Rural Urban Linkages

• About this issue

• Topics

• Resources

For the majority of the world's poorest residents, local

rural-urban linkages, investment patterns and

population movements are probably far more

important than the much touted global linkages,

foreign direct investments, and international migration.

First, rural-urban linkages are important to achieve balanced economic growth. Isolated rural settlements

that cannot tap local urban markets will not benefit from expanding global markets. Small urban centres

bypassed by agricultural exporters will not play a dynamic role in regional development.

Second, rural urban linkages can reduce vulnerability, and play a critical role in the livelihood strategies of

the poorest groups, both rural and urban. Low income rural dwellers often rely on urban-based non-farm

jobs and on remittances and other transfers from migrant relatives. Low income urban dwellers often rely

on seasonal farm jobs, and on the help of rural relatives in looking after children and family property.

Third, rural-urban interactions are often critical influences on natural resource use and management,

especially in the peri-urban interface. But these linkages and interactions are usually neglected by both

local government (which tends to divide rural and urban responsibilities) and national government (whose

ministries rarely address urban rural linkages directly).

Rural-urban interactions can be defined as linkages across space (such as flows of people, goods, money,

information and wastes) and linkages between sectors (for example, between agriculture and services and

manufacturing). In broad terms, they also include 'rural' activities taking place in urban centres (such as

urban agriculture) and activities often classified as 'urban' (such as manufacturing and services) taking

place in rural settlements.

Our work seeks to:

• improve our understanding of how changing rural-urban interactions affect the livelihoods of low-

income and vulnerable groups in urban and rural settlements (including developing appropriate
 methodologies)

• support the capacity of local institutions and government to identify the opportunities and

constraints for poverty reduction and regional development provided by rural-urban linkages, and

act on them

• help develop a dialogue between national and local government to ensure a better integration

between national macro-economic and sectoral policies and local initiatives.

The principal topics that we are currently working on are:

Governance in decentralised structures, especially in small urban centres and peri-urban areas

Because of the variations in the nature and scale of rural-urban interactions between and within nations,

local governments are best placed to respond to location-specific needs and priorities. Decentralisation has

great potential with regard to efficiency and democratic accountability, but often carries costs and

constraints (such as insufficient revenue and capacity, and weak links with national planning). Special

attention is given to the identification of ways to better support local governments, particularly in

improving the role of small and intermediate urban centres in the development of their surrounding

regions and in peri-urban areas.

The role of urban centres in the development of their surrounding rural region

Access to urban markets is key to increasing incomes for rural and peri-urban producers. Crucial

dimensions include: physical infrastructure (including road networks and affordable transport); the

relations between producers and traders; and farmers' information on how markets operate, including

price fluctuations and consumer preferences. Special attention is also given to local urban markets as links

to regional, national and international markets through the analysis of commodity supply chains.

Income diversification and rural non-farm employment

There is ample evidence that most rural (and in many cases urban) households rely on the combination of

farm and non-farm income sources, thereby reducing fluctuations and risk and, in some cases, increasing

their asset base. Research on this theme focuses on transformations in local labour markets (often

influenced by globalisation) and how they affect different groups on the basis of gender, age, migrant

status, ethnicity, wealth and location. Emerging issues such as the role of clustering in the development of

small-scale enterprises, and opportunities in the growing tourism industry are also explored.
Migration and mobility

With urbanization and changing employment patterns, migration and mobility (such as commuting

between rural settlements and urban centres) are increasingly important. Specific areas of interest are the

differences and reasons behind in the mobility of different groups (including the often unintended impact

of national macro-economic and sectoral policies), and the impact of migration on households and

communities in both sending and receiving settlements.

Transformations in peri-urban areas

The immediate periphery of urban centres often undergoes processes of extremely rapid transformation.

There are many opportunities, such as increasing urban demand for high value horticultural and livestock

produce which often trigger agricultural intensification; and non-farm employment opportunities help

households diversify their income sources. But there can also be many constraints, which can result in the

marginalisation of vulnerable residents and in environmental problems. Specific areas of interest are

transformations in land tenure and natural resource management (and their impact on low-income

groups), and the management of different types of wastes originating from the urban centre.

Publications

The Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihoods Series includes overviews on the role of urban centres

in rural development and environmental issues in the peri-urban interface.

Reports from collaborative case studies with partners in Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania, India and Vietnam are

available as Working Papers in the Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihoods Series, and as shorter Briefing

Papers.

The Earthscan Reader in Rural-Urban Linkages, edited by Cecilia Tacoli (2006). A collection of key

papers that illustrate the importance of rural-urban linkages for sustainable development.

Environment and Urbanization

• A special issue of Environment and Urbanization 'Beyond the rural-urban divide' (April 1998),

including a guide to the literature on rural-urban interactions. (all articles free to download)

• The April 2003 issue of the journal Environment and Urbanization also focused on 'rural-urban

transformations'. (all articles free to download)

A summary of policy issues related to rural-urban interactions published in IIED's Gatekeeper Series no 77

Other relevant publications and links include:

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Papers on Food Consumption and Nutrition Divisional

(FCND) discussion papers

• Migration and the Rural-Urban Continuum: Evidence from the Rural Philippines Agnes

R. Quisumbing and Scott McNiven. October 2005. Paper no. 197

• Rural and Urban Dynamics and Poverty: Evidence from China and India. Shenggen Fan,

Connie Chan-Kang, and Anit Mukherjee. August 2005. Paper no. 196

• Market Institutions: Enhancing the Value of Rural-Urban Links. Shyamal Chowdhury;

Asfaw Negassa; and Maximo Torero. October 2005. Paper no. 195

• Livelihoods, Growth, and Links to Market Towns in 15 Ethiopian Villages. Stefan Dercon

and John Hoddinott. July 2005. Paper no. 194

A paper on 'Understanding the Opportunities and Constraints for Low-income Groups in the Peri-

urban Interface: the Contribution of Livelihood Frameworks' prepared by IIED staff is available on

the Development Planning Unit's Peri-Urban Interface website which provides other useful links and

information on peri-urban issues.

Chapters from a very detailed paper on The Urban Transition in Vietnam by Mike Douglass and Mike

DiGregorio (2002) can be downloaded from UNDP Vietnam Office’s site

A policy brief on the impact of rural-urban interactions on urban food security was produced as part of

IFPRI's 2020 Focus Series No3; Achieving urban food and nutrition security in the developing

world August 2000

A recent issue of Id21 Insights on 'Bridging the rural-urban divide'.

In November 2003, IIED submitted a contribution to help the UK International Development Committee's

enquiry on 'Migration and Development'. view full enquiry

Links

The Institute for Development Studies in Sussex runs the Livelihoods Connect website, supported by

the UK Department for International Development. The website has two 'hot topics' pages, one on urban-

rural change http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/UrbanRural.html#5 and the other on migration

http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/migration.html with useful information, downloadable papers and

further links.

The Global Commission on International Migration (www.gcim.org) presented its Report to UN

Secretary-General Kofi Annan, UN Members States and other stakeholders on 5 October 2005. The

Commission, of which IIED's Chair of the Board of Trustees, Mary Robinson, is a member, says the

international community has failed to realize the full potential of migration and has not risen to the many

opportunities and challenges it presents. The Commission stresses the need for greater coherence,

cooperation and capacity to achieve a more effective governance of international migration. The 90-page

report provides a comprehensive yet concise analysis of key global policy issues in the field of

international migration, and presents six 'Principles for Action' and thirty-three related recommendations

that can serve as a guide to the formulation of migration policies at the national, regional and global

levels.

The Commission is also publishing the supporting evidence for its conclusions and recommendations. This

supporting evidence includes a series of thematic papers, a series of papers on migration issues in

different regions of the world, and reports of all the regional hearings, stakeholder consultations and

expert meetings that the Commission has held over the past 21 months.

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The principal topics that we are currently working on are:

Governance in decentralised structures, especially in small urban centres and peri-urban areas

Because of the variations in the nature and scale of rural-urban interactions between and within nations,

local governments are best placed to respond to location-specific needs and priorities. Decentralisation has

great potential with regard to efficiency and democratic accountability, but often carries costs and

constraints (such as insufficient revenue and capacity, and weak links with national planning). Special

attention is given to the identification of ways to better support local governments, particularly in

improving the role of small and intermediate urban centres in the development of their surrounding

regions and in peri-urban areas.

The role of urban centres in the development of their surrounding rural region

Access to urban markets is key to increasing incomes for rural and peri-urban producers. Crucial

dimensions include: physical infrastructure (including road networks and affordable transport); the

relations between producers and traders; and farmers' information on how markets operate, including

price fluctuations and consumer preferences. Special attention is also given to local urban markets as links

to regional, national and international markets through the analysis of commodity supply chains.

Income diversification and rural non-farm employment

There is ample evidence that most rural (and in many cases urban) households rely on the combination of

farm and non-farm income sources, thereby reducing fluctuations and risk and, in some cases, increasing

their asset base. Research on this theme focuses on transformations in local labour markets (often

influenced by globalisation) and how they affect different groups on the basis of gender, age, migrant

status, ethnicity, wealth and location. Emerging issues such as the role of clustering in the development of

small-scale enterprises, and opportunities in the growing tourism industry are also explored.

Migration and mobility

With urbanization and changing employment patterns, migration and mobility (such as commuting

between rural settlements and urban centres) are increasingly important. Specific areas of interest are the

differences and reasons behind in the mobility of different groups (including the often unintended impact

of national macro-economic and sectoral policies), and the impact of migration on households and

communities in both sending and receiving settlements.

Transformations in peri-urban areas

The immediate periphery of urban centres often undergoes processes of extremely rapid transformation.

There are many opportunities, such as increasing urban demand for high value horticultural and livestock

produce which often trigger agricultural intensification; and non-farm employment opportunities help

households diversify their income sources. But there can also be many constraints, which can result in the

marginalisation of vulnerable residents and in environmental problems. Specific areas of interest are

transformations in land tenure and natural resource management (and their impact on low-income

groups), and the management of different types of wastes originating from the urban centre.
Publications

The Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihoods Series includes overviews on the role of urban centres

in rural development and environmental issues in the peri-urban interface.

Reports from collaborative case studies with partners in Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania, India and Vietnam are

available as Working Papers in the Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihoods Series, and as shorter Briefing

Papers.

The Earthscan Reader in Rural-Urban Linkages, edited by Cecilia Tacoli (2006). A collection of key

papers that illustrate the importance of rural-urban linkages for sustainable development.

Environment and Urbanization

• A special issue of Environment and Urbanization 'Beyond the rural-urban divide' (April 1998),

including a guide to the literature on rural-urban interactions. (all articles free to download)

• The April 2003 issue of the journal Environment and Urbanization also focused on 'rural-urban

transformations'. (all articles free to download)

A summary of policy issues related to rural-urban interactions published in IIED's Gatekeeper Series no 77

Other relevant publications and links include:

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Papers on Food Consumption and Nutrition Divisional

(FCND) discussion papers

• Migration and the Rural-Urban Continuum: Evidence from the Rural Philippines Agnes

R. Quisumbing and Scott McNiven. October 2005. Paper no. 197

• Rural and Urban Dynamics and Poverty: Evidence from China and India. Shenggen Fan,

Connie Chan-Kang, and Anit Mukherjee. August 2005. Paper no. 196

• Market Institutions: Enhancing the Value of Rural-Urban Links. Shyamal Chowdhury;

Asfaw Negassa; and Maximo Torero. October 2005. Paper no. 195
 • Livelihoods, Growth, and Links to Market Towns in 15 Ethiopian Villages. Stefan Dercon

and John Hoddinott. July 2005. Paper no. 194

A paper on 'Understanding the Opportunities and Constraints for Low-income Groups in the Peri-

urban Interface: the Contribution of Livelihood Frameworks' prepared by IIED staff is available on

the Development Planning Unit's Peri-Urban Interface website which provides other useful links and

information on peri-urban issues.

Chapters from a very detailed paper on The Urban Transition in Vietnam by Mike Douglass and Mike

DiGregorio (2002) can be downloaded from UNDP Vietnam Office’s site

A policy brief on the impact of rural-urban interactions on urban food security was produced as part of

IFPRI's 2020 Focus Series No3; Achieving urban food and nutrition security in the developing

world August 2000

A recent issue of Id21 Insights on 'Bridging the rural-urban divide'.

In November 2003, IIED submitted a contribution to help the UK International Development Committee's

enquiry on 'Migration and Development'. view full enquiry

Links

The Institute for Development Studies in Sussex runs the Livelihoods Connect website, supported by

the UK Department for International Development. The website has two 'hot topics' pages, one on urban-

rural change http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/UrbanRural.html#5 and the other on migration

http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/migration.html with useful information, downloadable papers and

further links.

The Global Commission on International Migration (www.gcim.org) presented its Report to UN

Secretary-General Kofi Annan, UN Members States and other stakeholders on 5 October 2005. The

Commission, of which IIED's Chair of the Board of Trustees, Mary Robinson, is a member, says the

international community has failed to realize the full potential of migration and has not risen to the many

opportunities and challenges it presents. The Commission stresses the need for greater coherence,

cooperation and capacity to achieve a more effective governance of international migration. The 90-page

report provides a comprehensive yet concise analysis of key global policy issues in the field of

international migration, and presents six 'Principles for Action' and thirty-three related recommendations
that can serve as a guide to the formulation of migration policies at the national, regional and global

levels.

The Commission is also publishing the supporting evidence for its conclusions and recommendations. This

supporting evidence includes a series of thematic papers, a series of papers on migration issues in

different regions of the world, and reports of all the regional hearings, stakeholder consultations and

expert meetings that the Commission has held over the past 21 months.