1

Effects of High Altitude and Atmospheric Icing on the Performance of Outdoor Insulators
M. Farzaneh, Senior Member, IEEE, J. Zhang, M. Frchette, Senior Member, IEEE, T. Sakakibara, Member, IEEE, and E. Da Silva, Senior Member, IEEE
phenomenon, the present paper aims to investigate the effects of high altitude (low air pressure), atmospheric icing and pollution on the performance of outdoor insulators. II. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES In order to simulate the environmental air pressure found at high altitudes, all experiments were carried out in a cylindrical vacuum chamber, 610 mm in diameter and 760 mm in height. The chamber is transparent, which facilitates visual observation and photography. Using an evacuation system, the internal air pressure can be lowered to any given value between 101.3 and 30 kPa, to simulate any altitude from sea level to 9,000 m. To control the ambient temperature, the vacuum chamber is placed in a climate room [13]. A short insulator, with a height of 240 mm, a shed diameter of 155 mm and a leakage distance of 670 mm, was used to investigate the effects of air pressure on the flashover performance of an ice-covered insulator (Fig.1). A 15-mm layer of wet-grown ice, as measured on a monitoring cylinder, was formed by spraying supercooled droplets onto the insulator, which had been placed vertically in a cold chamber. This type of ice, with a density of about 0.9 g/m3, is known to be the most dangerous type as concerns the flashover of insulators [14]. The choice of ice thickness, 15 mm, is based on the fact that the minimum flashover voltage of a post-type, ice-covered insulator decreases with an increase in ice thickness and then remains constant. For ice thickness equal to or greater than 15 mm, once the ice layer was formed, an air gap of about 1 cm was made near the upper electrode by cutting out a small fragment of ice (see Fig. 1). This could represent the free ice zones on existing high-voltage insulators, created by the heating effect of partial arcs, a rise in air temperature, and/or ice shedding during or after ice accretion. The AC high voltage system consists of a 240 kVA, 120 kV transformer, and a 240 kVA regulator, with an overall short-circuit current of about 28 A at a maximum operating voltage of 120 kV. The procedures used to determine the maximum withstand voltage (VWS) and minimum flashover voltage (VMF) of the insulator, based on the IEC 60507 standard, are described in our previous studies [15]. The flashover of ice-covered insulators is a complex phenomenon involving local arc formation and its propagation. Occasionally, two or more arcs formed simultaneously on the surface of an ice-covered insulator during the flashover process, which made it difficult to

Abstract -- This paper presents the results of investigation on the effects of high altitude and atmospheric icing on the performance of outdoor insulators. It was found that the air pressure has an obvious influence on the propagation velocity of the arc on ice surfaces, and thus on the flashover performance of insulators covered with atmospheric ice. Index Terms Altitude, Atmospheric ice, flashover, low pressure, outdoor insulation, pollution.

I. INTRODUCTION

he electrical performance of outdoor insulators, one of the major factors in the safety of power systems, is influenced by several meteorological and environmental parameters including pollution, atmospheric icing and air pressure. In high-altitude regions, the combined effects of low air pressure, atmospheric icing and, sometimes, pollution considerably reduce the withstand voltage of insulators, resulting in flashovers and consequent power outages, as reported from many mountainous countries [1-4]. This problem has attracted the attention of many researchers and design engineers, and gave rise to a large number of studies, focusing mainly on the icing accumulation process, the determination of the flashover performance of insulators covered with ice or snow, as well as the modeling of the flashover arc on ice surfaces at normal air pressure [59]. Despite of the fact that some of the studies were carried out at low air pressure [10-12], the flashover mechanism of ice- and snow-covered insulators at high altitude is not well understood. However, very few investigations have been reported on the effects of altitude exclusively on the flashover process on ice-covered insulators [13]. Therefore, in order to gain better knowledge of the

M. Farzaneh and J. Zhang, NSERC/Hydro-Qubec/UQAC Industrial Chair on Atmospheric Icing of Power Network Equipment (CIGELE) and the Canada Research Chair on Engineering of Power Network Atmospheric Icing (INGIVRE), Universit du Qubec Chicoutimi, 555, boul. de lUniversit, Chicoutimi, Qubec, Canada, G7H 2B1 M. Frchette, Hydro-Qubecs Research Institute (IREQ), Varennes, Qubec, Canada. T. Sakakibara,, High Voltage & High Power Technology R&D Department, Power and Industrial Systems Research & Development Center, Toshiba Corporation, Kawasaki, Japan E. Da Silva, High Voltage Laboratory, Simon Bolivar University, Caracas. Venezuela.

investigate the arc propagation process on real ice-covered insulators. In order to ensure the formation of only one partial arc at a predetermined location, and to allow for precise measurement of arc characteristics, a plane triangular ice sample, with a height of 280 mm and a base of 200 mm, was used in this study (Fig. 2). The procedure for making the triangular ice sample may be found in one of our previous studies [9].

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A. Effects of altitude and freezing-water conductivity on the flashover voltage of ice-covered insulators The flashover performance of an ice-covered insulator is influenced by a number of parameters, mainly air pressure and pollution level. Normally, the relationship between the critical flashover voltage of polluted or iced insulators and the air pressure is expressed as follows [16, 17]:
V P = V0 P0
m

Air gap

(1)

Fig. 1: Short ice-covered insulator with an air gap

where V and V0 are respectively the critical flashover voltages of insulators at air pressure P (high altitude) and pressure at sea level P0 (101.3 kPa); the exponent m is a constant whose value characterizes the influence of air pressure on the critical flashover voltage of insulators. Fig. 3 shows the minimum flashover voltages (VMF) of the test insulator as a function of atmospheric pressure, for various freezing-water conductivities. It may be noted that the VMF of the insulator decreases with a decrease in atmospheric pressure. This decrease becomes more significant with an increase in the conductivity of applied water ().
35

Electrode Air Gap Glass Plane Ice Glass Mold Electrode

200 mm

30 25 VMF (kV) 20 15 10 5

=80 S /cm

Arc
280 mm

=250 S /cm

Ice thickness, =15 mm

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 P (kPa)

Fig. 3: Minimum flashover voltage of insulator vs. atmospheric pressure for different conductivities of applied water (measured at 20 C)

Fig. 2: Plane triangular ice sample

Once the ice sample was completely formed, an air gap with a constant width of 10 mm was made near the top electrode by cutting out a small fragment of ice. Then, it was placed in the cylindrical vacuum chamber. A voltage was applied to the bottom electrode of the ice sample to create a flashover. A high-speed camera and a data-acquisition system (DAS) were used to record the flashover process, and to determine the arc propagation velocity, arc root radius, as well as the corresponding voltage and current values. In order to investigate the effects of pollution on the electrical performance of ice-covered insulators, the conductivity of water used to form the ice sample or the ice layer on short insulator surface was changed by adding sodium chloride (NaCl) into the de-ionized water.

It may also be seen that the conductivity of applied water reduces the flashover voltage of insulators under icing conditions. When the freezing-water conductivity increases from 80 S/cm to 250 S/cm (measured at 20 C), the minimum flashover voltage, VMF, decreases 23% and 27% for the air pressures of 101.3 kPa and 45.0 kPa, respectively. The higher the conductivity, the lower the VMF. The influence becomes more significant as altitude increases. As mentioned above, the exponent m in equation (1) characterizes the effect of atmospheric pressure on the flashover voltage of insulators, and constitutes an important parameter for the insulation design of transmission lines

located at high altitudes. By applying regression analysis to the test results, the values of m were determined at different freezing-water conductivities (Table I). It may be noted that m increases as freezing-water conductivity () increases. This variation tendency for exponent m may be due to the fact that the arc sometimes propagates in air and only partially along the ice surface. During the flashover tests, it was observed that, in general, the arc propagation from one electrode to another occurs either along the ice surface or in air, but sometimes both situations occur simultaneously, that is partly along the ice surface and partly in air. When the arc propagates in air, the arc length increases and, consequently, the flashover distance is longer, resulting in a higher flashover voltage. In the present study, it was observed that for lower values of applied-water conductivity, the arc always propagated along the ice surface at the normal pressure, while it propagated in air at lower atmospheric pressure. This results in a lower decrease rate in flashover voltage and, accordingly, in a lower m value. For higher applied -water conductivity, the arc always propagates in air, whatever the pressure. This causes a higher decrease rate in flashover voltage and a higher value of exponent m.
TABLE I

corresponding cycle. In this test, the applied voltage and the freezing-water conductivity were 20 kVrms and 80 S/cm, respectively. The arc propagation velocity can be determined by measuring the arc length on these successive images at different time intervals.

VALUES OF EXPONENT m Applied water conductivity Exponent m measured at 20 C (S/cm) 80 0.40 250 0.53
V

B. Effects of altitude on the arc propagation velocity on the ice surface Using the plane triangular ice sample, the arc propagation on ice surface was investigated. Under AC conditions, because the applied voltage and leakage current pass cyclically through zero, the arc extinguishes and reignites cyclically. Fig. 4 shows the arc at different moments in a half cycle of applied voltage, recorded by the high-speed camera at a pressure of 101.3 kPa. It may be seen that the arc length is not constant in a half cycle of applied voltage. Fig. 5 presents the variation of arc length, Larc, during 2 cycles of applied voltage. In a half cycle of applied voltage, the arc length varies with voltage and always presents a peak value of arc length LM. From Fig. 5, it may be observed that the peak value LM varies in different cycles. If the applied voltage is high enough, LM will increase and finally short circuit the entire ice sample, and a flashover occurs. Therefore, the arc-length peak value LM in a half cycle may be considered as a reference parameter characterizing AC arc propagation during the flashover process on an ice sample. Fig. 6 shows a typical AC arc propagation process on the surface of the ice sample, recorded by the high-speed camera at a pressure of 60 kPa, where all pictures correspond to the moment when the arc length reaches its peak value in the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time (ms)
Fig. 4: Arc at different moments in a half cycle of applied voltage.

140 100 60 20 -20 -60 -100 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

LM

Larc (mm)

Time (ms)

Fig. 5: Arc length Larc and peak value LM in 2 cycles of applied voltage

Fig. 7 shows the increase in maximum arc length, LM, during each half cycle over time, where LM is expressed as a percentage of the maximum length of arc (L) equal to the height of the ice sample (L = 280 mm) when flashover occurred.

100 80

LM/L % & Larc/L

60
Lm

t=0s

t = 0.45 s

t = 1.4 s

40 20 0 1.8 1.805 1.81 1.815 1.82

Larc

Time (s)

t = 1.784 s

t = 1.808 s

t = 1.817 s

Fig. 6: AC arc propagation process on ice surface (P = 60 kPa)

Fig. 8: Difference between the variation of the arc length peak value, LM and that of the actual arc length, Larc, at the last cycle before flashover

100 80

LM/L %

60 40 20 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time (s)

Fig. 7: Variation of the length of an AC arc on ice surface as a function of time (P=60 kPa)

It may be observed that the arc propagation process under AC voltage is completed in two stages. The first stage starts at the moment when a violet arc is established (t = 0) with an initial length of 5% of L, corresponding to the air gap length, and ending when the arc length reaches about 40% of L, at around t=1.784 s. In this stage, the arc extends relatively slowly. The calculated arc propagation velocity for this example is only about 0.05 m/s. The second stage corresponds to the arc length varying from 40% to 100% of L. In this stage, the arc propagation velocity increases suddenly and the arc propagates more and more rapidly. The average arc propagation velocity in this second stage is about 5.2 m/s. The maximum velocity of arc propagation was reached at the moment just before flashover. Fig. 8 shows the variation of arc length, Larc, as well as its maximum values in each half cycle, LM, just before flashover occurs. It may be observed that the variation of Larc is much faster than that of LM. Considering the variation of LM, the maximum velocity is only about 17 m/s for this example, while considering the variation of Larc, the maximum velocity is about 170 m/s. In this study, the maximum propagation velocity of AC arc is defined as the variation of Larc at the moment before flashover.

Similarly, the AC arc propagation velocities under different air pressures were determined. The results are presented in Table II. It may be noted that, in the first stage, when the air pressure is higher than 60 kPa, it has no significant influence on the arc propagation velocity. The average velocity varies from 0.04 to 0.15 m/s. When the air pressure is equal to 45 kPa, a lower arc propagation velocity is obtained, which means that the very low air pressure may decrease the arc propagation velocity in the first stage. In the second stage, the air pressure has a slight influence on the arc propagation velocity. With the decrease in air pressure, the arc propagation velocity decreases. However, it may be seen that the maximum velocity of arc propagation is largely influenced by air pressure. The lower the air pressure, the lower the AC arc maximum propagation velocity. This may be one of the reasons why the flashover voltage of icecovered insulators is low at low air pressure. In fact, a higher arc propagation velocity leads to a stronger cooling effect on the arc, which results in a stronger de-ionization process in the arc column and, consequently, in a higher voltage gradient along the arc column [18]. At low air pressure, the arc propagation velocity in the second stage is lower, particularly during the final jump. Therefore, the voltage gradient along an arc column is lower, resulting in a lower flashover voltage.
TABLE II EFFECT OF AIR PRESSURE ON AC ARC PROPAGATION VELOCITY

Pressure (kPa) 101 80 60 45

Arc Velocity (m/s) First Stage 0.04 0.15 0.04 0.13 0.05 0.1 0.02 0.06 Second Stage Maximum 16 - 30 4.3 - 26 4 - 19 1.1 14 440 187 170 140

IV. CONCLUSIONS The effects of high altitude (low air pressure), and atmospheric icing on the performance of outdoor insulators were studied. Based on the analysis of the results obtained, the following conclusions may be drawn: 1) The air pressure, P, has a substantial influence on the minimum flashover voltage, VMF, of an insulator covered with ice. The VMF decreases as air pressure decreases. This decrease becomes more significant with an increase in the conductivity of applied water (), i.e., the exponent m, characterizing the effect of atmospheric pressure on the flashover voltage of insulators, increases with an increases in the applied-water conductivity (). 2) The conductivity of applied water reduces the flashover voltage of insulators under icing conditions. When the conductivity (measured at 20 C) increases from 80 S/cm to 250 S/cm, the minimum flashover voltage, VMF, decreases 23% and 27% for the air pressures of 101.3 kPa and 45.0 kPa, respectively. The higher the conductivity, the lower the VMF. The influence becomes more significant as altitude increases. 3) Under AC conditions, because the applied voltage and leakage current pass cyclically through zero, the arc extinguishes and reignites cyclically. Therefore, the arc length peak value LM in a half cycle was considered as a reference parameter characterizing AC arc propagation during the flashover process on an ice sample. 4) Regardless of air pressure, the arc propagation process on an ice surface can be divided into two stages: the first one is characterized by a relatively low propagation velocity and the second one by a much higher velocity. The maximum propagation velocity is reached the moment just before the flashover occurs. 5) In the first stage, when air pressure is above 60 kPa, it has no significant influence on the arc propagation velocity. For pressures lower than 60 kPa, the arc propagation velocity may decrease. In the second stage, the low air pressure results in a slight decrease in the arc propagation velocity. The maximum propagation velocity of an arc noticeably decreases as air pressure decreases. 6) The lower arc propagation velocity at lower air pressure may be one of the reasons why the flashover voltage of ice-covered insulators is lower at lower air pressure. A higher arc propagation velocity leads to a stronger cooling effect on the arc, which results in a stronger deionization process in the arc column and, consequently, in a higher voltage gradient along the arc column, resulting in a lower flashover voltage. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was accomplished within the framework of NSERC/Hydro-Qubec/UQAC Industrial Chair on Atmospheric Icing of Power Network Equipment (CIGELE) and the Canada Research Chair, tier 1, on Engineering of Power Network Atmospheric Icing (INGIVRE). The authors would like to thank all the sponsors of the project.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] V. M. Rudakova, & N. N. Tikhodeev, Influence of low air pressure on flashover voltages of polluted insulators: test data, generalization attempts and some recommendations, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 607-613, 1989. [2] A. Meier and W. M. Niggli, The influence of snow and ice deposits on supertension transmission line insulator strings with special reference to high altitude operation, IEEE Conference Publ.44, London, England, pp. 386-395, 1968. [3] F. Su and S. Hu, Icing on overhead transmission lines in cold mountainous district of southwest China and its protection, Proc. of 4th International Workshop on Atmospheric Icing of Structures, Paris, France, 354-357, 1988. [4] S.M. Fikke, Possible Effects of contaminated ice on insulator strength, Proc. of the 5th International Workshop on the Atmospheric Icing of Structures, Tokyo, Japan, Paper B4-2-(1), 1990. [5] M. Kawai, AC flashover tests at project UHV on ice-covered insulators, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus & Systems, Vol. 89, No. 8, pp. 1800-1805, 1970. [6] M. Farzaneh and J. Kiernicki, Flashover performance of IEEE standard insulators under ice conditions, IEEE Tran. on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 1602-1613, 1997. [7] CIGRE Task Force 33.04.09, Influence of Ice and Snow on the Flashover Performance of outdoor insulators Part : Effects of Ice, LECTRA, No. 187, pp. 90-111, Dec. 1999. [8] M. Farzaneh (Chair) et al. Selection of Station Insulators with Respect to Ice or Snow - Part I: Technical Context and Environmental Exposure, A Position paper prepared by IEEE Task Force on Icing Performance of Station Insulators, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 264-270, 2005. [9] M. Farzaneh, J. Zhang and X. Chen, Modeling of the AC Arc Discharge on Ice Surfaces, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 325-338, 1997. [10] L. Shu, C. Sun, J. Zhang and L. Gu, AC flashover performance of iced and polluted insulators for high altitude regions, Proc. of 7th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Vol. 4, Dresden, Germany, pp. 303-306, 1991. [11] M. Farzaneh, Y. Li and J. Zhang, Effects of altitude on AC flashover on ice surfaces, Proc. of 10th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Montreal, Canada, pp. 73-76, 1997. [12] M. Farzaneh, Y. Li, J. Zhang, L. Shu, X. Jiang, W. Sima and C. Sun, Electrical Performance of Ice-covered Insulators at High Altitude, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 870-880, 2004. [13] M. Farzaneh, J. Zhang and Y. Li, Effects of Low Air Pressure on ac and dc Arc Propagation on Ice Surface, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 60-71, 2005. [14] M. Farzaneh, Ice Accretions on High-Voltage Conductors and Insulators and Related Phenomena, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. 358, No. 1776, pp. 2973005, November 2000. [15] M. Farzaneh, T. Baker, A. Bernstorf, K. Brown, W.A. Chisholm, C. de Tourreil, J. F. Drapeau, S. Fikke, J. M. George, E. Gnandt, T. Grisham, I. Gutman, R. Hartings, R. Kremer, G. Powell, L. Rolfseng, T. Rozek, D.L. Ruff, D. Shaffner, V. Sklenicka, R. Sundararajan and J. Yu, Insulator Icing Test Methods and Procedures. A Position Paper prepared by the IEEE TF on Insulator Icing Test Methods, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 1503-1515, Oct. 2003. [16] H. P. Mercure, Insulator pollution performance at high altitude: major trends, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, pp. 1461-1468, 1989.

[17] R. Sundararajan and R. W. Nowlin, Effect of altitude on the flashover voltage of contaminated insulators, Proc. of IEEE Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena (CEIDP), San Francisco, USA, pp. 433-436, 1996. [18] Wang, Q., Physics of the Arc in Electrical Apparatus, Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing, 1982.

Michel Frchette has a graduate background in physics. He joined Hydro-Qubecs Research Institute (IREQ) in 1981. Since then, he has been involved in applied basic research in various fields related to electrical insulation and insulating materials. His major contributions concern discharge physics and dielectric phenomena. He can be reached at frechett@ireq.ca.

VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Masoud Farzaneh (M' 83 - SM' 91) received his PhD and Doctorat dtat degrees in electrical engineering from Universit Paul Sabatier, France, in 1980 and 1986, respectively. After two years as Associate Professor at University of Oran, Algeria, he joined the Universit du Qubec Chicoutimi (UQAC) as a research professor, in 1982, to become full Professor shortly after. He is currently Chairholder of the NSERC/Hydro-Quebec Industrial Chair on Atmospheric Icing (CIGELE) and the Canada Research Chair on Atmospheric Icing Engineering of Power Networks (INGIVRE). He is founder and Director of the International Research Centre on Atmospheric Icing and Engineering of Power Networks (CENGIVRE). Dr. Farzaneh is author of more than 450 scientific publications in the area of high voltage, outdoor insulation and atmospheric icing. He is Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), Fellow of the Engineering Institute of Canada (EIC), as well as member of the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences, the Canadian Institute for Neutron Scattering, the International Association of Science and Technology for Development (IASTED), and charter member of ISOPE, the International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineering. He is also Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation as well as Chairman or member of several working groups and task forces of IEEE and CIGR dealing with atmospheric icing of HV equipment. Jianhui Zhang received his B. S. degree from Xi'an Jiaotong University, China in 1982. He received his M. S. and Ph. D. degrees in electrical engineering in 1984 and 1991, respectively, both from Chongqing University, China. He was an assistant professor between 1985 and 1987 and then an associate professor from 1992 to 1993 at Chongqing University. He came to Canada in November, 1993 and joined the Research Group on Atmospheric Environment Engineering (GRIEA) of the Universit du Qubec Chicoutimi as a post-doctoral fellow. Since September 1998, he has been a research professor on grant in the NSERC/Hydro-Quebec Industrial Chair on Atmospheric Icing of Power Network Equipment (CIGELE). Dr. Zhang has written and co-authored over 60 refereed publications. His technical speciality is in the area of HV external insulation. Takaaki Sakakibara (M'87) was born in Aichi Prefecture, Japan on March 10, 1951. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical and electronics engineering from Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan in 1974 and 1976, respectively. He joined Toshiba Corporation in 1976. Since then he has been engaged in the development and design of high-voltage gas-insulated substations (GIS) and their control, monitoring and diagnostic systems. Presently, he is chief specialist in High Voltage and High Power Technology R&D Department of Power & Industrial Systems Research & Development Center. Mr. Sakakibara is a member of IEE of Japan and a member of IEEE. Elizabeth Da Silva (SMIEEE-05) was born in Venezuela, 1967. She graduated in electrical engineering in 1991 and obtained her MSc. in 1995 from the Simon Bolivar University (SBU), Venezuela, with High Honours. She became Assistant Professor at SBU in 1991, staff member of the Energy Conversion and Transportation Department and High Voltage Laboratory. Since 1995, she lectures on high voltage and power systems and is a consultant for utilities, as well as oil and manufacturing industries. She has been involved in the establishment of several test protocols for electrical equipments at national and international level and has been consultant for projects involving high voltage. Her research activities mainly bear on solid dielectric degradation under multi-stress (cables, organic chains, epoxy resins, etc). At SBU, she has occupied the following positions: Energy Conversion and Transportation Department Chair (02-06), National and International Agreements Committee Member (03-06), HV Research Group Member (90-), Power System Laboratory Chair (96-01), Council Electrical Engineering Coordination Member (96-01,05-). At the IEEE Venezuela Section, she held the following positions: Section Chair (05-06), Treasurer (99-04), Student Activities Counselor (99-03), IEEE DEIS Member (01-). Moreover, she has been member of the Organizer Committee of HV LA Conference97, IEEE International Andean Region Conference99, Venezuelan EE Conference04, IEEE CEIDP TC06 and IEEE PES T&D Conference & Exposition LA 2006.