Lecture notes on the Muscular System

Overview
The body contains 3 types of muscle tissue. The differences in these types of muscle
are due to their microscopic structure, their location in the body and their function and
how their functions are controlled: either voluntary or involuntary (autonomic).
A) Skeletal muscles-attach to the skeleton are are responsible for voluntary
body movements. The fibers are multi-nucleated and transversely striated and
are grouped in parallel bundles called fasiculi. The skeletal muscles are the
only voluntary muscles in the body.
B) Smooth muscles- occur mainly in blood vessels and tubular organs of the GI
tract, reproductive, urinary and respiratory systems. These muscles are under
autonomic control- they are involuntary. The muscle fibers are unstriated and
contain a single nucleus.
C) Cardiac muscle- is found only in the wall of the heart and has the unique
property of auto-rythmicity. It’s contractions are involuntary and have an intrinsic
rhythm . No external stimuli is needed to make it contract. It has intercalated
discs that help hold adjacent cells together and transmit the force of contraction
from cell to cell. It is also striated.
Skeletal Muscle System
When referring to the muscular system, we are referring to skeletal muscle only.
The body has more than 600 skeletal muscles. Technically speaking , each one of these
muscles is an organ- it is composed of muscle tissue, nerve and connective tissue
1)Functions of the muscular system
A)Movement: The primary function of skeletal muscle in the body is movement.
Even the smallest areas such as the eyeball and the ear have associated mus-
cles responsible for their movements. The contraction of skeletal muscle is also
important in functions such as breathing and movement of bodily fluids. The
stimulation of individual muscle fibers maintains a state of muscle contraction
known as tonus. This is important in maintaining the movement of blood
and lymph through out the body. When muscle is cut off from nerve supply, a
condition that occurs when spinal nerves are severed, the muscles lose tonus
and become flaccid and eventually atrophy (shrink). The involuntary contraction
of smooth muscle is also essential for movement of fluids and material through
the body. Likewise the involuntary pumping of the cardiac muscle keeps blood
flowing through the body.

B) Body heat production: The body maintains a fairly constant temperature.

Physiologically this is one of the principles of homeostasis - the body’s ability
to regulate its functions. Muscle metabolism produces heat as an end product.
Because muscles constitute about 40-45% of the body’s weight and are in a
constant state of fiber activity, they are the primary source of body heat. The rate
of heat production rises with increased muscle activity. This also explains why
emaciated and elderly people, who have reduced muscle mass have difficulty
staying warm.
C) Posture and Support of body: the skeletal system provides a framework for
body support but the muscles do all the heavy lifting. Skeletal muscles maintain
posture, stabilize the joints and support the viscera. Postural muscles of the
head, neck and trunk are working even when you think you are relaxed. The
head, in particular is constantly being held at the atlanto-occipital joint up by the
muscles of the neck. When you start to get drowsy, these muscles will relax and
your head nods forward.
2) Properties of Muscle
A) Irritability (Electrical Excitability): muscle responds to electrical stimulation
from nerve impulses.
B) Contractility: muscle responds to stimuli by contracting lengthwise, or short-
ening.
C) Extensibility: once stimulus has subsided and the muscle fiber is relaxed it
is capable of being stretched beyond its resting length by the contraction of an
opposing muscle. Muscle can be stretched up to 30% of it’s resting length.
The fibers are then prepared for another contraction.
D) Elasticity: Muscle fibers, after being stretched, have a tendency to recoil to
their original resting length.
3) Structure of Skeletal Muscle
3A) Muscle attachments:
Tendons: are dense connective tissue that attaches the muscle to bone.
When a muscle contracts, it shortens and puts tension on the tendon and
the bone.The muscle tension causes movement of the bone at a synovial
joint.
Origin: The less moveable attachment of the muscle is called the origin.
At the girdles and appendages the most proximal muscle attachment is
the origin.
Insertion: Movement of the bone at the synovial joint causes one of the
attached bones to move more than the other. The more moveable bony
attachment of the muscle is called the insertion. In muscles associated
with girdles and appendages the more distal attachment is the insertion.
Belly: the fleshy thick part of the muscle. Also called the gaster.
Aponeuroses: a flattened sheet like tendon
Retinaculum: a strong band of connective tissue that covers entire
groups of tendons and keeps the tendons from bowing during muscle
contraction. They are attached to articulating bones and are found at the
wrist and the ankle.
3B) Associated connective tissue
Endomysium the outer covering of individual muscle fibers. It binds indi-
vidual fibers together and supports capillaries and nerve endings serving
the muscle.
Perimysium-another sheath covering that binds groups of muscle fibers
together into bundles called fasciculi. The perimysium supports the
nerves and blood vessels that serve the surrounding fasciculi.
Epimysium- The entire muscle is covered by a sheath called the
Epimysium, which in turn is part of a tendon
Fascia- a fibrous connective tissue that covers the muscle and attaches
to the skin. Superficial fascia secures skin to the underlying structures. In
areas such as the abdomen, buttocks the fascia is thick and is laced with
adipose tissue. In areas such as the back of the hand, around the face
and the elbows, ankles and wrists, the superficial fascia is very thin.
Deep fascia is an extension of the superficial fascia to deeper surfaces. It
lacks adipose tissue and blends with the epimysium. It is composed of
dense connective tissue. Deep fascia surrounds adjacent muscle, com-
partmentalizing and binding them into functional groups. Subserous fas-
cia extends between deep fascia and serous membranes. It is composed
of loose connective tissue.
4) Muscle Groups based on their actions
A) Synergistic: Muscle groups that contract together to accomplish a particular
movement. Most large movements of the body require several synergistic mus-
cles to accomplish the task. Muscles that are primarily responsible for a move-
ment are called prime movers. Muscles that aid and allow prime movers to act
efficiently by stabilizing the joint to prevent unwanted movements. Synergists
that stabilize a joint are known as fixators.
B) Antagonistic: muscles that have opposing actions and are located on oppo-
site sides of a joint. An example would be the biceps brachii together with the
brachialis which flex the elbow. The antagonist is the triceps muscle which ex-
tends the elbow when contracted. Antagonists are needed because the fibers in
a contracted muscle are shortened and need to be elongated (stretched) before
they can cause movement via contraction again.
5) Muscle types by fiber arrangement
Parallel (Longitudinal): strap-like long excursion, contracts over a long distance. good
endurance, not especially strong. Examples: sartorius. rectus abdominus
Convergent (Radiate): Fan shaped, force of contraction focused on a single point of
attachment. Stronger than parallel. Examples: pectoralis muscles.
Sphincteral (Circular): fibers concentrically arranged around an orfice. Act as a sphinc-
ter (constrictor) when contracted. Examples: orbicularis oris, orbicularis oculi
Pennate (feather): in this type one or more tendons run through the body of the mus-
cle. Because the muscle fibers pull at an angle the tendons don’t move as far as parallel
types do. Pennate muscles contain more fibers than parallel types and are capable of
generating more tension (are stronger).
Unipennate: has one extended tendon. All the muscle fibers are found on the
same side of the tendon. Example: gluteus maximus
Bipennate: has 2 tendons.
Multipennate: has more than 2 tendons that branch within the muscle. Example:
deltoid,
6)Blood and Nerve supply to the Muscle
Muscles have a high rate of metabolical activity and require an extensive blood supply
to receive nutrients and eliminate wastes. Skeletal muscle cannot contract without
stimulation by a nerve impulse. The muscle requires extensive innervation to ensure
the connection of each muscle fiber with a nerve cell.
There are 2 neural pathways for each muscle fiber:
Motor ( efferent) neurons: a nerve cell that conducts impulses to the muscle
fiber, stimulating it to contract.
Sensory (afferent) neurons: Nerve cells that conducts impulses away from
the muscle to the CNS, which responds to the activity of the muscle fiber. Mus-
cle fibers will atrophy if not periodically stimulated to contract.
7) Structure of a Skeletal Muscle fiber
Sarcolemma- Cell membrane of the muscle fiber
Sacoplasmic reticulum- a network of membranous channels that extends
through the cytoplasm of the cell
Sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm of the fiber
T tubules (transverse tubules)-a system of tubules that run perpendicular to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Myofibrils- thread like structures embedded in the muscle fiber
Myofilaments-smaller protein filaments that make up the myofibril.
Actin-Thin filaments are made up of this protein
Myosin- Thick filaments are made up of this protein
8) How muscles contract:
Sliding Filament Model: As the myofilaments slide the Z lines are brought closer to-
gether. The A bands remain the same during contraction, but the H and I bands narrow
progressively and eventually may be obliterated.
The Neuromuscular junction: A nerve serving a muscle fiber has both motor
and sensory neurons. Each motor neuron has an axon that extends from the
CNS to a group of muscle fibers.Close to these skeletal muscle fibers the axon
divides into branches called axon terminals. The axon terminals contact the sar-
colemma of the muscle fiber by means of motor end plates. The area consisting
of a motor end plate and the cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called the Neu-
romuscular junction. Acetylocholine (ACH) is a neurotransmitter stored in the
synaptic vesicles at the axon terminals. A nerve impulse reaching the axon ter-
minal causes the release of ACH into the neuromuscular cleft. When this hap-
pens it causes a muscle contraction.
The Motor unit: a motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and the aggrega-
tion of muscle fibers innervated by the motor neuron. when a nerve impulse trav-
els through a motor unit all of the fibers served by it contract simultaneously to
their maximum. Most muscles have an innervation ratio of 1 motor neuron per
100-150 muscle fibers. Muscles capable of precise movements (ex. eye mus-
cles) have a ratio of 1:10. Very large muscles such as in the thigh may have ra-
tios of 1:500.
Motor units vary in size. Neurons that innervate smaller numbers of fibers have
smaller cell bodies and axon diameters than the neurons with large ratios. The
smaller motor units are the ones that are used most often. The large motor units
are activated only when large forceful contractions are needed. The magnitude of
the task determines the number of motor units activated.
9) Types of muscle contractions
Isotonic- Contraction leads to shortening of the muscle. This type of contraction
involves movement against resistance and is a dynamic contraction. Lifting free
weights is primarily isotonic. Movements such as bench press, squats, dead lift
and biceps curls are isotonic.
Isometric- is a static contraction in which the muscle remains the same length.
There is no shortening of the muscle and in this type of contraction it is usually
performed against a resistance that can’t be moved. Example: In yoga, the crow
pose, downward dog or plank pose
10) Types of joint movements:
Flexion: is the bending at the joint. It decreases the joint angle on a antero-
posterior plane. Muscles that pass in front of a joint flex the bone to which they
are attached
Extension: the opposite of flexion. It is straightening of the joint to a 180º angle.
The joint angle is increased to 180º. Extension returns a body part to the ana-
tomical position. Muscles that pass behind a joint extend the bone to which they
are attached.
Hyperextension: occurs when a part of the body is extended beyond the ana-
tomical position so that the joint angle is greater than 180º.
Abduction: movement of a body part away from the axis of the body, away from
the midsagittal plane in a lateral direction.
Adduction: The opposite of abduction. it moves a body part towards the main
axis of the body.
Rotation: is a circular motion that occurs in joints that have a rounded or oval
articular surface that corresponds to a depression in another bone. It is a move-
mentof a bosy part around its own axis. Example: turning of the head or twist-
ing at the waist.
11) How muscles are named
The following are criteria by which muscles may be named:
Shape: rhomboideus, triceps, biceps
Location: pectoralis, brachia, intercostal
Attachment: zygomaticus, temporalis
Size: maximus, longus, brevis, minimus
Orientation of fibers: rectus (straight), transverse, oblique
Relative position: lateral, medial, internal, external
Function: adductor, flexor, extensor, pronator, levator
12 Muscle FAQ
1) What causes muscle soreness?
There are 2 types of muscle soreness, Acute and delayed onset soreness. Acute sore-
ness which occurs during exertion is due to fatigue and lactic acid buildup after maxi-
mal efforts. There is also damage to the contractile proteins within the muscle after
working out. This damage is on a microscopic level but it results in an inflammatory re-
sponse (swelling and pain). If you allow sufficient recovery time between training, the
muscles respond to this micro-damage by repair and growth. Excessive soreness for
several days may be due to micro tears to tendons and ligaments as well as the muscle
fiber.
2) Atrophy & Hypertrophy?
Atrophy is the wasting and shrinkage of muscle. It can happen as a result of extreme
starvation and muscle wasting diseases . It also happens as a result of disuse. After
about the age of 30, if the muscles are not exercised, you will lose muscle at the rate of
about a half a pound a year. In 20 years you will have lost 10 lbs of muscle (and proba-
bly gained 10 lbs of fat as well).
When muscle is worked sufficiently on a regular basis this loss can be stemmed and
even turned around to gain muscle. If muscles are stressed with progressive resistance,
growth occurs. The muscle fibers become larger and more vascular and the muscle
grows. This is hypertrophy.
3) What does training do?
Progressive resistance training increases blood flow to the muscles, enlarges muscle
fibers, recruits more motor units, improves motor coordination and increases muscle
strength, speed and endurance.
4)Drugs?
Anabolic steroids are hormones produced by the adrenal glands, testes and ovaries.
The term anabolic means promoting growth, specifically muscle growth. anabolic ster-
oids increase muscle growth, strength and speed. Unfortunately, they also have serious
side effects. This includes testicular atrophy and the growth of breasts (in men), hyper-
tension, liver damage and growth of facial hair and clitoral enlargement in women
among other things.
A newer class of muscle growth products has appeared in the last few years. Creatine
phosphate is a compound that occurs in the muscle and is fuel for muscle metabolism.
Consuming it increases the capacity for the muscle to contract. While not useful for en-
durance athletes such as runners, it is useful for weight lifters. By increasing the amount
of creatine in muscle tissue it allows lifters to increase the amount of work the muscle
can do before fatigue, (More weight, more reps=increased work + muscle strength/
growth)
CHAPTER 9 – Muscles and Muscle Tissue

Muscle – cells that are highly specialized to contract, or shorten forcefully

• Universal characteristics of muscle

o Responsiveness (Excitability) – when stimulated, muscle cells respond with
electrical changes across the plasma membrane
o Conductivity – electrical changes are spread throughout the entire muscle fiber
and initiates the processes leading to muscle contraction
o Contractility – when stimulated, muscle fibers shorten substantially and create
movement
o Extensibility – muscles cells are capable of stretching after contracting
o Elasticity – muscle cells return to the original length when tension is released
• Types of muscle tissue
o Skeletal muscle
 General characteristics
• Striated, multinucleate, and voluntary
• Found in the skeletal muscles
o Cardiac muscle
 General characteristics
• Striated, usually uninucleate, and involuntary
• Found only in the heart
o Smooth muscle
 General characteristics
• Nonstriated, uninucleate, and involuntary
• Found in the walls of visceral organs

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy and Physiology

• Skeletal muscle structure

o Muscle fiber
 Organelles
• Nuclei – flattened; several per cell
• Plasma membrane (sarcolemma)
o Transverse (T) tubules
• Cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
o Myofibrils
o Mitochondria
o Glycogen – stored energy for muscle use during exercise
o Myoglobin – binds oxygen
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
– stores calcium
 Terminal cisternae
 • Triad region – two terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum surrounding a T tubule
o Myofilaments
 Thick filaments – myosin
• Looks like a golf club
• Filamentous tail and a double globular head
 Thin filaments – actin
• Looks like a beaded necklace
• Two intertwined strands
• Each actin has an active site that can bind to a myosin molecule
o Actin and myosin binding is also referred to as forming
cross bridges.
 Elastic filaments – made of titin
• Run through the cores of myosin filaments
• Connects the myosin filaments to the Z disc
• Keeps myosin and actin filaments aligned with each other
• Resists overstretching of a muscle
• Helps the cell recoil to resting length after it is stretched
o Contractile proteins vs. regulatory proteins
 Contractile proteins – actin and myosin
 Regulatory proteins – troponin and tropomyosin
• Together, these proteins permit or prevent the binding of actin
and myosin filaments
o Striations
 A bands (darker striations) – both thick and thin filaments present
 H bands – (located in the middle of the A band) – only thick filaments
present
• M line bisects each H band
 I bands (lighter striations) – only thin filaments present
• Z discs bisect each I band
 Sarcomere – each segment of a myofibril from one Z disc to the next
• Relationship between skeletal muscles and nervous system interaction
o Motor neurons – innervate skeletal muscle
 Cell bodies are in the brain or spinal cord
 Axons lead to the somatic motor fibers
• Can branch and serve as many as 200 muscle fibers
o The motor unit – one motor neuron and the muscle fibers associated with it
 Fine control – smaller motor units
• Have smaller neurons that are easier to stimulate
 Strength – larger motor units
• Have larger neurons that are harder to stimulate
o The neuromuscular junction – the place where a nerve cell (motor neuron)
connects to muscle fiber
 Synaptic cleft – the space between an axonal ending and a muscle fiber
 Motor end plate – the place where the sarcolemma is specialized to
receive neural signals
• At the motor end plate, the sarcolemma is extensively folded
• Many nuclei and mitochondria are in this region
  Acetylcholine (ACh) – the neurotransmitter released by the motor neuron
into the synaptic cleft
• Acetylcholine is stored in synaptic vesicles within the axon
terminal
• The muscle fiber contains acetylcholine receptors
• Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
is present in the synaptic cleft and the sarcolemma of the muscle
fiber
o Allows the muscle to relax
o Electrophysiology – the study of the electrical activity of cells
 Muscle fibers and neurons are electrically excitable cells.
• When stimulated, their plasma membranes exhibit voltage
changes
 In a resting cell, there are more anions on the inside of the plasma
membrane than on the outside.
 In a resting cell, there are more Na+ ions on the outside of the cell and
more K+ on the inside of the cell
 The resting membrane potential of a muscle cell is approximately
-90mV
 When stimulated, a nerve or muscle cell’s membrane potential changes.
The inside of the cell becomes more positive and then negative again
(experiences an action potential).
• Action potentials can be propagated throughout the entire length
of the plasma membrane of the cell.
• Behavior of skeletal muscle fibers
o Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction – the filaments in a sarcomere slide over
each other, shortening the sarcomere, which shortens the myofibril, which
shortens the muscle cell, and therefore shortens the muscle.
o Steps involved in an action potential
 Acetylcholine is released from the motor neurons in response to a nerve
impulse
 The motor end plates are activated by binding to and opening sodium
gates (allows Na+ to flow into the cell) à generates an action potential
 Depolarization – makes the interior of the cell less negative (due to the
influx of Na+)
 Depolarization of the adjacent sarcolemma will open sodium gates in
adjacent areas, causing the action potential to spread down the entire
length of the cell.
 Repolarization – restoration of the cell membrane’s resting potential (due
to the flow of K+ ions out of the cell)
 Refractory period – period of time after an action potential
o Steps in excitation-coupling
 Action potential generated (as described above).
 Transverse tubules allow the action potential to spread deep into the
muscle fiber.
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum responds to the action potential by releasing
calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
 Calcium ions bind to troponin, which causes the tropomyosin to shift out
of the way and allows the myosin filament to bind with the actin
filament.
  Cross-bridges form when the head of the myosin binds to the actin
filament
• “Powerstroke” – a conformational change which occurs in the
myosin filaments.
o Causes the head of the myosin filament to carry the actin
filament towards the center of the sarcomere
o This generates the force of the contraction.
 ATP detaches the myosin head and “recocks” it for another powerstroke.
 When its work is done, nerve stimulation ceases
 Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine (prevents stimulation of
the muscle fiber)
 Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Troponin-tropomyosin complex returns to its original position and the
myofilaments are separated
o The length-tension relationship and muscle tone – the greater the stretch of the
muscle fiber, the greater the force of contraction.
• Energy sources
o ATP
o Creatine phosphate
o Aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration
• Oxygen usage during contraction
o Hemoglobin – the pigment that holds oxygen in the red blood cells
o Myoglobin – the pigment that holds oxygen in the muscles
• Oxygen debt – the amount of oxygen needed to convert the accumulated lactic acid into
glucose and restore supplies of ATP and creatine phosphate
o This occurs when muscles run out of oxygen and begin using anaerobic
respiration (ex. During strenuous exercise)
• Types of muscles based on their speed and length of contraction
o Slow twitch muscle = red muscle
 Resists fatigue, does not generate much power
o Fast twitch muscle = white muscle
 Fatigues easily, allows for powerful movement
• Muscle responses
o Threshold stimulus – the minimum stimulus needed to elicit a response
o All-or-none response – if a muscle fiber contract, it contracts all the way
o Recruitment of motor units – the greater the force needed, the greater the number
of motor units stimulated
o Staircase effect = Treppe
 When subjected to a series of stimuli, inactive muscle will undergo a
series of contractions of increasing strength (due to the incomplete
removal of calcium as well as heat production)
o Sustained contractions = tetanus
 A rapid series of stimuli which may produce a summation of twitches
and a sustained contraction
• The contraction may increase in strength as more motor units are
recruited
• Muscle tone – sustained contractions of some muscle fibers even
though the muscle is at rest
 o Due to spinal reflexes
o Stabilizes joints and maintains posture
o Isometric contractions – muscles don’t shorten, but the tension increases
o Isotonic – muscle tension remains the same, but the muscle shortens

Smooth muscle

• Structure and physiology

o Sarcoplasm is not well-developed
o Lacks transverse tubules and sarcomeres
o Contains both actin and myosin filaments (myosin has more heads)
o Calmodulin – binds calcium ions; no troponin or tropomyosin present
o Involuntary – responds to hormonal and neural signals (ex. Acetylcholine and
norepinephrine; oxytocin)
• Types of smooth muscle
o Multiunit smooth muscle – fibers are independent of each other, so it has many
nerve connections
 Found in the large arteries and airways, arrector pili muscles, and the
irises of the eye (in places where muscle is used to control movements,
not push things through)
o Single unit smooth muscle (visceral smooth muscle)
 Muscle fibers are arranged in sheets; cells are joined by tight junctions
 Muscle fibers transmit impulses from cell to cell, so it contracts as a unit
 Found in the organs of the digestive and reproductive systems that
require peristalsis to move its contents
• Peristalsis – alternating contractions and relaxations of visceral
smooth muscle

The Muscular System

• Functions of Muscles
o Movement
o Stability
o Communication
o Control of body openings and passages
o Heat production
• How Muscles are Named
o Location of the muscle
o Shape of the muscle
o Relative size of the muscle
o Direction of the muscle fibers
o Number of origins
o Location of the attachments
o Action – the movement produced by a muscle
• Classification of Muscles
 o Based on action
 Prime mover (agonist) – the muscle that produces most of its force
during a particular joint action.
 Synergist – a muscle that aids the prime mover; usually stabilizes a joint
and restricts movement.
 Antagonist – a muscle that opposes the prime mover.
 Fixator – a muscle that prevents a bone from moving.
• Structure of Muscles
o Basic anatomy of skeletal muscle
 Each muscle has an point of origin and a point of insertion
• Origin (head) – fixed or immovable point of attachment
• Insertion – attachment on the movable bone
 Some muscles have a thicker middle region, called the belly.
 NOTE: Muscles can only pull; they can never push!
o Muscle fibers
 Organization
• Muscle fibers are grouped into bundles called fascicles.
o Orientation of fascicles.
 Fusiform muscles – thick in the middle and
tapered at each end
 Parallel muscles – long, straplike muscles of
uniform width and parallel fascicles
 Convergent muscles – fan-shaped
 Pennate muscles – feather-shaped
 Circular muscles (sphincters) – form rings
around body openings
o Connective tissues associated with muscles
 Connective tissue sheaths
• Endomysium – surrounds individual muscle fibers
• Perimysium – surrounds individual fascicles
• Epimysium – surrounds the entire muscle
 Connective tissue fasciae
• Deep fasciae – connective tissue sheets between adjacent
muscles
• Superficial fasciae – connective tissue sheets between the
muscles and skin
 Muscle attachment to bone
• Direct (fleshy) attachment – collagen fibers of the epimysium are
continuous with the periosteum of bones
• Indirect attachment – collage fibers of the epimysium continue
as a tendon that merges into the periosteum of nearby bone
• Selected Muscle Groups
o Muscles of the Head and Neck
 Frontalis
 Corrugator supercilii
 Orbicularis oculi
 Zygomaticus
 Risorius
 Orbicularis oris
 Mentalis
  Buccinator
 Platysma
 Sternocleidomastoid
 Scalenes
o Muscles of Chewing and Swallowing
 Masseter
 Temporalis
 Buccinator
o Muscles of the Chest
 Pectoralis minor
 Pectoralis major
 Serratus anterior
o Muscles of Respiration
 Diaphragm
o Muscles of the Abdomen
 Rectus abdominis
 External oblique
 Internal oblique
 Transverse abdominis
o Muscles of the Back
 Erector spinae
 Trapezius
 Latissimus dorsi
o Muscles Acting on the Shoulder and Upper Limb
 Deltoid
 Triceps brachii
 Aconeus
 Biceps brachii
 Brachialis
 Brachioradialis
 Extensor pollicis brevis
o Muscles Acting on the Hip and Lower Limb
 Adductors
 Gracilis
 Quadriceps femoris
 Gluteus maximus
 Hamstrings
 Gastrocnemius
 Soleus
 Plantaris
• Innervation of Muscles
o Muscles of the head and neck are supplied by cranial nerves
o All other muscles are supplied by spinal nerves
• Clinical Disorders or Diseases of the Muscular System
o Hernia – any condition in which the viscera protrude through a weak point in the
muscular wall of the abdominopelvic cavity.
o Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – a condition in which prolonged, repetitive motions of
the wrist and fingers can cause tissues in the carpal tunnel to become inflamed,
swollen, or fibrotic.
 o Pulled hamstring – strained hamstring muscles or a partial tear in the tendinous
origin.
o Rotator cuff injury – a tear in the tendon of any of the rotator cuff muscles.
o Tennis elbow – inflammation at the origin of the extensor carpi muscles on the
lateral epicondyle of the humerus.

Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Functions of Bones

• Support
• Protection
• Movement
• Mineral storage
• Blood cell formation

Classification of Bones

• By function
o Axial skeleton
 Includes:
• The skull
• Vertebral column
• Rib cage
 General Function:
• Protecting, supporting, or carrying other body parts
o Appendicular skeleton
 Includes:
• Upper and lower limbs
• Shoulder bones and hip bones
 General Function:
• Locomotion and manipulation of the environment
• By shape
o Long bones (Ex., Humerus)
 Longer than they are wide
 Has a shaft plus two ends
o Short bones (Ex., Trapezoid)
 Cube-shaped
o Sesamoid bones (Ex., Patella)
 A special type of short bone that form in a tendon
o Flat bones (Ex., Sternum)
 Thin, flattened bones with curves
o Irregular bones (Ex., Vertebra)

Gross Anatomy of Bone

• Bone Textures
 o Compact Bone – dense, smooth, outer layer of bone
o Spongy Bone (Aka, cancellous bone) – internal layer consisting of honeycomb
structures called trabeculae
 Trabeculae are filled with red or yellow bone marrow
• Bone Markings (Table 6.1)
o Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment
 Tuberosity
 Crest
 Trochanter
 Line
 Tubercle
 Epicondyle
 Spine
 Process
o Projections that help to form joints
 Head
 Facet
 Condyle
 Ramus
o Depression and opening allowing blood vessels and nerves to pass
 Meatus
 Sinus
 Fossa
 Groove
 Fissure
 Foramen
• Structure of a Long Bone
o Diaphysis (shaft)
 Forms the long axis of the bone
 Composed of a thick collar of compact bone that surrounds a medullary
cavity
• Medullary cavity (Aka, marrow cavity) contains fat – called the
yellow bone marrow cavity
o Epiphyses (bone ends)
 Exterior – compact bone
 Interior – spongy bone
 Joint surface covered with hyaline cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage cushions the opposing bone ends and absorbs
stress
 Epiphyseal line – remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Epiphyseal plate – disc of hyaline cartilage that grows to
lengthen bone
o Membranes
 Periosteum – double layer
• Highly vascularized and innervated
• Fibrous layer – dense irregular connective tissue
• Osteogenic layer
o Osteoblasts
o Osteoclasts
• Secured to the underlying bone by Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
 o Collagen fibers
• Provides anchoring points for tendons and ligaments
 Endosteum –covers the trabeculae of spongy bone and lines the canals
that pass through the compact bone
• Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones
o Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside; endosteum-
covered spongy bone within
o Not cylindrical – no shaft or epiphyses
o Contain bone marrow between their trabeculae; no marrow cavity present
o In flat bones, the spongy bone is called the diploe

Hematopoietic Tissue in Bones – Red bone marrow

• In long bones, the red marrow – trabecular cavities of spongy bone

• Flat bones, the red marrow – diploe
• In infants, the medullary cavity of the diaphysis and all areas of spongy bone contain red
marrow
• In adults, blood cell formation limited to the head of the femur and humerus, the diploe of
the sternum and hip bones
• Yellow marrow able to revert to hematopoietic tissue in very anemic individuals

Microscopic Anatomy of Bones

• Compact bone
o Osteon – the structural unit of compact bone (Aka, the Haversian system)
 Elongated cylinder, parallel to the long axis of bone
 Weight-bearing pillars
 Components of the osteon
• Lamella – concentric layers of bone
o Collagen fibers of adjacent lamella run in opposite
directions to resist torsion stress
o Bone salts align with collagen fibers
o Types of lamellae in compact bone
 Interstitial lamellae – incomplete lamellae lying
between intact osteons
 Circumferential lamellae – extend around the
entire circumference of the diaphysis
• Resist the twisting of long bone
• Haversian (central) – contains small blood vessels and nerve
fibers
• Volkmann’s (perforating) – connect the blood and nerve supply
to
• Osteocytes – mature bone cells
 • Lacunae – inhabited by osteocytes; lacunae are at the junctions
of the lamellae
• Canaliculi – hair-like canals that connect the lacunae to each
other and to the central canal
• Spongy bone – irregular arrangement of trabeculae which helps the bone resist stress
o Does not contain osteons

Chemical Composition of Bone

• Organic components
o Cells (osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes)
o Osteoid (ground substance and collagen fibers)
o Helps bone resist stretching and twisting
• Inorganic components
o Hydroxyapatites – mostly calcium phosphates
o Give bone its hardness and resistance to compression forces

Bone Development

• Formation of the Bony Skeleton

o Ossification
 Types of ossification
• Intramembranous ossification – bone developing from a fibrous
membrane
o All flat bones, cranial bones, and the clavicles are
formed by intramembranous ossification
• Endochondral ossification – bone development by replacing
hyaline cartilage
o All skeletal bones below the base of the skull (except the
clavicles) are formed by endochondral ossification
• Postnatal Bone Growth
o Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth
 In infants and children
• Growth hormone – most important stimulus of epiphyseal plate
activity
• Thyroid hormone – ensures that the skeleton grows
proportionally
 At puberty
• Testosterones and estrogens – induce growth spurts,
masculinzation and feminization of the skeleton, and close the
epiphyseal plates
o Growth in Length of Long Bones
 Hyaline cartilage near the diaphysis grow, divide, and become calcified –
this causes the lengthening of long bones
o Growth in Width (thickness)
 Growing bones widen as they lengthen
Bone Homeostasis

• Bone Remodeling – bone deposition and removal

o Bone Deposit
• Occurs whenever bone is injured or add bone strength is needed
• Osteoblasts are cells that build bone matrix
o Bone Resorption
• Osteoclasts break down bone matrix
• Regulation of Remodeling
o Hormonal Mechanisms – maintain calcium ion homeostasis in the blood
• 99% of the body’s calcium is present as bone minerals
• Parathyroid hormone
• Produced by the parathyroid gland
• Increased parathyroid hormone stimulates:
o Osteoclasts to resorb bone
o Release of calcium into the blood
• Calcitonin
• Produced by the thyroid gland
• Increased calcitonin stimulates:
o Osteoblasts to build bone matrix
o Decrease blood calcium levels
o Response to Mechanical and Gravitational Stress
• Keeps the bones strong where stressors are acting
• Wolff’s law
• Bones grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on
it
• Bone Repair
o Fractures (breaks)
• Nondisplaced fractures – bone ends retain their normal position
• Displaced fractures – bone ends are out of normal alignment
• Complete fractures – bone is broken through
• Incomplete fractures – bone is not broken through
• Linear fractures – break is parallel to the long axis
• Transverse fractures – break is perpendicular to the long axis
• Open fractures (compound) – bone ends penetrate the skin
• Closed fractures (simple) – bone ends do not penetrate the skin
o Treatment of fractures – reduction (the realignment of the broken bone ends)
• Closed reduction – manual realignment of the bone ends
• Open reduction – surgical realignment of the bone ends
o Stages of simple fracture repair
• Hematoma formation
• Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
• Bony callus formation
• Bone remodeling

Clinical Disorders and Diseases of Bone

 • Osteomalacia – inadequate mineralization of bones
o Osteoid is produced, but mineral salts are not deposited
o Results in soft bones
o Usually due to insufficient calcium intake or a Vitamin D deficiency
• Rickets – seen in children; epiphyseal plates cannot be calcified
o Usually due to insufficient calcium intake or a Vitamin D deficiency
• Osteoporosis – Bone resorption outpaces bone deposit
o Results in fragile, porous bones
o The spongy bone of the vertebrae and the femur are the most vulnerable
o Usually occurs in aged individuals, where testosterone and estrogen levels have
declined
o Other contributing factors include a petite form, insufficient calcium and protein
intake, abnormal Vitamin D receptors, smoking, hormone imbalances, and
immobility
o Treatment options include calcium and Vitamin D supplements, weight-bearing
exercise, and hormone replacement therapy, and statins
o Prevention or delay: sufficient calcium intake, weight-bearing exercise,
fluorinated water
• Padget’s Disease – excessive bone deposit and resorption
o The spine, femur, pelvis, and skull are most affected
o Treatment options include calcitonin and etidronate

Skeletal Cartilages

• Basic Structure of Skeletal Cartilage

o Consists mostly of water; not vascularized or innervated
o Surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue
• Types of Skeletal Cartilage
o Hyaline Cartilage (the articular cartilages, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages,
and nasal cartilages)
o Elastic Cartilage (external ears and epiglottis)
o Fibrocartilage (Menisci and intervertebral discs)
• Growth of Cartilage
o Appositional growth – growth from the outside
o Interstitial growth – growth from the inside

The Human Skeleton

• Divided into two parts

o The Axial Skeleton
 Includes:
• The Skull – Formed by cranial and facial bones
o Eight (8) Cranial Bones
 Function of the cranial bones
• Enclose and protect the brain
 • Site of attachment for head and neck
muscles
• House special sense organs of sight,
taste, and smell
• Provide openings for air and food
passage
• Secure teeth
• Anchor the facial muscles of expression
 Include:
• Frontal Bone (1)
• Parietal Bones (2)
• Occipital Bone (1)
o Foramen magnum – where the
spinal cord connects with the
brain
• Temporal Bones (2)
o Ear canals (auditory meatus)
• Sphenoid Bone (1) – connects with all
of the cranial bones
o Sella turcica – encloses the
pituitary gland
• Ethmoid Bone (1)
o The Major Sutures of the Skull – connect the cranial
bones
 Coronal Suture – where frontal bone articulates
with the paired parietal bones
 Sagittal Suture – where the parietal bones meet
superiorly at the cranial midline
 Lambdoid Suture – where the parietal bones
meet posteriorly
 Squamous Sutures (2) – where the parietal bones
meet the temporal bones on the left and right
sides of the skull
o The Facial Bones (14)
 Include:
• Mandible
• Maxillary Bones
• Zygomatic Bones
• Nasal Bones
• Lacrimal Bones
• Palatine Bones
• Vomer Bone
• Inferior Nasal Conchae
o The Orbits
o The Nasal Cavity
o Paranasal Sinuses
• The Hyoid Bone
• The Vertebral Column
o Characteristics of the Vertebral Column
 General

Divisions and Curvatures

Ligaments

Intervertebral Discs

o General Structure of Vertebrae
o Structure of Regional Vertebrae
 Cervical Vertebrae
 Thoracic Vertebrae
 Lumbar Vertebrae
 Sacrum
 Coccyx
• The Thoracic Cage
o Sternum
o Ribs
o The Appendicular Skeleton
 The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Clavicles
• Scapulae
 The Upper Limb
• Arm
o Humerus
• Forearm
o Ulna
o Radius
• Hand
o Carpus (Wrist)
o Metacarpus (Palm)
o Phalanges (Fingers)
 The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• Male vs. Female Pelves (Table 7.4)
 The Lower Limb
• Thigh
• Leg
o Tibia
o Fibia
• Foot
o Tarsus
o Metatarsus
o Phalanges (Toes)
o Arches of the Foot

Joints

Joints (Articulations) – The sites where bones meet.

• Classification of Joints
o Classification based on structure – presence of a joint cavity and the material
binding bones together
 Fibrous joints
• Joined by fibrous tissue; no joint cavity present
• Range of motion limited by the length of the connective tissues
• Most fibrous joints are immovable
• Three types of fibrous joints
o Sutures – occur only between the bones of the skull
 Ossified sutures are called synostoses
o Syndesmoses – bones are connected by a ligament
 Ex., the joint connecting the distal ends of the
tibia and fibula
o Gomphoses – peg-in-socket joint
o Ex., the articulation of teeth
o Periodontal ligament present
 Cartilaginous joints
• Joined by cartilage; no joint cavity present
• Two types of cartilaginous joints
o Synchondroses (Ex., the epiphyseal plates)
o Symphyses (Ex., pubic symphysis and intervertebral
discs)
 Hyaline cartilage covers the joint surfaces and a
pad of fibrocartilage is found in between
• Fibrocartilage – shock absorber
 Synovial joints
• Bones are separated by a fluid-containing joint cavity
• Highly moveable joints
• Most of the joints of the body are synovial joints
• General structure of synovial joints
o Five distinguishing features
 Articular cartilage – hyaline cartilage abosorbs
compression and prevents the bone ends from
being crushed
 Joint (synovial) cavity – space containing
synovial fluid
 Articular capsule – double layered capsule that
prevents the bones from being pulled apart
 Synovial fluid – reduces friction between the
cartilages
 Reinforcing ligaments
• Closely related structures
o Bursae – Flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial
membrane and containing synovial fluid
 Usually found between bony prominences and
the softer parts (tendons, skin, muscles)
 Acts as a cushion and reduces friction
o Tendon sheaths – Elongated bursa that wrap completely
around a tendon
 o Tendon – Dense regular connective tissue that links
muscle to bone
• Factors influencing the stability of synovial joints
o Articular surfaces
o Ligaments
o Muscle tone
• Movements allowed by synovial joints
o Gliding movements
o Angular movements
 Flexion
 Extension
 Dorsiflexion of the foot
 Plantar flexion of the foot
 Abduction
 Adduction
 Circumduction
 Rotation
 Special movements
• Supination
• Pronation
• Inversion
• Eversion
• Protraction
• Retraction
• Elevation
• Depression
• Opposition
• Types of synovial joints
o Plane joints – the articular surfaces are essentially flat
 Permits gliding back and forth (Ex. Carpals and
tarsals)
o Hinge joints – Convex surface of bone fits into the
concave surface of another bone
 Permits movement in one plane only (Ex. Ulna
and humerus)
o Pivot joints – Rounded or conical end of one bone that
protrudes within a ring of fibrous tissue or fibrous tissue
and bone
 Permits rotational movement (Ex. Atlas with
axis)
o Condyloid joints – Ovoid condyle of one bone that fits
into the elliptical cavity of another bone
 Permits a variety of movement but not rotational
(Ex. Knuckles)
o Saddle joints – Occur when the bones articulate with
complementary surfaces, both having convex and
concave regions
 Permits a wide range of movement (Ex. Thumb
joint)
 o Ball-and-socket joint – Spherical or hemispherical head
of one bone that articulates with the concave socket of
another bone
 Most freely moving of a synovial joints;
universal movement is allowed (Ex. Hips and
shoulders)
• Examples of synovial joints
o Knee joint
o Shoulder joint
o Hip joint
o Elbow joint
o Classification based on function – the amount of movement allowed at the joint
 Synarthroses - immovable
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
 Diarthroses – freely movable
• Clinical Disorders or Disease of Joints
o Common joint injuries
 Sprains – ligament reinforcing a joint gets stretched or torn
 Dislocations – occurs when bone are forced out of their normal
alignment
o Arthritis – any disease condition causing inflamed, swollen, or painful joints
o Osteoarthritis – degenerative joint disease
o Rheumatoid arthritis – Autoimmune disorder that causes joint inflammation and
disfigurement
o Gouty arthritis – Build up of uric acid crystals in the joint

Anatomy of a
Musclehttp://www.octc.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/anat/Notes/API%20Notes%20J%20Muscle%20Tissue
%20Types.htm

I). Functions of Skeletal Muscle

Movement
Posture
Stabilizes joints
Heat
Protects organs

II). Terms

Excitability
Contractility
Extensibility
 Elasticity

origin & insertion direct & indirect attachments

III). Attachments

A). Insertion: moves the bone.

B). Origin: does not move or is less movable.

C). Direct attachments: the connective tissue fuses to the bone.

D). Indirect attachments: outer connective tissue forms a tendon that connects to the bone

IV). Muscle Structure

A). Muscle
B). Fascicle

C). Muscle Fiber: Cell

sarcolemma = plasma membrane

D). Myofibril: Organelle

E). Sarcomere: Contractile unit

F). Myofilaments

Actin

Myosin

V). Bands of the Muscle Fiber

A). Muscle fiber:

1). Dark A bands: The thick myosin filaments extend the length of the A band.

2). Light I bands: The thin actin filaments extend the length of the I band & part of the A band

B). Myofibril

1). A band

a). H zone: Lighter stripe

b). M line: bisects the H zone

2). I band
a). Z disc midline

Sarcomere is the area between 2 Z discs.

During muscle contractions the I band shortens

and the Z discs move closer together.

VII). Myofilament Composition

A). Thick filament (MYOSIN)

The 2 heads contain ATP binding sites & link the actin and myosin together during
contraction.

B). Thin Filaments (ACTIN)

Binds to the myosin heads.

Active sites are blocked when the muscle is relaxed.

Action Potential

I). Action Potential

A. What is an Action Potential?

An action potential is a temporary reversal of the polarity across the membrane of a muscle cell
or nerve fiber.

B. Terms

1. Resting membrane potenial

2. Depolarization

3. Threshold

4. Propagation

5. Refractory period

C). Polarity of cell membrane.

Active transport creates a concentration gradient

Na+ is actively moved from the inside of the cell (low concentration) to the outside of the cell
(high concentration)
K+ is actively moved from the outside of the cell (low concentration) to the inside of the cell
(high concentration)

There are more Na+ outside the cell than there are K+ inside of the cell. As a result there is a
negative charge across the membrane

Positive outside Negative inside

D). Action Potential Stages

Step 1). Resting State Polarized State

The outside of the membrane is positive and contains Na+ ions.

The inside of the membrane is negative and contains K+ ions
A stimulus is released: neurotransmitter or the depolarization of another part of the membrane

Step 2). Depolarization

Na+ Channels open (facilitated diffusion) and Na+ rushes across the membrane.
There is a decrease in the resting potential and the interior of the cell becomes positive

Step 3). Propagation of the Action Potential

The positive patch in the membrane changes the adjacent patch of the membrane.
Thus depolarization spreads.

Step 4). Repolarization

Immediately after the action potential passes the membrane permeability changes again.
 Na+ channels close and K+ channels open.
K+ rushes out of the cell.

This restores electrical conditions not the ionic condition

Step 5). Na+/K+ pump restores ionic conditions (active transport) by pumping Na+ out and K+
in.

Refractory Period: The cell cannot be stimulated again until repolarization is complete.

Stages of A Muscle Contraction

 http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/movies/actin_myosin_gif.html

Thick filament (MYOSIN) Thin Filament (Actin)

The 2 heads link the actin and myosin together during contraction.

The ends of a myosin filament contain the heads & there is a central bare
area
 The heads contain ATP binding sites.

Active sites are blocked when the muscle is relaxed

Initiation of Muscle Contraction

Step 1) Neuromuscular Control

The axons of the nerve cells of the spinal cord branch and attach to each
muscle fiber forming a neuromuscular junction.

i). An action potential passes down the nerve.

ii). The nerve releases Ca++ that results in the release of Acetylcholine
(ACh)

Step 2). ACh binds with the sarcolemma.

Step 3). Muscle Fiber Action Potential

i). ACh binds with receptors and opens Na+ channels

Na+ Channels open and Na+ in

There is a decrease in the resting potential

ii). Na + rushes in and the sarcolemma depolarizes.

iii). The regional depolarization spreads rapidly.

The positive patch in the membrane changes the adjacent patch of the
membrane.
Thus depolarization spreads.

iv). The K+ channels open and the region repolarizes

 Immediately after the action potential passes the membrane permeability
changes again.
Na+ channels close and K+ channels open.
K+ rushes out of the cell.
Cell reploraizes

Step 4). Ca++ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

i). Ca++ is stored in thesarcoplasmic reticulum.

ii). Depolarization releases the Ca++.

iii). The Ca++ clears the actin binding sites.

Muscle

I). Muscle Twitch

A). Muscle twitch is the response of a muscle to a single brief

threshold stimulus.

The strength of twitch depends on the number of motor units

activated
B). Phases

1). Latent Period

Muscle tension is beginning.

2). Period of Contraction

Muscle fibers shorten.

3). Period of Relaxation

Ca++ renters the sarcoplasmic reticulum

II). Graded Response

A). Force depends on muscle units

Threshold

Maximal stimulus

B). All or none response:

A muscle fiber that is exposed to threshold stimulus will contract with

a complete twitch.

C). Staircase Effect

D). Graded muscle response

i). Summation

If 2 stimuli are delivered in rapid succession the second twitch will

be greater than the first.

This only occurs if repolarization is not complete.

ii). Incomplete Tetanus

The amount of Ca++ increases in the cytoplasm results in a quivering

response

iii). Complete Tetanus

III). Isotonic & Isometric Contractions

A). Muscle tone

B). Isotonic contractions The muscle changes length and moves a

load.

Isotonic contractions the thin actin filaments are sliding across the
myosin
C). Isometric contractions:

Tension in the muscle increases but the muscle neither shortens or

lengthens.

Isometric contractions the cross bridges are forming and pulling but
the actin filament is not moving

IV) The ability to move a load (Load = resistance) is

dependent on:
A). The Force of Contraction

The degree of force is affected by:

1). The number of muscle fibers contracting.

2). The relative size of the muscle based on cross-section.

3). Series–elastic elements

4). Degree of muscle stretch.

Length tension relationship:

Too long: do not overlap & no cross bridges form

Too short: overlap too much shortening cannot occur

B). Contractile Velocity

1). Size of load

2). Recruitment of motor units.

3). Muscle fiber type:

slow fibers: fatigue resistant & aerobic endurance activities

fast fibers: fatigue fast both aerobic and anaerobic.

C). Contractile Duration

D). The points of attachment

Muscle & bone act as a lever:

 A change in the insertion point of a muscle can greatly affect
its ability to move a load.
(A load that is far from the joint takes a greater force to move)

E). Fascicle Arrangement

Types

1). Parallel: Strap-like

2). Convergent: Fan shaped

3). Circular or Sphinchteral

4). Pennate:
Step 5). Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction

During muscle contraction the thin actin filaments slide over the thick myosin
filament.

When Calcium is present the blocked active site of the actin clears.

Step A: Myosin head attaches to actin. (High energy ADP + P configuration)

Step B: Power stroke: myosin head pivots pulling the actin filament toward
the center.

Step C: The cross bridge detaches when a new ATP binds with the myosin.

Step D: Cocking of the myosin head occurs when ATP  ADP + P. Another
cross bridge can form.

The end result is a shortening of the sarcomere.

The distance between the Z discs shortens
The H zone disappears
The dark A band increases because the actin & the myosin overlap more
The light I band shortens.
Step 6). Ca++ is removed from the cytoplasm

Step 7). Tropomysin blocks the actin site

Naming Muscles

I). Classifying Muscle Function

A). Agonist or Prime Mover

major force for movement

B). Antagonists

oppose a specific movement.

C). Synergist

Aid prime movers

D). Fixators

muscles origin immobile.

Depending on the type of movement, the same muscle can

function in all three categories
II). Attachments

A). Insertion (I):

moves the bone.
B). Origin (O):
less movable.
C). Direct attachments:
the muscles outer connective tissue fuses to the bone.
D). Indirect attachments:
the muscles outer connective tissue extends and forms a tendon that connects
to the bone

III). Naming of Muscles

A). Location of the muscle

B). Shape of the muscle

C). Relative size of muscle

Maximus
Minimus
Longus
Brevis

D). Number of origins

Biceps
Triceps
Quadriceps

E). Location of the attachments

F). Action

Muscle Types

I). Smooth Muscle

• NO VOLUNTARY CONTROL
II). Cardiac Muscle

• NO VOLUNTARY CONTROL
III) Skeletal Muscle

• Striated (long and dark bands)

• long cells with numerous nuclei
• Long cells
• covers bony skeleton
• Voluntary control (but some involuntary functions too)