What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?

As is the case with many of the current/popular paradigms, you're probably already using the constructivist approach to some degree. Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching process. For example, they may:

prompt students to formulate their own questions (inquiry) allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple intelligences) encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)

More information on the above processes is covered in other workshops in this series. For now, it's important to realize that the constructivist approach borrows from many other practices in the pursuit of its primary goal: helping students learn HOW TO LEARN.

In a constructivist classroom, learning is . . . CONSTRUCTED Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations with already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create. Example: An elementary school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the "Mayflower." Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher allows students to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student offers the knowledge that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in "hands." The students discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.

ACTIVE The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that don't work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments). An important part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about, their activities. Students also help set their own goals and means of assessment. Examples: A middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing lab. The emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules, though one of the teacher's concerns is the ability of his students to express themselves well through written language. The teacher provides opportunities for students to examine the finished and earlier drafts of various authors. He allows students to select and create projects within the general requirement of building aportfolio 1. Students serve as peer editors who value originality and uniqueness rather than the best way to fulfill an assignment.

1.

In a history class, asking students to read and think about different versions of and perspectives on "history" can lead to interesting discussions. Is history as taught in textbooks accurate? Are there different versions of the same history? Whose version of history is most accurate? How do we know? From there, students can make their own judgments.

REFLECTIVE Students control their own learning process, and they lead the way by reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it was learned is really important. Example: Students keep journals in a writing class where they record how they felt about the class projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt their own writing had changed. Periodically the teacher reads these journals and holds a conference with the student where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the student learns best, and (3) the learning environment and the teacher's role in it.

COLLABORATIVE The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. There are many reasons why collaboration contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another.

Example: In the course of studying ancient civilizations, students undertake an archaeological dig. This may be something constructed in a large sandbox, or, as in the Dalton School's "Archaeotype" software simulation, on a computer. As the students find different objects, the teacher introduces classifying techniques. The students are encouraged to (1) set up a group museum by developing criteria and choosing which objects should belong, and (2) collaborate with other students who worked in different quadrants of the dig. Each group is then asked to develop theories about the civilizations that inhabited the area. INQUIRY-BASED

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions. (See the CONCEPT TO CLASSROOM workshop Inquiry-based Learning) Example: Sixth graders figuring out how to purify water investigate solutions ranging from coffee-filter paper, to a stove-top distillation apparatus, to piles of charcoal, to an abstract mathematical solution based on the size of a water molecule. Depending upon students' responses, the teacher encourages abstract as well as concrete, poetic as well as practical, creations of new knowledge.

REVOLVING Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance, a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into account students' current conceptions and builds from there. What happens when a student gets a new piece of information? The constructivist model says that the student compares the information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already has, and one of three things can occur:

The new information matches up with his previous knowledge pretty well (it'sconsonant with the previous knowledge), so the student adds it to his understanding. It may take some work, but it's just a matter of finding the right fit, as with a puzzle piece. The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's dissonant). The student has to change her previous understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be harder work. The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is ignored. Rejected bits of information may just not be absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting for the day when the student's understanding has developed and permits a fit.

Example: An elementary teacher believes her students are ready to study gravity. She creates an environment of discovery with objects of varying kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similarly sized blocks of Styrofoam, wood, and lead. Some students hold the notion that heavier objects fall faster than light ones. The teacher provides materials (stories, posters, and videos) about Galileo, Newton, etc. She leads a discussion on theories about falling. The students then replicate Galileo's experiment by dropping objects of different weights and measuring how fast they fall. They see that objects of different weights actually usually fall at the same speed, although surface area and aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.

Developing Multiple Intelligences in Young Learners By Connie Hine Current research on the brain, learning and human intelligence from a variety of disciplines, including medicine, cognitive sciences, and education has provided information with profound implications to education. This research is challenging and stretches the traditional approaches to education and teaching, particularly with regard to the ability to learn, human intelligence, and how efficient learning occurs. IntelligenceWhat Is It? The traditional theory of intelligence has two fundamental assumptions: 1. 2. that human cognition is unitary; and that individuals can be adequately described as having a single, quantifiable intelligence.

The traditional theory of intelligence has helped create a mindset or paradigm as to what "smart" or "intelligent" is, who has potential or ability to be smart, and how we can or cannot become smart. This has clearly influenced current educational practices. It is still common educational practice to use the score from standardized intelligence tests to qualify children for various special programs. It is assumed these tests measure intelligence accurately and meaningfully. Current research indicates that the only limit to one's intelligence is what the individual believes is possible and how his or her behaviors either foster or limit his or her intelligence. Research also indicates that intelligence is not a static structure that can be measured and meaningfully quantified, but an open, dynamic system that can continue to develop throughout life. Through his work and studies, Reuven Feuerstein, an Israeli psychologist and educator, has developed a theory of the "Modifiability of Intelligence." He has linked the importance of how teachers, through facilitating learning experiences, impact the quality of learning and influence the potential intelligence of each student. Feuerstein's educational approach focuses on the quality of interaction between the teacher and the learner, which he calls Mediated Learning Experiences (MLE). He has successfully demonstrated how, through systematic and planned enrichment, intelligence can be

modified, expanded, and developed. (Feuerstein, 1988). Marian Diamond, a neuropsychologist at the University of California-Berkeley, has discovered that the human brain can change and improve with use. Diamond's theory of the "Plasticity of the Brain" implies that environmental conditions, interpersonal stimulation, and the way in which individuals think and behave actually change the body, brain, and intelligence. (Diamond, 1988). The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Supporting the new paradigm of intelligence, Howard Gardner of Project Zero at Harvard University has determined that intelligence is a pluralistic phenomenon, rather than a static structure with a single type of intelligence. Gardner defines intelligence as:

the ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life; the ability to generate new problems to solve; the ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within one's culture. In his cross-cultural exploration of the ways in which people are intelligent, he has identified seven distinct types of intelligences: o Verbal/Linguistic o Logical/Mathematical o Musical o Visual/Spatial o Body/Kinesthetic o Interpersonal o Intrapersonal

According to Gardner's theory, one form of intelligence is not better than another; they are equally valuable and viable (Gardner, 1983). Yet, he discovered that different cultures are biased towards and against certain types of intelligences. Our western, North American culture, for instance, favors verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences and tends to undervalue others, such as body/kinesthetic intelligence. These biases, added to the traditional theory of intelligence, have limited our development of curricula, instructional strategies, and current methods of assessmentincluding how we measure intelligence. Recent brain/mind research and new theories of human intelligence redirect our attention in three specific areas-first,

on the environmental conditions and messages we provide children; second, on the kind of support and relationships we develop between caregivers, educators, and children; and third, on the need to match what we know about the ways kids are intelligent and learn with teaching strategies designed to maximize the full development of each individual child. A Useful Model Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory is a very useful model for developing a systematic approach to nurturing and teaching children and honoring their individual needs and strengths within a classroom setting. The theory of Multiple Intelligences includes the notion that each person is smart in all seven types of intelligence. Every person is smart to varying degrees of expertise in each of the intelligences, stronger in some ways and less developed in others. Heredity and genetics influence the way the brain is neurologically "wired" before birth and are contributing factors that determine the strongest and/or most favored types of intelligence. This is often seen in children with very strong and overt talents demonstrated at very young ages, such as Mozart, who had started to play and compose music by age five. Because research now shows that we can become more intelligent in more ways, both students and teachers can become more adept in all seven intelligences. This is possible by providing a planned cycle of experiences and opportunities which foster each and every intelligence, and by making these opportunities available to every child in our classrooms. By broadening our view of intelligence, and valuing and nurturing abilities other than mathematics and reading, we can open doors by using the strengths of children as a means of complementing their less developed areas. Characteristics of Multiple Intelligences The following descriptions can be helpful to identify basic personal characteristics, traits, behaviors, and preferences for each of the seven intelligences. Remember, we are all intelligent to varying degrees in all seven ways. Each person has a unique profile. You may be very strong in one or two intelligences, medium in a few, and perhaps weak or empty (not yet filled) in one or two. Consequently, you may have four or five intelligences that are equally developed and two that are less developed. The important thing is to identify and build on one's strengths to modify and increase the less developed

intelligences in ourselves and in children. 1) Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence"The Writer/Orator/Attorney" People with high verbal/linguistic intelligence love words. They prefer to process information through words and language versus pictures. They may prefer oral or written methods, or excel in both. Additional characteristics include the following: Sensitive to the meaning, order, and sound of words Uses varied language Avid talkers; good speakers Likes to explain, convince, and persuade through words Enjoys and excels at word games Enjoys listening to, telling, and reading stories Enjoys rhymes and poetry Has good memory recall for names and dates 2) Logical/Mathematical Intelligence"The Scientist/Philosopher" People with high logical/mathematical intelligence create order out of chaos by analyzing, grouping, and categorizing. They recognize relationships, connections, and patterns more easily than people with less logical intelligence. Additional characteristics include the following: Ability to handle long chains of reasoning Likes reasons for doing things Possesses good inductive and deductive reasoning Quick to learn equivalencies Asks "why" and "how" questions Solves problems rapidly Likes to predict, analyze, and theorize Enjoys dealing with abstraction Strong at math and problem solving skills Sequential thinker Enjoys board games and games with rules 3) Musical Intelligence"The Entertainer/Musician" People with high musical intelligence learn best through sound, rhythm, and music. These people learn better when music is playing and through musical metaphors. Additional characteristics include the following: Ability to perceive pitch, tone, and rhythmic pattern Well developed auditory sense and discrimination Ability to create, organize rhythmically, and compose music Picks up and creates melodies/rhythm easily

Remembers songs easily Ability to sing or play instruments Sensitive and drawn to sounds Possesses "schemas" for hearing music Constantly humming, tapping, and singing 4) Visual/Spatial Intelligence"The Architect/Engineer/ Sculptor" People with high visual intelligence process information best using pictures, visuals, and imagery. They have a sense of direction and an ability to think and plan in three dimensions. Additional characteristics include the following: Ability to create complex mental images Active imagination Ability to find their way mentally and physically around environment Ability to see the physical world accurately and translate it into new forms Ability to see things in relationship to others Ability to use "mind maps" Uses imagery and guided visualizations Likes visual support-video, pictures, photos, charts, posters Organizes space, objects, and areas Enjoys designing and decorating 5) Body/Kinesthetic Intelligence"The Athlete/ Dancer/Actor/Surgeon" People with high kinesthetic intelligence process information through their bodies-through muscle, sensation, and movement. Their bodies are their avenue to learning and understanding any content or subject and is also their preferred form of selfexpression. Additional characteristics include the following: A fine-tuned ability to use the body and handle objects (fine and gross motor) Ability to express emotions through bodily movement Enjoys physical movement and dance Constant movement-likes to get up and move around Commitment to comfort Uses body to accomplish a task Experiences a strong mind/body connection Expands awareness through the body Experiences a total physical response Often good at creative drama 6) Interpersonal Intelligence"The Counselor/Minister/Teacher" People with high interpersonal intelligence process information through relatedness to others. They are "people" people. It is in

relationship to and with other people that they best understand themselves and the world. Additional characteristics include the following: Ability to notice and discern subtleties among others, such as moods, temperaments, and feelings Discerns underlying intentions, behavior, and perspectives Easily makes friends and enjoys the company of others Ability to get into the perspective of another Responds to verbal and nonverbal communicationsfacial cues and body movements Recognizes and empathizes with others' feelings Ability to negotiate and handle conflict resolution Works cooperatively in a group Works well with a diverse group of people Good communication skills Loves to talk and influence 7) Intrapersonal Intelligence"The Poet/Efficiency Expert" People with high intrapersonal intelligence have a strong sense of themselves, their wants, and needs. They are self reflective and in touch with themselves. They may be the nonconformist individuals who march to their own drummer. Additional characteristics include the following: Well developed sense of self Awareness and expression of different feelings Self reflection and mindfulness Ability to think about thinking (i.e., metacognition) Transpersonal sense of self. Asks big questions"Why are we here?" and "What happens when we die?" Often is a daydreamer Often writes introspectively including prose, poetry, or journal writing Excellent self planners and good at goal setting Enjoys solitude and likes to think alone Good understanding of strengths and weaknesses Enjoys self discovery Teaching Tools and Strategies Reflect on and identify your own strengths and intelligences which are less developed. Identify the strengths and "empties" of the children, too. You may begin to notice patterns and correlations between the strengths you enjoy or are less comfortable with in the children and your own strengths and empties. Are the children's strengths the same as yours or are they most intelligent in a way you are least intelligent? We

naturally rely on and use teaching strategies that match our strongest intelligences. Our strengths, therefore, create unconscious teaching biases. When we identify our own less developed intelligences, we may notice that we are untrained in or have avoided using the teaching strategies best designed for developing that intelligence in children. Therefore, it becomes our responsibility first to identify our own strengths and weaknesses and then to stretch and continue our lifelong learning process by developing our own intelligences. Only then can we incorporate teaching strategies which support all seven intelligences and meet the needs of all children. Environmental Strategies to Support Multiple Intelligences Because circle time and whole group instruction activities dictate that we do the same thing with all or most of the children at the same time, these activities are among the least effective strategies for meeting the diverse needs and intelligences of young children. Group activities often favor a teacher's strengths while meeting the strengths of only a few of the children. The most significant modification we can make to meet diverse needs is to reduce the use of circle time and replace it by incorporating and using well-planned learning stations or centers where children can spend most of their day. Learning stations are temporary activity locations where materials are put out and later put away, usually by an adult. Learning centers are permanent locations, visually and spatially defined areas, ideally three-sided, where materials are organized by subject and available for children to select independently. Active Learning Centers for Multiple Intelligences The following suggested learning centers foster the development of each intelligence and allow children opportunities to build on and expand their strengths. Verbal/Linguistic Library or book-nook Story time Writing center Listening center Flannel board station Publishing center Logical/Mathematical Math center Science center

Take-apart center Puzzle center Recycling center Weather station Computer center (e.g., logical thinking, sequential software) Cooking center Musical Music center Instrument center Singing circle Listening center Background music Nature sounds Visual/Spatial Art center (e.g., sculpting dough, collage, painting, drawing) Manipulatives (e.g., 3-D manipulatives, visual puzzles) Block center, Media center (e.g., videos, slides, photos, charts) Computer center (e.g., visual design and layout software) Kinesthetic Gross motor center (e.g., open space for creative movement, climbing structure, mini-trampoline) Dance circle Woodworking center Manipulative center Take-apart center Imaginative-play center Playground/outdoor play Tactile-learning center (e.g., sandpaper letters, sample textures and cloth) Interpersonal Puppet theater Dramatic play center Sharing/social area Group discussion area Small group area Cooking center Intrapersonal

Lofts One-person centers & stations Life skills/self-help center Computer center (e.g., self-paced software) Conclusion Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences honors and promotes the development of all seven avenues of intelligence in young children. This approach provides a framework to identify how children learn; to build on their strongest assets; to help them become more intelligent by exposing them to a variety of ways of learning; to better individualize for their interests and needs; and to use teaching strategies that make learning more efficient, successful, and enjoyable for all children. We can foster meaningful learning experiences by using multiple teaching tools and strategies and by building positive, supportive relationships with children. Through environments that offer a variety of stimulating, hands-on materials that children individually select, and by creating learning centers that provide natural opportunities to move, be active, and fully engaged in either solo or small group experiences, we better serve and meet the needs of more children. The Conceptual Approach in Teaching Mathematics Conceptual approach It is choosing and defining content of a certain discipline to be taught through the use of big and pervasive ideas It is using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or generalizations that govern a particular subject or discipline Fact- A simple statement of truth Concept- Synthesis of facts Generalization - General statement relating two concepts Principle - Statement of fundamental processes Conceptual scheme- The main pervasive theme underlying a major field A. conceptual attainment - Is the process of defining concepts by finding those attributes that are absolutely essential to the meaning and disregarding those that are not

It also involves learning to discriminate between what is and is not an example of the concepts It helps the learners attain the meaning of concepts through the inductive process of comparing examples and non-examples until a definition is derived Step in the concept attainment method 1. select and define concepts.. 2. select the attributes 3. develop positive and negative examples 4. introduce the process to the students 5. present the examples and list the attributes 6. develop concept definition 7. give additional example 8. discuss the process with the class 9. evaluate B. Concept Formation - The important principle underlying this method is that understandings are built, not acquired It helps students think effectively, refining and extending students understanding to approach new information they encounter Steps in concept formation method 1. list as many items as possible that are associated with the subject 2. Group the items because they are alike in some ways 3. label the groups by defining the reasons for grouping 4. regroup or subsume individual items or whole group under other groups 5. synthesize the information by summarizing the data and forming generalizations 6. evaluate students progress C. Inductive Method Induction is that form of reasoning in which a general law is derived from a study of particular objects or specific processes. Students use measurements, manipulators or constructive activities and patterns etc to discover a relationship. They later formulate a law or rule about that relationship based on their observations, experiences, inferences and conclusions.

Example 1: Ask pupils to draw a number of triangles. Ask them to measure the three angles of each triangle and find their sum. They will find that the sum of the three angles of all triangles is 180o. Example 2: Ask pupils to find the sum of two odd numbers like 3+5=8, 5+7=12, 9+11=20, etc. They will find that the sum of two odd numbers is an even number.

Steps in the inductive method: 1) The first step is clear recognition of the problem. It should be clearly understood and defined by the pupils.

2) Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching for data from all possible sources like books, magazines, journals, making visits to certain places etc. 3) Under the guidance of the teacher, the pupils organize the data which they have collected from various sources. They select relevant data and discard irrelevant material. 4) By studying particular instances, the pupils frame possible solutions. 5) These solutions are discussed, argued and judged. Thus tentative solutions are eliminated and only the probable solutions remain. 6) The solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified. Merits of Inductive method 1) This method is psychological. The student feels interested in experiments, experiences and discoveries. 2) This method fosters independence and self-confidence in the pupil which proves very useful in later life. 3) In this method, children discover the solution themselves. Hence it develops and encourages initiative and creative thinking. 4) All that is learnt using inductive method is remembered easily as it is self-acquired.5) In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects of similar and different nature and try to arrive at general truth.

6) Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims of good teaching. The process of induction calls for perception, reasoning, judgment and generalization. D. Deductive Method Deduction is the method in which the law is accepted and then applied to a number of specific examples. The child does not discover the law but develops skills in applying the same, proceeds from general to particular or abstract to concrete. Steps involved in deductive method 1) Like the inductive method, the first step is the clear understanding of the problem. 2) It may involve the study of a particular thing and phenomenon. 3) Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find the one which may be applicable to find a solution. 3) Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find the one which may be applicable to find a solution. 5) Verification of the inference is done by applying it to a case. If it solves the problem then it is accepted otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one. Merits of deductive method 1) Deductive method is short and time-saving. It takes little time to solve the problem by predetermined formulae. 2) In the deductive method, the teachers work is very much simplified. He/she simply gives a rule and asks the pupils to verify it by application to several concrete examples. For example, students are told that the area of rectangle = Length x Breadth. Then a few sums are solved before the students. The students apply thes eformulae to solve these problems and they memorize it for future use. 3) This method is very useful for small children because with small children we generally use story or telling method. 4) This method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a considerable number of formulae and definitions. 5) This method is adequate and advantageous during practice and revision stage.

Problem-Solving
Jabberwocky Problem-solving is the ability to identify and solve problems by applying appropriate skills systematically. Problem-solvingis a processan ongoing activity in which we take what we know to discover what we don't know. It involves overcoming obstacles by generating hypo-theses, testing those predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions. Problem-solving involves three basic functions: 1. Seeking information 2. Generating new knowledge 3. Making decisions Problem-solvingis, and should be, a very real part of the curriculum. It presupposes that students can take on some of the responsibility for their own learning and can take personal action to solve problems, resolve conflicts, discuss alternatives, and focus on thinking as a vital element of the curriculum. It provides students with opportunities to use their newly acquired knowledge in meaningful, real-life activities and assists them in working at higher levels of thinking (seeLevels of Questions). Here is a five-stage model that most students can easily memorize and put into action and which has direct applications to many areas of the curriculum as well as everyday life: Expert Opinion Here are some techniques that will help students understand the nature of a problem and the conditions that surround it: List all related relevant facts. Make a list of all the given information. Restate the problem in their own words. List the conditions that surround a problem. Describe related known problems.

It's Elementary For younger students, illustrations are helpful in organizing data, manipulating information, and outlining the limits of a problem and its possible solution(s). Students can use drawings to help them look at a problem from many different perspectives. 1. Understand the problem.It's important that students understand the nature of a problem and its related goals. Encourage students to frame a problem in their own words. 2. Describe any barriers.Students need to be aware of any barriers or constraints that may be preventing them from achieving their goal. In short, what is creating the problem? Encouraging students to verbalize these impediments is always an important step. 3. Identify various solutions.After the nature and parameters of a problem are understood, students will need to select one or more appropriate strategies to help resolve the problem. Students need to understand that they have many strategies available to them and that no single strategy will work for all problems. Here are some problem-solving possibilities:

Create visual images.Many problem-solvers find it useful to create mind pictures of a problem and its potential solutions prior to working on the problem. Mental imaging allows the problem-solvers to map out many dimensions of a problem and see it clearly. o Guesstimate.Give students opportunities to engage in some trial-and-error approaches to problem-solving. It should be understood, however, that this is not a singular approach to problem-solving but rather an attempt to gather some preliminary data. o Create a table.A table is an orderly arrangement of data. When students have opportunities to design and create tables of information, they begin to understand that they can group and organize most data relative to a problem. o Use manipulatives.By moving objects around on a table or desk, students can develop patterns and organize elements of a problem into recognizable and visually satisfying components. o Work backward.It's frequently helpful for students to take the data presented at the end of a problem and use a series of computations to arrive at the data presented at the beginning of the problem. o Look for a pattern.Looking for patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many problems are similar and fall into predictable patterns. A pattern, by definition, is a regular, systematic repetition and may be numerical, visual, or behavioral. o Create a systematic list.Recording information in list form is a process used quite frequently to map out a plan of attack for defining and solving problems. Encourage students to record their ideas in lists to determine regularities, patterns, or similarities between problem elements. 4. Try out a solution.When working through a strategy or combination of strategies, it will be important for students to o Keep accurate and up-to-date records of their thoughts, proceedings, and procedures.Recording the data collected, the predictions made, and the strategies used is an important part of the problem solving process. o Try to work through a selected strategy or combination of strategies until it becomes evident that it's not working, it needs to be modified, or it is yielding inappropriate data.As students become more proficient problem-solvers, they should feel comfortable rejecting potential strategies at any time during their quest for solutions. o Monitor with great care the steps undertaken as part of a solution. Although it might be a natural tendency for students to rush through a strategy to arrive at a quick answer, encourage them to carefully assess and monitor their progress. o Feel comfortable putting a problem aside for a period of time and tackling it at a later time.For example, scientists rarely come up with a solution the first time they approach a problem. Students should also feel comfortable letting a problem rest for a while and returning to it later. 5. Evaluate the results.It's vitally important that students have multiple opportunities to assess their own problem-solving skills and the solutions they generate from using those skills. Frequently, students are overly dependent upon teachers to evaluate their performance in the classroom. The process of self-assessment is not easy, however. It involves risk-taking, self-assurance, and a certain level of independence. But it can be effectively promoted by asking students questions such as How do you feel about your progress so far? Are you satisfied with the results you obtained? and Why do you believe this is an appropriate response to the problem? o