a significant role in the evolution of myths and portrayal of mythical
heroes.

19