Fractures are displacement discontinuities in rocks, which appear as local breaks in the natural sequence of the rocks properties.

Most geological formations in the upper part of the earths crust are fractured to some extent. The fractures represent mechanical failures of the rock strength to natural geological stresses such as tectonic movement, lithostatic pressure changes, thermal stresses, high fluid pressure, drilling activity, and even fluid withdrawal, since fluid also partially supports the weight of the overburden rock. Although petroleum reservoir rocks can be found at any depth, at the deeper depths pressure of the overburden is sufficient enough to cause plastic deformation of most of the sedimentary rocks. Such rocks are unable to sustain shear stresses over a long period and flow towards an equilibrium condition. Fractures may appear as microfissures with an extension of only several micrometers, or as continental fractures with an extension of several thousand kilometers. They may be limited to a single rock formation or layer, or propagate through many rock formations or layers. In geological terms, a fracture is any planar or curvi-planar discontinuity that has formed as a result of a process of brittle deformation in the earths crust. Planes of weakness in rock respond to changing stresses in the earths crust by fracturing in one or more different ways, depending on the direction of the maximum stress and the rock type. A fracture may consist of two rock surfaces of irregular shape, being more or less in contact with each other. The volume between the surfaces is the fracture void. Naturally fractured rocks can be geologically categorized into three main types, based on their porosity systems: Intercrystalline-intergranular, such as the Snyder field in Texas, the Elk Basin in Wyoming, and the Umm Farud field in Libya; Fracture-matrix, such as the Spraberry field in Texas, the Kirkuk field in Iraq, the Dukhan field in Qatar, and Masjidi-Sulaiman and Haft-Gel fields in Iran; and Vugular-solution, such as the Pegasus Ellenburger field and the Canyon Reef field in Texas [ 11. The accumulation and migration of reservoir fluids within a naturally fractured formation having the first type of porosity system are similar to those found in sandstone formations. Consequently, the techniques developed to determine the physical properties of sandstone porous media in Chapter 3 could be directly applied to formations having intercrystalline-intergranular porosity. Unfortunately, this is not the case for reservoirs having the other two types of porosity system. The pores in the matrix of a fracture-matrix formation are poorly interconnected, yielding a pattern of fluid movement that is very different from that of sandstone formations. Rocks with vugular-solution porosity systems exhibit a wide range of permeability distributions varying from relatively uniform to extremely irregular as shown in Figure 8.1.

. A natural fracture is a planar discontinuity in reservoir rock due to deformation or physical diagenesis. Diagenesis-chemical and physical changes after deposition-strongly modifies the reservoir properties possessed at the time of deposition. The dominant diagenetic process consists of early cementation, selective dissolution of aragonite and reprecipitation as calcite, burial cementation, dolomitization, and compactiondriven microfracturing [ 21. Cementation and compaction forces usually completely eradicate any porosity available at the time of deposition. However, chemical changes, usually dissolution, especially in carbonate rocks, mod* the initial porosity and recover it partially. Depositional facies, their architecture, systems, and tracts are predominant driving factors in the distribution and quality of current reservoir properties, which are completely different from the properties at the time of deposition. High-permeability vugs, molds, natural fractures, and caverns in carbonate rocks are the result of intense dissolution, which took place before burial as a result of non-reservoir or seal units. Dissolution is also caused by meteoric diagenesis, which is related to subaerial exposure of carbonate rocks and is explained by the general aggressiveness of meteoric water toward sedimentary carbonate minerals. Aragonite is metastable, it dissolves and precipitates into cement, whereas calcite is stable and is less affected by dissolution. Such a type of dissolution causes significant variation in the distribution of porosity and permeability in the reservoirs, thereby defining reservoir quality

. Natural fracture patterns are frequently interpreted on the basis of laboratory-derived fracture patterns corresponding to models of paleostress fields and strain distribution in the reservoir at the time of fracture [ 31. Classification based on stresslstrain conditions: Stearns and Friedman proposed classification based on stresshtrain conditions in laboratory samples and fractures observed in outcrops and subsurface settings. On the basis of their work, fractures are generally classified as follows [4] : (a) Shear fractures exhibit a sense of displacement parallel to the fracture plane. Shear fractures are formed when the stresses in the three principal directions are all compressive. They form at an acute angleto the maximum principal stress and at an obtuse angle to the direction of minimum compressive stress. (b) Extension fractures exhibit a sense of displacement perpendicular to and away from the fracture plane. They are formed perpendicular to the minimum stress direction. They too result when the stresses in the three principal directions are compressive, and can occur in conjunction with shear fracture.

(c) Tension fractures also exhibit a sense of displacement perpendicular to and away from the fracture plane. However, in order to form a tension fracture, at least one of the principal stresses has to be tensile. Since rocks exhibit significantly reduced strength in tension tests, this results in increased fracture frequency. Classification based on paleostress conditions: The geological classification of fracture systems is based on the assumption that natural fractures depict the paleostress conditions at the time of the fracturing. Based on geological conditions, fractures can be classified as in the following paragraphs. Tectonic fractures: The orientation, distribution, and morphology of these fracture systems are associated with local tectonic events. Tectonic fractures form in networks with specific spatial relationships to faults and folds. Fault-related fracture systems could be shear fractures formed either parallel to the fault or at an acute angle to it. In the case of the fault-wedge, they can be extension fractures bisecting the acute angle between the two fault shear directions [2, 51. The intensity of fractures associated with faulting is a function of lithology, distance from the fault plane, magnitude of the fault displacement, total strain in the rock mass, and depth of burial. Fold-related fracture systems exhibit complex patterns consistent with the complex strain and stress history associated with the initiation and growth of a fold [6]. Fracture types in fold-related systems are defined in terms of the dip and strike of the beds. Regional fractures: These fracture systems are characterized by long fractures exhibiting little change in orientation over their length. These fractures also show no evidence of offset across the fracture plane and are always perpendicular to the bedding surfaces. Regional fracture systems can be distinguished from tectonic fractures in that they generally exhibit simpler and more consistent geometry and have relatively larger spacing. Regional fractures are commonly developed as orthogonal sets with the two orthogonal orientations parallel to the long and short axes of the basin in which the fractures are formed. Many theories have been proposed for the origin of the regional fractures, ranging from plate tectonics to cyclic loading/unloading of rocks associated with earth tides. As in the case of tectonic fractures, small-scale variation in regional fracture orientation of up to f20" can result from strength anisotropies in reservoir rocks due to sedimentary features such as across bedding. Contractional fractures: These types of fracture result from bulk volume reduction of the rock. Desiccation fractures may result from shrinkage upon loss of fluid in subaerial drying. Mud cracks are the most common fractures of this type. Syneresis fractures result from bulk volume reduction within the sediments by sub-aqueous or surface dewatering. Dewatering and volume reduction of clays or of a gel or a colloidal suspension can result in syneresis fractures. Desiccation and syneresis fractures can be either tensile or extension fractures and are initiated by internal body forces. The fractures tend to be closely spaced and regular and isotropically distributed in three dimensions.

Syneresis fractures have been observed in limestone, dolomites, shales, and sandstones [7]. Thermal contractional fractures may result from contraction of hot rock as it cools. Depending on the depth of burial, they may be either tensile or extension fractures. The generation of thermal fractures is predicted on the existence of a thermal gradient within the reservoir rock material. A classic example of thermally induced fracture is the columnar jointing observed in igneous rocks. Fractures may also result from mineral changes in the rock, especially in carbonates and clay constituents in sedimentary rocks. Phase changes such as the chemical change from calcite to dolomite result in changes in bulk volume, and this leads to complex fracture patterns (Figure 8.2)
It is clear from the above discussion that the complex stress/strain distribution in reservoir rocks results in complex fracture patterns. Fracture patterns corresponding to different geological systems have key characteristics that can be used to classlfy and index natural fracture networks observed in outcrops and subsurface samples (Figures 8.3 and 8.4).

Fractures may have either a positive or a negative impact on fluid flow, depending on whether they are open or sealed as a result of mineralization. However, in most fracture modeling studies fractures are considered as open and they have a positive impact on the fluid flow. A sealed small natural fracture may even be undetectable. Nelson identified four types of naturally fractured reservoirs, based on the extent to which fractures have altered the porosity and permeability of the reservoir matrix [ 11 : Type 1: In type 1 reservoirs, fractures provide all the reservoir storage capacity and permeability. The Amal field in Libya, the IaPaz and Mara fields in Venezuela, and Pre-Cambrian basement reservoirs in eastern China are notable type 1 reservoirs (Figure 8.5a).
Type 2: In type 2 reservoirs, the matrix already has very good

permeability. The fractures add to the reservoir permeability and can result in considerably high flow rates, such as in the Kirkuk field of Iraq and Asmari fields in Iran. Type 3: In type 3 naturally fractured reservoirs, the matrix has negligible permeability but contains most if not all the hydrocarbons. The fractures provide the essential reservoir permeability, such as in the Monterey fields of California and the Spraberry reservoirs of West Texas. Type 4: In type 4 reservoirs, as shown in Figure SSb, the fractures are filled with minerals. These types of fractures tend to form barriers to fluid migration and partition formations into relatively small blocks

These formations are significantly anisotropic and often uneconomic to develop and produce. . Stearns and Friedman reviewed the multiple roles played by fractures in exploration and exploitation of naturally fractured reservoirs [4]. They showed that fractures could alter the matrix porosity or the permeability, or both. If the fractures or connected vugs are filled with secondary minerals, they may restrict the flow. However, even in rocks of low matrix porosity, fractures and solution channels increase the pore volume by both increasing porosity and connecting isolated matrix porosity and therefore help the recovery of petroleum fluids economically. Hence, the ability to estimate a fractures density and its distribution of porosity is essential for reservoir evaluation. One should keep in mind, however, that fractures alone constitute less than 1% of the porosity [ll, 121. Early recognition of a fractured reservoir and an estimate of its rock characteristics, such as porosity and permeability, will influence the location and number of subsequent development wells and, therefore, is of major economic significance. Stearns and Friedman [4], Aguilera [13], Saidi [22] and Nelson [ 11 reviewed many of the approaches used to detect and analyze naturally fractured reservoirs [ 1, 131. Some of these methods are as follows (see Figure 8.6): Loss of circulating fluids and an increase in penetration rate during drilling are positive indications that a fractured, cavernous formation has been penetrated (Figure 8.6). Fractures and solution channels in cores provide direct information on the nature of a reservoir. A detailed systematic study of the cores must be made by the geologist in order to distinguish natural fractures from those induced by the core handling process. Careful examination of fracture faces and determination of density, length, width, and orientation of fractures may lead to the ability to distinguish fractures induced during coring from natural fractures. Preferably, a naturally fractured formation should be analyzed with full diameter cores. Plug data, which do not reflect the permeability of fractures, often indicate a nonproductive formation, whereas full diameter core data indicate hydrocarbon production. If actual production rates are several-fold higher than those calculated from permeability determined by core analysis, natural fractures not observed in the core are suspected [15]. Low core recovery efficiency-less than 50%-suggests a highly fractured carbonate formation. Logging tools are designed to respond differently to various wellbore characteristics, such as lithology, porosity, and fluid saturations, but not to natural fractures [16, 171. The presence of a large number of open fractures, however, will affect the response of some logging tools. Well logging measurements based on sonic wave propagation, which are negligibly affected by the borehole conditions, are used as fracture indicators. Measurements by the caliper log, density log, or resistivity log, under proper conditions, can be very effective in locating fractured zones. Dipmeter data on the FIL (fracture identification log) provide effective methods for

fracture detection. (4) The subject of pressure buildup and flow tests in naturally fractured reservoirs has received considerable attention in the petroleum literature. Warren and Root assumed that the formation fluid flows from the matrix to fractures under pseudosteady state and showed that a semilog pressure buildup curve similar to that shown in Figure 8.7 is typical of a fractured formation [18]. If the existing fractures dominantly trend in a single direction, the reservoir may appear to have anisotropic permeability. If enough observation wells are used, pressure interference and pulse tests provide the best results. (5) Natural vertical fractures in a non-deviated borehole can be identified as a high amplitude feature which crosses other bedding planes. (6) Downhole direct and indirect viewing systems, including downhole photographic and television cameras, are also used to detect fractures and solution channels on the borehole face. The borehole televiewer is an excellent tool that provides useful pictures of the reservoir rock, especially with the recent developments in signal processing. Vertical fractures appear as straight lines whereas dipping fractures tend to appear as sinusoidal traces because the televiewer shows the wellbore sandface as if it were split vertically and laid flat. Another useful televiewer tool for detecting natural fractures is the formation microscanner (FMS) device. This tool can detect fractures that range from few millimeters to several centimeters long, distinguishes two fractures as close as 1 cm apart (see Figure 8.7), and distinguishes between open and closed fractures. Only fractures that are at least partially open contribute to production. (7) Very high productivity index. A productivity index of 500 STl3/D/psi or higher is typical of naturally fractured wells produced under laminar flow. Some wells in Iranian oilfields reported a productivity index of 10,000 STl3/D/psi. In these wells 95% of flow is through fractures [ 221. (8) A considerable increase in productivity of the well flowing after an artificial stimulation by acidizing is a strong indication of a naturally fractured formation. Acidizing is done essentially to increase the width of fractures and channels. (9) Because of the high permeability of the fractures, the horizontal pressure gradient is typically small near the wellbore as well throughout the reservoir [22]. This is primarily true in Type-1 and to a lesser degree in Type-2 fractured reservoirs Other indicators of the existence of the natural fractures in the reservoir are: (a) local history of naturally occurring fractures; (b) lack of precision in seismic recordings; (c) extrapolation from observations on outcrops; and (d) pressure test results that are incompatible with porosity and permeability values obtained from core analysis and/or well logging.

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The range of fracture porosity, $f, is 0.1 to 5 percent, depending on the degree of solution channeling, as shown in Figure 8.10, and on fracture width and spacing, as shown in Tables 8.2 and 8.3. In some fields, like the La-Paz and Mara fields in Venezuela, fracture porosity may be as high as 7 percent. Accurate measurement of fracture porosity is essential for the efficient development and economical exploitation of naturally fractured reservoirs. If oil is trapped in both the matrix and fissures, then the total oil in place in the reservoir is given by the following equation [ 101 :
where Nom and Nof are, respectively, the oil volumes trapped in the matrix and fractures. Assuming a volumetric system, these two volumes, expressed in STB, are calculated as follows:

Fracture porosity can be expressed as the ratio of the fracture pore volume (Vpf) over the total bulk volume (Vbt): The sonic log only measures the matrix porosity. However, neutron porosity is the combination of both the matrix and fracture porosity. Thus fracture porosity can be estimated from well logs as [22]: Fracture porosity can also be estimated with the help of well test analysis in such reservoirs, using Equation 8.76. Aguilera developed the following equation that relates the total formation resistivity factor, Ft, for dual porosity systems, to the total porosity based on the Pirson model of fully water-saturated rocks [23]: where Ro is the resistivity of porous rock 100 percent saturated with brine, and Rw is the formation water resistivity, both expressed in Ohm-m. If only the matrix porosity is present in the system, the porosity partitioning coefficient, v, is equal to zero. Thus Equation 8.6 simplifies to Equation 8.7, which is the same as for a consolidated matrix:
If only fracture porosity is present in the system, such as in Type-1 naturally fractured reservoirs, the porosity the partitioning coefficient is equal to unity. In this case the formation resistivity factor can be expressed as:

Laboratory tests indicate that the tortuosity factor, T, and the fracture porosity exponent, mf, are approximately unity in systems with open and well connected fractures. In Type-2 and Type-3 naturally fractured reservoirs, the formation resistivity factor can be more generally expressed as:

Where mm is the matrix porosity. If only matrix porosity is present, i.e. $f = 0, Equation 8.8b simplifies to Equation 4.40 where m = mm and a = T. On the other hand, if only fracture porosity is present such as in Type-1, Equation 8.8b simplifies to Equation 8.8a. If only the total porosity is known, then F can be estimated from: The fractures should be considered as being well connected if the interporosity coefficient, h, which is determined from a pressure transient test is high, i.e. lo-* or lop5. If the interporosity factor is low, i.e. h is approximately lows or loT9, the fractures are poorly interconnected and/or partially mineral-filled. In this case mf and T maybe as high as 1.75 and 1.5, respectively. -.-.-.-.-