THE BRAND COMMUNICATION EFFECTS OF USING A HEADLINE TO PROMPT THE KEY BENEFIT IN ADS WITH PICTORIAL METAPHORS

Lars Bergkvist, Daniel Eiderbck, and Michaela Palombo ABSTRACT: This study investigated the differential effects of adding an explanatory headline to ads with a pictorial metaphor on brand communication effects. An experimental study compared the effects of adding a moderate headline, which gives a clue to the ads message, or a complete headline, which clearly spells out the ads message, to an ad without a headline. Results show that a complete headline leads to more positive brand communication effects than a moderate headline or no headline at all. A complete headline results in stronger brand beliefs about the key benefit conveyed by the pictorial metaphor, which in turn leads to a more positive brand attitude.

Pictorial metaphors are often employed in print advertising to convey the key benefit of the brand being advertised (Rossiter 2008; Rossiter and Bellman 2005). To give just two examples, an image of a cheetah can be used to show that a brand is fast or an image of Einstein can convey intelligence. Some ads use less direct metaphors in the form of complex images that require more effort and knowledge to interpret. For example, an energy bar can show a swimming man blowing out water like a whale to get across the message that the brands key benefit is to increase the stamina of the user. Some ads with pictorial metaphors are designed with a headline that helps the audience interpret the ad, whereas other ads are designed without a headline, leaving the interpretation of the ads message entirely to the target audience. The question is whether including a headline will improve the ads ability to communicate the brand message. The interplay between pictures and headlines in advertising has received limited attention in advertising research. The studies by Phillips (2000) and McQuarrie and Phillips (2005) are the only ones known to the authors that have looked at the differential impact of adding headlines to ads with pictorial metaphors on advertising effectiveness. These two studies focused on the information processing of ads with pictorial metaphors and argue on the basis of processing responses that headlines that clearly spell out the main message conveyed by the pictorial metaphor are likely to have a negative effect on advertising effectiveness. However, these two studies are limited in that they did not investigate the effects of headlines on
Lars Bergkvist (Ph.D., Stockholm School of Economics) is an asso ciate professor of marketing, Nottingham University Business School China, University of Nottingham Ningbo, Ningbo, China. Daniel Eiderbck is a student in the Department of Advertising and PR, Stockholm University. Michaela Palombo is a student in the Department of Advertising and PR, Stockholm University.

brand communication effects, such as brand beliefs (Bbrand) or brand attitude (Abrand). It cannot be taken for granted that positive processing responses automatically lead to positive brand communication effects. For example, there are studies showing that the relationship between attitude toward the ad (Aad) and brand communication effects is tenuous, particularly for some time after exposure to the advertising (see, e.g., Bergkvist and Rossiter 2008; Chattopadhyay and Nedungadi 1992). The purpose of the present study is therefore to investigate the effects of adding headlines to ads with pictorial metaphors on brand communication effects. Theory and Hypotheses Pictorial Metaphors in Advertising Phillips (2000) focused on the effects of combining pictorial metaphors with headlines on Aad. Her theoretical framework, in line with other studies on rhetoric in advertising (e.g., McQuarrie and Mick 1992, 2003), assumes that the target audience elaborates more on the message in ads with pictorial metaphors than they do with straight ads (i.e., ads that communicate the message directly). The theory also assumes that ads with pictorial metaphors elicit more positive emotional responses than straight ads. In turn, increased message elaboration and increased positive emotional response has a positive effect on Aad. According to this theoretical framework, a headline is expected to lead to increased comprehension of the advertising message, which in turn has a positive effect on Aad. However, a headline is also expected to have a negative effect on the positive emotional response caused by the pictorial metaphor, because the headline decreases the pleasure and
The authors are grateful to Barbara Phillips for sharing one of the ads used in the study and to John R. Rossiter for insightful comments on a previous version of this paper.
Journal of Advertising, vol. 41, no. 2 (Summer 2012), pp. 6775. 2012 American Academy of Advertising. All rights reserved. Permissions: www.copyright.com ISSN 0091-3367 (print)/ISSN 1557-7805 (online) DOI: 10.2753/JOA0091-3367410205

68 The Journal of Advertising

satisfaction the target audience enjoys from solving the puzzle offered by the pictorial metaphor. Phillips (2000) compared three levels of completeness of headlines: no headline, a moderate headline, or a complete headline. A moderate headline gives a clue to the ads message, whereas a complete headline spells out the ads message clearly. Her results showed a positive effect of a higher degree of headline completeness on comprehension and that the total effect of a complete headline on Aad was positive, since the indirect positive effect mediated by comprehension was greater than the direct negative effect (see Phillips 2000, p.22, table3). However, the increase in Aad when going from a moderate to a complete headline was not statistically significant. In line with the theoretical framework and results in the study by Phillips (2000), as well as those suggested by other theories (e.g., the Remote Conveyor Model; see Rossiter and Bellman 2005; see also Rossiter 2008), it is expected that headlines will have a positive effect on comprehension. Thus: Hypothesis 1: It is expected to be a positive relationship between the degree of headline completeness and comprehension. In line with the results in the study by Phillips (2000), it is also expected that headlines will have a positive effect on Aad: Hypothesis 2: It is expected to be a positive relationship between the degree of headline completeness and Aad. McQuarrie and Phillips (2005) found that consumers were more likely to infer that an ad with a visual metaphor was trying to get a larger number of brand claims across than an ad with a verbal metaphor or an ad with a visual metaphor and an explanatory headline. In response to a series of questions about whether the ad was designed to make them think about certain benefits, participants in the study indicated a higher number of benefit claims for the unaccompanied visual metaphor than for the other ad formats. However, there was no difference between the ad formats in the share of participants that associated the key benefit claim with the ad; the difference was in terms of weak benefit claims. McQuarrie and Phillips (2005) also found that the ads with unaccompanied visual metaphors generated the association between the ad and the benefit claim spontaneously during exposure, whereas the two other ad forms generated the brand inferences after exposure when consumers were prompted for them. Although a tenet of the study was that a wider range of brand associations are advantageous for the brand, the study did not empirically investigate whether the wider range of ad claims associated with unaccompanied visual metaphors and their greater accessibility in memory have a positive influence on brand communication effects. The Remote Conveyor Model (Rossiter 2008; Rossiter and Bellman 2005) predicts that headlines will have a positive effect on Bbrand for new or less familiar brands. Rossiter and Bellman

(2005) argue that if nonfamiliar brands use headlines to prompt the key benefit, they will aid the resolution of the pictorial metaphor puzzle. As the purpose of the pictorial metaphor is to convey the brands key benefit, it seems reasonable that this would lead to increased comprehension of the ads main message and improved learning of the brands key benefit. For established brands associated with one or a few key benefits, Rossiter and Bellman (2005) argue that headlines are superfluous, as the brand itself will prompt the key benefit. Thus: Hypothesis 3a: For nonfamiliar brands, there is expected to be a positive relationship between the degree of completeness of the headline and Bbrand. Following standard attitude formation theory (see, e.g., Ajzen 1991; Eagly and Chaiken 1993; Fishbein and Ajzen 1975), as well as consumer behavior and advertising theory (see, e.g., Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard 1995; Rossiter and Bellman 2005; Rossiter and Percy 1997), Bbrand is expected to be positively related to Abrand. Given this causal chain, it is expected that headlines will have a positive effect on Abrand in ads for new or less well-known brands. Hypothesis 3b: For nonfamiliar brands, there is a positive relationship between the degree of completeness of the headline and Abrand. Method Overview The study was based on an experiment in which three levels of headline completeness (none, moderate, complete) were tested in a between-subjects design. The participants were Swedish students and data was collected using an online system. Four ads, for brands previously unknown to the participants, were used. Measures included Aad and a number of brand communication effects measures. Participants The participants were students from Stockholm University, Sweden. They were from various disciplines (not including marketing or advertising) and volunteered to participate in the study. Students were recruited in class and filled out the questionnaire online (see below). There were 136 participants between 20 and 35 years old (mean age 25 years); 54% were women. The participants were thanked for taking part in the study, but did not receive any incentive or reward apart from that. Procedure The experiment was run using a Web-based data collection system. Participants received an invitation by e-mail and could

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take part in the study at their leisure during a 10-day period. When they logged on to the Web site, they were informed that they would be shown four different magazine ads and were instructed to look at them as they would normally do when reading a magazine. The first ad followed on the next page and the ad was, in turn, followed by all questions relating to it. The questions were presented on a number of consecutive Web pages and their design was varied between drop-down menus and radio buttons to minimize common method bias (Podsakoff et al. 2003). The first ad and its questions were followed by the second ad and its questions, and so on. Materials The four ads in the study were for two fictitious brands and two brands not available in Sweden when the experiment was carried out. Thus, all four ads were unknown to the participants. The main reason for using unknown brands is that the brand name may function as a benefit prompt for well-known brands associated with one or a few benefits (Rossiter and Bellman 2005, p. 149), that is, the brand name fulfills the same function as a headline. Two of the ads were for butter and coffee, products that typically use a transformational brand attitude strategy based on the purchase motive of sensory gratification (Rossiter and Bellman 2005; Rossiter and Percy 1997). The other two ads were for fat-free yogurt and zip-lock plastic bags, products that typically use an informational brand attitude strategy based on a purchase motive of either problem avoidance or problem removal. Each ad was done up in three versions with varying degrees of headline completeness (none, moderate, and complete). The ads were in English, even though the participants in the experiment were from Sweden. Young people in Sweden have a good command of English, which is compulsory at school from the age of nine. Responses to the message take-out question included in the questionnaire suggest that participants processed the messages in the ads. All responses except one were written in Swedish. Using ads in English could potentially confound the results. Luna and Peracchio (2001) found that memory effects and product evaluations were different depending on whether ads were in bilingual consumers first or second language. However, the results in their study show that the pattern of results for brand evaluations was similar for the first and second language, even when the levels of the evaluation differed (see Luna and Peracchio 2001, table1, p.289). Thus, although a confounding language effect cannot be completely ruled out, the results in Luna and Peracchio (2001) suggest that this is not likely to have been the case. The brand names and the headlines are shown in Table1; the no-headline versions of the ads are shown in the Appendix. In the experiment, the ads were rotated to avoid order effects.

The four ads were pretested in a sample of five women and five men, between 20 and 35 years old. First, the pretest checked whether the four ads, without the headlines, were perceived to be equally easy to comprehend. Comprehension was measured with the same two items (see below) as in the main study (but with four-point answer scales). The differences in comprehension scores were small: The mean comprehension scores for the four ads were 2.10, 2.15, 2.25, and 2.25. Second, the pretest participants were shown two versions of each adone with a moderately complete and one with a complete headlineand were asked to rank the two ads according to their degree of headline completeness. All participants ranked the ads with complete headlines as having the highest degree of headline completeness in the pairs of ads. Measures The following constructs were measured for all ads (in this order): attitude toward the ad (Aad), comprehension, brand attitude (Abrand), message take-out, and brand beliefs (Bbrand). The measures of Aad and Abrand were validated single-item measures taken from Bergkvist and Rossiter (2009) (see also Bergkvist and Rossiter 2007), the two items measuring comprehension were taken from Phillips (2000), and the measures of Bbrand were taken from Bergkvist and Rossiter (2006). All measures had seven-point bipolar answer scales except Bbrand, which was measured with four-point answer scales. Message take-out was measured with an open-ended question taken from Rossiter and Percy (1997). The measures, including questions and response scales, as well as where they were taken from, are shown in Table2. The questionnaire also included a few additional measures that were not used in the present context. In the analysis, a comprehension index was formed using the individual mean score of the two comprehension questions. Similarly, an individual Bbrand mean index was calculated for each of the brands, even though the key benefit belief items were analyzed separately as well. Results Overview of the Analyses The hypotheses were tested using linear mixed models with repeated measurement. Repeated measurement was used as each participant evaluated all four ads in the study. The models also included ad as a blocking variable, that is, the models accounted for the idiosyncrasies of individual ads (see Wells 2001) by including ad as an independent variable. As noted by Sasser and Koslow (2008, p. 11), a limited number of ads do not adequately represent the entire spectrum of possible ad executions and the variance of individual ads needs to be accounted for.

70 The Journal of Advertising Table 1 Brands and Headlines in the Study

Brand (product category) Panderra (fat-free yogurt) Onezip (plastic bags) Campina (butter) Mambocino (coffee) Moderately complete headline Until next meal Antiaging bag Taste of the ocean Knock your senses Complete headline Energy that makes you feel fuller for longer Effective closure for fresher food Butter with sea salt Extra strong coffee

Table 2 Constructs and Measures in the Study

Construct Aad Question Thinking about the ad for/BRAND/, which of the following statements best describes your feeling about the ad? Answer scale I disliked it extremely I quite disliked it I disliked it slightly I neither liked it nor disliked it I liked it slightly I quite liked it I liked it extremely Seven-point, with endpoints easy/ difficult to understand and straightforward/confusing Open-ended Source Bergkvist and Rossiter (2009)

Comprehension

Message take-out Bbrand

Abrand

Here are two questions on how you perceive Phillips (2000) the ad for/BRAND/. Select the alternative that best fits with your view. What do you think the ad is trying to say Rossiter and Percy about /BRAND/? (1997) Bergkvist and Rossiter Not at all Below you will find a number of product (2006) Somewhat properties. Having seen the ad for / Moderately BRAND/, to what extent do you think that Very /BRAND/ has these properties? Product properties: Panderra: Good taste/Good snack/Gives you energy that keeps you going longer/Healthy Onezip: Tight closure/Keeps your food fresh longer/Secure seal/Practical Mambocino: Good start to the day/Powerful taste/Made from natural ingredients/Extra strong coffee Campina: Natural ingredients/Seasoned with sea salt/Good taste/Enhances the flavor (Key benefits in boldface.) Bergkvist and Rossiter I think it is extremely bad Thinking about the /BRAND/ /PRODUCT (2009) I think it is quite bad CATEGORY/, which of the following I think it is slightly bad statements best describes your feeling I think it is neither good nor bad about /BRAND/? I think it is slightly good I think it is quite good I think it is extremely good

Common Method Bias Check To check whether there was common method variance in the data, the marker variable technique, using the smallest correlation between the variables as a proxy for common method variance, was employed (Lindell and Whitney 2001; see also Malhotra, Kim, and Patil 2006). Results show that the bias caused by common method variance was negligible: The average inflation in correlations between the variables in the study potentially caused by common method variance was .002, and only one out of 172 correlations became nonsignificant when it was adjusted. Thus, the careful design of the Web question-

naire appears to have reduced common method variance to a minimum. Tests of Hypotheses H1 stated that there was expected to be a positive relationship between the degree of headline completeness and comprehension. This was supported by the results. There was a significant main effect of headline completeness on comprehension, F(2, 530.61)=31.51, p<.001, and the mean scores _ _ increased with higher degrees _ of headline completeness (Xno=4.44; Xmoder=4.63; Xcomplete=5.69). However, a post hoc LSD (least ate

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significant difference) test showed that the difference in a pairwise comparison of no headline and a moderate headline was not significant. Moreover, there was a significant interaction between headline completeness and ad, F(6, 529.58)=4.43, p <.05. This interaction took the form that for two of the ads (Onezip and Campina), the comprehension score for the moderate headline was the same or slightly lower than for no headline, whereas for the other two ads (Panderra and Mambocino), the scores were higher for a moderate headline than for no headline. For all four ads, the scores were the highest for the complete headline. Thus, the results support H1, albeit with slightly mixed results for the step from no headline to a moderate headline. Strictly speaking, the main effect of headline completeness on Aad was not significant, F(2, 525.33)=2.98, p=.05, and there was no increase in the mean scores_ with higher _ =4.30; Xmoderate=4.11; degrees of headline completeness ( X _ no Xcomplete = 4.34). Thus, the results do not support H2. If Phillipss (2000) theoretical framework holds, this would mean that the positive effect of comprehension on Aad was cancelled out by the headline having a negative effect on the positive emotional response caused by the pictorial metaphor, leading to a negative effect on Aad. Alternatively, the relationship between comprehension and Aad could be nonexistent or weak, as suggested by the results in Kardess (1988) study, who found that the absence or presence of an explicitly drawn conclusion did not significantly impact Aad. Since it is reasonable to expect that an explicit conclusion would increase perceived comprehension, Kardess (1988) results suggest a weak or nonexistent relationship between comprehension and Aad. As the present study did not measure the emotional response, it is not possible to conclude whether comprehension actually has a positive effect on Aad that is cancelled out by headlines having a negative effect on the emotional response. According to H3a, there was expected to be a positive relationship between the degree of completeness of the headline and Bbrand for nonfamiliar brands. The hypothesis was mainly supported, as there was a significant main effect of headline completeness on Bbrand, F(2, 514.16)=5.79, p<.05, _ and the = 2.67; mean scores were in line with the hypothesis ( X _ _ no Xmoderate=2.77; Xcomplete=2.92). However, a post hoc LSD test showed that the difference between no headline and a moderate headline was not significant in pairwise comparisons. Moreover, there was a significant interaction between headline completeness and ad, F(6, 513.11)=2.25, p <.05. For the Panderra ad, this interaction took the form of a lower Bbrand score for the moderate headline condition than for the no headline condition. For the other ads, the moderate headline condition had a higher score than the no headline condition. For all ads, the score was the highest for the complete headline condition. To get a fuller understanding of how headlines influence Bbrand, a linear mixed model with the key benefit Bbrand item

or items (see Table 2) as dependent variable was run. The results from this analysis were compared with a model in which a mean index formed from the remaining two or three Bbrand items were the dependent variable. This analysis found a significant main effect of headline completeness in the first model, F(2, 519.13)=16.22, p<.01, but not in the second, F(2, 519.49)=.97, p >.35, demonstrating that a complete headline leads to a more positive benefit belief for the key benefit(s), but not the other benefits. (There was a significant interaction effect in the first model, in line with the one found in the Bbrand model used to test H3a. However, this interaction does not change the conclusion that a complete headline leads to improved learning of the key benefit, as for all four ads, the mean score for the complete headline was higher than that for the conditions that had no or moderate headlines.) The analysis with Abrand as dependent variable showed that there was a significant main effect of headline completeness, F(2, 491.03)=3.81, p<.05. In support of H3b, the mean related to the degree Abrand score was positively _ _ of headline _ completeness (Xno=4.03; Xmoderate=4.08; Xcomplete=4.32), although a post hoc LSD test showed that the difference between no headline and a moderate headline was not significant. The results for the brand communication effects suggest that using a headline improves the target audiences learning of the key benefit, which then leads to more positive Bbrand. More positive Bbrand, in turn, explains the significant increase in Abrand. The results for the hypothesis testing are summarized in Table3. Discussion The present study investigated the brand communication effects of headlines that help interpret pictorial metaphors in ads. This extends previous research, which focused on the processing effects of headlines. Results show a significant main effect of headline completeness on comprehension, Bbrand, and Abrand, but not on Aad. Across the dependent variables, the largest difference between degrees of headline completeness was between the moderate and the complete headline. The post hoc tests showed that the differences between no headline and a moderately complete headline were not statistically significant. The analysis also showed that a complete headline had a positive effect on beliefs about the key benefit, but not beliefs about the other benefits. The present results suggest that advertising that leaves no room for interpretation and presents a ready-made conclusion is more effective than advertising that is open to interpretation and could lead to different conclusions. For ads without a headline or with a moderately complete headline, there is likely to be greater variation in the brand associations the target audience stores in memory as a result of the advertising. For the complete headline ad, the main learning will be the key

72 The Journal of Advertising Table 3 Mean Scores on the Dependent Variables

Headline completeness No headline Moderate Complete Dependent variables Comprehensiona 4.44b 4.63b,c 5.69b,c Aad 4.30 4.11b 4.34b Bbranda 2.67b 2.77c 2.92b,c Abranda 4.03b 4.08c 4.32b,c

Note: Shared superscript letters b and c indicate significant (p<.05) post hoc pairwise LSD comparisons. a F-test significant (p<.05 or p<.001).

benefit, which should lead to a positive brand attitude (given that the key benefit is relevant and motivating for the target audience). The results do not lend support to the idea that advertising that is open to multiple interpretations is more effective than advertising with less or no room for interpretation (see McQuarrie and Phillips 2005). In fact, the results fit well with the predictions made by the Remote Conveyor Model (Rossiter 2008; Rossiter and Bellman 2005). A pictorial metaphor supplemented with a headline will get the key benefit across to the target audience, and if the key benefit is relevant and motivating, there will be a positive effect on Abrand. The present findings concur with the results in the study by Kardes (1988). Kardes found that for a low-involvement condition, brand attitudes were more favorable after exposure to an ad in which an explicit conclusion was drawn compared with an ad in which the conclusion was implicit. The reason for this was that participants were not motivated enough in the low-involvement condition to effortfully draw conclusions; instead, they based their attitudes on the information that did not require a cognitive effort. As the product categories in the present study were typical low-involvement categories, it is likely that the participants in the study lacked the motivation to infer the (key benefit) conclusion in the absence of a complete headline. Using ads that require the target audience to interpret the advertising may be a risky strategy for many products and target audiences. Not only does interpretation require consumers to invest time and effort into deciphering the advertising, which they may not be willing to do in many situations, it also requires that they actually comprehend the ad and take out a message that is relevant and motivating to them. Moreover, consumers need to appreciate the way the message is conveyed and the process of deciphering it, if there is to be a positive effect on Aad (and Aad, in turn, must have a positive effect on Abrand). It is not likely that these conditions are met for many products and target audiences. It seems likely, for example, that many target audiences will have members that vary considerably with respect to cognitive ability and need for cognition, which are important factors for interpreting messages as well

as appreciating this process. There could also be a risk that ads requiring interpretation wear out (Calder and Sternthal 1980) more quickly than ads in which the message is more directly accessible. The positive emotional response to solving the puzzle is not likely to appear when consumers are exposed to the ad for the third, fifth, or eleventh time. The four ads in the study were for low-involvement product categories. It is generally expected that advertising for highinvolvement product categories is processed differently than advertising for low-involvement categories (e.g., Rossiter and Percy 1997). It is likely that the headline is of less importance in a high-involvement processing situation in which the target audience invests time and energy into processing the complete message carefully in order to satisfy their informational needs. The results in Kardes (1988) suggest this would be the case. Thus, future research could look into the effects of using headlines in advertising in high-involvement product categories. The brands in the study were previously unknown to the participants. This means that they did not have any brand associations before being exposed to the ads. The communication objectives for established brands tend to be different from those for new brands (Rossiter and Bellman 2005). Whereas new brands need to create brand associations, familiar brands, in most cases, only need to maintain or reinforce existing associations. Moreover, there are several studies showing that advertising for familiar brands is processed differently than advertising for new brands (e.g., Campbell and Keller 2003; Holden and Vanhuele 1999). Thus, future research should investigate the moderating effects of brand awareness and brand familiarity on the effects of headline completeness in advertising. The present study used forced exposure to the ads. Although participants were instructed to look at the ads as they normally do when reading a magazine, their attention was likely more focused on the ads than during normal magazine reading. While this may reduce the external validity of the experiment, it is difficult to test different creative tactics without forced exposure, as other laboratory methods of exposure (e.g., inserting a number of ads in a booklet) or field experi-

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ments run the risk that variation in attention may confound the results. For the present study, it seems unlikely that the increased attention resulting from the forced exposure would have altered the conclusions of the study. If anything, the effects of increased attention should work in favor of the ad versions with no headline or a moderate headline, since these should benefit from more attention in terms of key benefit learning. An interesting aspect of ads with pictorial metaphors is their attention-getting ability. For example, Rossiter and Bellman (2005) argue that ads with pictorial metaphors are better at attracting attention than straight ads that merely show the product. Thus, it would be of interest to investigate whether ads with pictorial metaphors are better than straight ads at attracting attention and whether headline completeness influences the attention-getting ability of ads. Testing this would, of course, require a research design without forced exposure. Finally, the present study did not measure the emotional response to the ads (for an overview, see Poels and Dewitte 2006). This limits understanding of the processing of the ads. For example, measuring the emotional response would make it possible to find out whether a complete headline actually leads to a negative effect on emotional response. Thus, future studies should include measurement of emotional response. References
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Appendix The No-Headlines Version of the Ads Used in the Experiment

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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.