THE NEED FOR A WATERTIGHT DRAINAGE SYSTEM: ITS ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS TO THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

Henry P. Turalde
Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges

Abstract: Watertight drainage system presents superior quality over the traditional non-watertight scheme. Environmental issues such as infiltration and exfiltration are addressed. It also answers the technical issues. It seals and shields the line from the possible permeation of water, preventing the soil fines to seep into the pipeline and eliminating settlement at the bottom of the drainage pipe. It prevents the loss of soil fines from the pipe-surrounding aggregate that may void the ground that may eventually become loose. However, the watertight method would bring significant implications to the countrys construction industry. It would require new materials and alternative construction methods. It must introduce essential amendments to the existing specifications and would require performance of appropriate quality tests. It may present economic impact owing to the costs of new materials and modified construction methods. Keywords: drainage system, wastewater, sewage, watertight, infiltration, pressure test, leakage

INTRODUCTION

Our generation, this present generation in the history of mankind is confronting undoubtedly the most significant, if not the most crucial and complex global environmental challenges, whether we accept it or not. Whatever this generation does or fails to do will certainly define the course of civilization in terms of sustainable development. One of these enormous challenges we face is the search for the appropriate wastewater disposal system design and construction, and parallel with this, the accurate response to the issues brought about by inappropriate wastewater disposal practices. The concerns of sewage disposal has taken increasing importance as a result of the issues expressed about the enormous problem of pollution of the human environment, the contamination of the air, rivers, lakes, oceans and groundwater by wastewater. Methods of wastewater disposal date past from ancient times. Various processes were involved in the collection, treatment and sanitary disposal of wastewater domestic and storm-water sewage from urban and industrial areas. New processes were developed to treat sewage, analyze wastewater, and evaluate the effects of pollution on the environment. In spite of these efforts, however, increasing population, industrial and economic growth caused the pollution and health difficulties to escalate.

The civil engineering profession should show concern to this ever-growing sewerage problem. It is about time that we, the PICE, as a professional institution, ought to respond to this crisis by getting involved in the design, planning and construction of an effective sewerage system.

WATERTIGHTNESS

The primary purpose of the processes involved in the wastewater disposal is, first, to contain the sewage and to prevent it from contaminating other valuable resources necessary for human consumption. Second objective, is to treat it appropriately as needed, and third, to dispose it off safely. Development in other countries long recognized that domestic sewage must be segregated from storm water sewage, consequently resulting to the separate lines distinctly designed and built. Domestic sewage is collected and conveyed to the treatment plant before being disposed off while storm-water sewage may be directly discharged to the stream or river. Watertight pipe and structures may have historically been considered with sanitary systems in some countries including the Philippines. However, growing concerns related to the effects of infiltration and exfiltration have brought wastewater system in general both sanitary and storm-water sewer to careful scrutiny.

Drainage works should be specifically designed to perform its primary function of collection, treatment and disposal. In order to contain wastewater and prevent pollution, the best way to effectively take care of it is by keeping the drainage system watertight in order to keep wastewater isolated and be appropriately treated as necessary before discharging it to the open.

time, this hardened soil fines would accumulate and eventually block the pipe. More frequent cleaning of the pipeline would be required to keep the sewer effectively functional. Unfortunately, untimely cleaning and maintenance works may render the sewer ineffective. In a watertight drainage system, extra-burdensome maintenance works could be avoided. When joints in the pipelines are not watertight and no control over the amount of infiltration into the pipeline, the slow but sure loss of soil fines would create void spaces around the pipe, subsequently rendering the pipesurrounding material loose and unstable. When the sewer is under the road, this failure may result to the eventual collapse of the roadway. As this happens, this presents a safety hazard to the traveling public to the minimum. Potholes, sinkholes, roadway collapse and unstable surfacing are examples of this type of problem. In a watertight drainage system, costly damages and painstaking repairs of these defects could be prevented.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

If the drainage system is not watertight, infiltration may potentially occur when sewer lines are placed below water table or when rainfall percolates down to the depth of the pipe. As pipe joints permit infiltration, the groundwater or the surrounding water drains through these pipes. When located adjacent or through a wetland, over time, they will drain the entire wetland and adversely affect the very sensitive ecology of the area. When storm drainage system is placed in the area with contaminated soils or industrial complexes, polluted waters can leach into the system through these openings. The outpour of heavy rain can flush these contaminants into the river consequently damaging the quality of the water. Ex-filtration may potentially happen when the pipe is placed above the water table. In exfiltration, the opposite happens but works in similar fashion. As the wastewater leaks through the joints, pollutants can leach out anywhere along the length of the storm drainage system. Surface drainage pollutants entering the system from catch basins far upstream seep out through the leaking joints downstream. Over time, continuous leak of wastewater may contaminate the surrounding soil or the areas groundwater and may lead to eventual irrevocable damage.

IMPLICATIONS TO PHILIPPINE SETTING

If there is a cause, there is a cost, there goes the saying. With the shift from the traditional non-watertight sewer to a watertight system, this condition shall not be made possible without significant ramification to the existing norms and standards in the Philippines construction industry. As a consequence, this departure shall have considerable transformation on project planning and construction. First, it would entail improved quality requirements to materials characteristics or properties, meaning new materials may be required. Second, it may bring about alternative methods of construction. Parallel to these, essential amendments to the existing specifications would be required. Third, it would require the obligatory performance of appropriate quality tests not performed in the nonwatertight system. Lastly, it may have also some economic impact owing to the costs of new materials and modified construction methods.

TECHNICAL CONCERN

Noteworthy for civil engineers, some technical or structural issues are addressed through a watertight drainage scheme. Watertight drainage system seals and shields the sewer, and prevents infiltration and exfiltration. With non-watertight sewer, during infiltration, the inflow of water carries soil fines from the surrounding backfill material. The soil fines that seep through the joints or other leaks would settle at the bottom of the drainage line. Once soil fines are settled, it would harden. Over

5.1 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

The main cause of the problems that caused infiltration is the mortared joints and non-gasketed connections. These

types of joints do not provide watertight seal. The mortared joint may appear initially watertight but they can not accommodate pipe-to-pipe or pipe-to-structure settlement resulting in cracking of this filler material and subsequent leaking. The structural integrity of a system can only be assured by preventing leaks which requires a silt tight and watertight system. Materials for a watertight drainage system require joints that guarantee seal from construction phase and beyond.

C or better as defined in ASTM D-1784 (Rigid PVC Compounds and CPVC Compounds). Joints are provided with preformed rubber gaskets conforming to ASTM F-477 standards or better, fitted and fixed with suitable sealing compound. Solvent cement shall be applied to pipe and fitting per ASTM D2855.

5.2.3 5.2 DRAINAGE PIPES

High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE)

Watertight drainage system uses pipes that are made of reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) with rubber gasketed joints, polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe, or other pipe material approved for the specific application.

High-density polyethylene is one of the most chemically inert of all plastics and therefore is extremely chemical and corrosion resistant. HDPE pipe material is made of single compound manufacturer and conforms to cell classification set by ASTM D-3350 standards or better. This diameter of pipe is available from 6 (150 mm) up to 48 (1200 mm) x 20 (6 m) long. HDPE joints are equipped with elastomeric o-rings gasket conforming to ASTM F-477. Joints shall be watertight, conforming to the performance standards of ASTM D-3212. A joint lubricant is used on the gasket and bell during assembly.

5.2.1

Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP)

Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) is the most widely used and accepted permanent sewer material because of its durability. In the US, RCP dimension ranges from 6 (150 mm) up to over 120 (3000 mm) in diameter x 16 (4.80 m) long, produced conforming to ASTM C-14, ASTM C-76 or ASTM C-655 standards or better, with bell and spigot or tongue and groove ends. Joints are provided with preformed rubber gasket to meet the requirements of ASTM C-443 or ASTM C-361 standards or better for watertight sewer system. Joints shall be watertight, conforming to the performance standards of ASTM D3212. In the Philippines, ungasketed RCPC which is prefabricated in one-meter length has long been the most widely used material for drainage projects. This material possesses excellent quality in strength and durability, but its vulnerability to leakage through the mortared joints poses tough watertight concerns.

5.3

MANHOLE AND APPURTENANCES

Manholes and certain appurtenances are necessary for the proper functioning of the drainage system. These may include manholes, catch basins and inlets and others. All manholes shall be reinforced concrete constructed of Portland Cement Concrete. Typical Type A sewer manhole (shown in figure 1) with a minimum of 48" (1200 mm) diameter may be used for pipes up to 36 (900 mm) diameter. Larger diameter manholes Type B or bigger may be used to accommodate larger pipe sizes. No manhole or chamber shall be built using concrete hollow blocks.

5.2.2

Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe (PVC)

5.3.1

Pre-cast Manholes

Plastic pipes are widely used for its lightweight, chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties and ease of making connections. This plastic material includes polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In North America, PVC pipes come normally with bell and spigot ends, range from 100 mm (4) to over 900 mm (36) in diameter x 20 (6 m) long, made of material coming from a single compound with a cell classification of 12454-B, 12454-C or 12364-

Precast concrete manhole pipe shall conform to ASTM C-478. Precast concrete manhole materials shall be in accordance with the drawing of Standard Sewer Manhole & Details (figure 1). Pipe openings in precast sections shall be formed during casting operation. The concrete base shall be cast integrally cast with floor. A rubber gasket as specified in ASTM C-443 is used to seal pipe to manhole. Any mortar works necessary to seal the joints shall be done with extra care using

approved material and workmanship to ensure watertight quality

The pipe must not be held at an angle when entry is started to avoid the gasket being pinched between the shoulder of the spigot and bell at the bottom of the pipe. With the spigot carefully aligned at the entrance to the bell and with the pipe to be installed held in line with the previously laid pipe, the joint should be pulled home slowly. Inspect to make sure that pipes have not been crushed by heavy equipment before completing the installation. Make sure that the connections are solid and sealed. Check the slope of pipe runs. Make a common practice to water test your drainage before covering the pipes with backfill materials. Do the as-built measurements showing the manhole to manhole line diagram with pipe diameter and inverts at each manhole.

Figure 1. Typical Precast Sewer Manhole Type A

5.5

TESTS FOR WATERTIGHTNESS

5.3.2

Cast-In-Place Manholes

Cast-in-place manholes shall also be used for special shape or as necessary to conform to site requirements. Likewise, a rubber gasket as specified in ASTM C-443 is used to seal pipe to manhole, and cast integrally in manhole wall to assure watertight quality.

Other implications of a watertight drainage will be the need of conducting leakage tests. These tests are conducted to assure that leakage is within acceptable limits. These tests shall be completed and approved prior to placing permanent pavement or resurfacing. Leakage should be held to a minimum in sewers because of its effects mentioned earlier. Low leakage requirements can be met with well made concrete gravity sewer pipe or other approved pipes with rubber gasket joints. It should be recognized by the engineer, however, that field performance represents the sum of the manufactured joint characteristics and the contractors installation practices. To check on whether reasonable workmanship was realized during the construction phase, maximum limits of allowable leakage in terms of water infiltration or exfiltration should be included in project specifications. They should be stated in terms of both maximum allowable rate per test section and maximum allowable average rate for the total project. These project acceptance tests evaluate the quality of the contractors work.

5.3.2

Other Sewer Appurtenances

Gulley pots, catch basins or inlet chambers shall be precast or cast-in-place reinforced concrete conforming to standard Portland Cement Concrete. Pipe openings in precast sections shall be formed during casting operation. Rubber gasket may be required as specified in ASTM C443 to seal pipe to manhole, and cast integrally in manhole wall to assure watertight quality.

5.4

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS

Drainage system installation should be done during dry weather periods except in emergency situations. Excavations can quickly be flooded with water making proper joint sealing works difficult and dangerous. In making the joint on rubber gasket sewer pipe, the pipe being installed should be held by the lifting device straight to line and grade with the pipe in the ground.

5.4.1

Exfiltration Test

Each section of the drainage will be tested between successive manholes by closing the lower end of the sewer reach. This test shall be conducted by blocking off all manhole or structure openings, except those

connecting with the reach being tested, filling the line, and maintain a constant level in the manholes or structures. During this test, the average water level in the manholes shall be at least at the elevation of the ground surface. The maximum depth at the lower end shall not exceed 25 feet, and the minimum depth at the upper end shall be at least 5 feet above the crown of the pipe or 5 feet above the level of the ground water, whichever is higher. The maximum exfiltration rate for any section of sewer shall conform to the limit for the type of projects specified according to ASTM C-969: Type of pipe Concrete PVC Max. Allowable Infiltration 200 gal/day/inch dia./mile length (18.5 liters/day/mm dia/km length) 50 gal/day/inch dia./mile length (4.6 liters/day/mm dia/km length)

If the infiltration is found to exceed the stipulated value, the contractor shall make appropriate repairs as approved and shall continue to test the sewer until it meets the requirements.

5.4.3

Air Pressure Test

Prior to acceptance of any segment of newly constructed sewers, the pipe may be subjected to air pressure test, which will be conducted after compaction of the backfill. This test shall conform to the recommended practice and calculations of ASTM C-828. After manhole to manhole reach of pipe has been backfilled, the line should be flushed and cleaned with the interior walls moist. Plugs shall be placed in the line at each manhole and low pressure shall be introduced into this sealed line until internal pressure reaches 4 psig (pounds per inch gage) greater than the average back pressure of any groundwater that may be surrounding the pipe. At least 2 minutes shall be allowed for the air pressure to stabilize. Check exposed pipes and plugs for abnormal leakages by coating with soap solution. The test shall then be run with the drop in pressure from 3.5 to 2.5 psig. Leakage shall not exceed 0.003 cfm per square foot of internal pipe wall. The time elapsed for 1 psig drop in air pressure shall not be less than: t = 0.472d (in English)

For purposes of exfiltration leakages, manholes shall be considered to be concrete pipe of the same diameter as the manhole. Air pocket entrapment shall be avoided when filling the line with water. Once filled with water, the system shall be allowed to stabilize for a period of one to two hours before starting the test. Exfiltration rate is determined by measuring the amount of water required to maintain constant level in the upper manhole. Test duration is to be no less than two hours. If the leakage as shown by the test exceeds the allowable value, the contractor shall locate the leaks, make appropriate repairs as approved, and shall continue to test the sewer until it meets the requirements.

where: t = time in minutes d = pipe diameter in inches or t = 11.99d (in SI)

5.4.2

Infiltration Test

where: t = time in minutes d = pipe diameter in mm If the installation fails to meet the requirements, the contractor shall at his own expense determine the source of the leakage and repair or replace all defective materials and/or workmanship. Safety precautions shall be observed at all times. It is extremely important that the plugs be installed and braced to prevent blowouts. No one shall be allowed into the manholes during testing.

If the project encountered excessive ground water during construction of the sewer, the infiltration test for leakage shall be used. The maximum allowable infiltration rate for sewers according to some specifications shall conform to following limits for the type of projects specified according to ASTM C-969: Type of pipe Concrete PVC Max. Allowable Infiltration 200 gal/day/inch dia./mile length (18.5 liters/day/mm dia/km length) 50 gal/day/inch dia./mile length (4.6 liters/day/mm dia/km length)

5.4.4

Testing of Manholes

Manholes shall be hydrostatically tested for leakage after installation, but prior to being backfilled. Prior to

hydrostatic testing, manholes shall be visually inspected for leaks. Leaks or cracks shall be repaired prior to hydrostatic testing. Pipes entering the manhole shall be sealed at a point outside the manhole walls so as to include testing of the pipe/manhole joints. The manhole shall be filled with water to a level 2 inches below the top of the frame. Safety lines shall be secured to all plugs. After a period of at least one hour and when the water level has stabilized, the manhole shall be refilled and the water level shall be checked. The water level shall again be checked after a period of 4 hours. If the water level is reduced by more than 1/4-inch, the leakage shall be considered excessive, and the manhole shall be repaired and retested. The exterior of the manhole shall be inspected during this period for visible evidence of leakage. Moisture, sweating, or beads of water on the exterior of the manhole shall not be considered leakage, but any water running across the surface will be considered leakage and the manhole shall be repaired.

When doing the detailed cost analyses, the following perceived factors may take part in price consideration: Watertight Drainage Vs. Non-Watertight: A) Pipes 1. Using concrete pipes, same amount of materials are needed. However, RCP (reinforced concrete pipe) require better quality than the conventional RCPC (reinforced concrete pipe culvert) because watertight materials would require more quality control and careful performance during fabrication casting, handling, curing and storage. Price of watertight RCP will be higher than the conventional RCPC. 2. Using PVC pipes instead of RCPC would be more costly. Since PVC pipes can not be subjected to heavy loads particularly below the road under traffic, strengthening the sewer by way of concrete-surrounding the PVC pipes would incur bear additional cost. B) Joints: 1. Gasketed joint at every 4 - 5m for RCP would be cheaper than mortared joints at every meter for RCPC. C) Installation: 1. Longer RCP (about 5m) will be more difficult to transport, handle and install than the meterlong RCPC. 2. RCP needs a joint every 5 m, easier than RCPC which requires a joint every meter.

5.5 PROJECT IMPLICATIONS

There is no doubt that the watertight drainage system poses inevitable changes in materials requirements and construction methods respectively. Likewise, it will bring about impact on project construction and, eventual change in the project cost.

5.5.1

Project Construction

Fabrication or supply of watertight drainage materials may pose logistical challenges to constructor during project construction phase. Transporting, handling and storage of these aforementioned materials may require unprecedented concerns. Since RCP materials are longer and heavier than the usual RCPC materials, mounting and installation of these pipes will need bigger equipments and more labor personnel, though fixing the end joints may be done with ease.

5.6 CONCLUSION
Watertight drainage system may require more meticulous planning, design and construction stages than nonwatertight drainage scheme. However, the added job offers extra quality controlling if not eliminating exfiltration and infiltration. Environmental issues related to infiltration and exfiltration are vastly unnoticed through the ages. When non-watertight sewer is located under the water-table of a wetland, it will drain the wetland and adversely affect the ecology of the region. When placed in the area with contaminated soils, polluted waters can leach into the system and flush these pollutants into the river. In exfiltration, the opposite happens but works in similar fashion. As the wastewater leaks through the joints, pollutants can leach out anywhere along the length of the storm drainage system. Surface drainage pollutants

5.5.2

Project Cost

Given the foregoing discussion, and summing up every point that makes the difference in the construction of watertight drainage as compared to the conventional nonwatertight system, it is clearly evident that the cost of the project will differ from the old (non-watertight) to new (watertight) scheme.

entering the system from catch basins far upstream seep out through the leaking joints downstream. Over time, wastewater will contaminate the surrounding soil and groundwater. Most noteworthy for civil engineers, are the technical or structural issues that will be answered by this scheme. Watertight drainage system seals and shields the sewer, and prevents infiltration and exfiltration. Watertight sewer prevents the inflow of water that carries soil fines from the surrounding backfill material, eliminating the possibility that soil fines would accumulate, settle and harden at the bottom of the line, and eventually blocking the pipe. Extra-burdensome maintenance works are avoided. Likewise, the loss of soil fines would create void spaces around the pipe, subsequently rendering the pipesurrounding material loose, unstable and not fit to carry load. This failure may result to the eventual collapse of the surfacing or roadway, if pipe is under the road. This safety hazard would mean enormous medical expenditures. In a watertight drainage system, costly damages and painstaking repairs of these defects could be prevented. As the issues for the need of a watertight drainage system are positively justified, its implications in the Philippine setting can not just be simply put aside.

Appendix 2 Acceptance Testing for RCP ASTM C-969 Water exfiltration ASTM C-969 Water infiltration ASTM C-1103 Joint testing Appendix 3 Standar d ASTM D3034 Standards for PVC Sewer Pipes: Available ODs Structural Requirements 4-15 inch Solid Wall SDR 41, PS 28 psi SDR 35, PS 46 psi SDR 26, PS 115 psi SDR 23.5, PS 153 psi Solid Wall PS 46 psi Solid Wall PS 46 psi Open Profile, Closed Profile and Dual wall PS 46 psi Dual Wall PS 46 psi Closed Profile PS 46 psi Solid Wall SDR 41, PS 195 kPa SDR 35, PS 320 kPa SDR 28, PS 625 kPa Open Profile and Closed Profile Class IV, PS 70 kPa Class V, PS 320 kPa

ASTM F679 ASTM F789 ASTM F794 ASTM F949 ASTM F1803 CSA B182.2 CSA B182.4

18-36 inch 4-18 inch 4-48 inch 4-36 inch 18-60 inch 3-27 inch

APPENDIX
4-48 inch

Appendix 1
Standards for Reinforced Concrete Pipes: Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe C 361 Reinforced Concrete Low-Head Pressure Pipe C 443 Joints for Circular Concrete Sewer and Culvert C 655 Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert, Storm C 822 Definitions of Concrete Pipe and Related C 969 Infiltration and Exfiltration Acceptance Testing C 1103 Joint Acceptance Testing of Installed Precast C 76 About the author:

REFERENCES:
City and County of Denver, Storm Drainage and Sanitary Sewer Construction Details and Technical Specifications, 2000 Illinois Concrete Association, Concrete Pipe User Manual Kurdziel, J. M., The Evolution of Watertight Storm Drainage System, ASCE (2002) Standard Specifications for Materials and Installation of Storm Drainage Pipelines in the City of Santa Maria, California

Henry P. Turalde is a faculty of College of Engineering at the Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges. He advocates ethics, quality, safety and sustainability in construction. A PICE specialist in Construction Management & Engineering and Transportation Engineering, he is also a certified real estate professional, surveyor, master plumber and quality control engineer. (E-mail: engineer_pluss@yahoo.com)