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Fluid Mechanics

3.

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is the study of the behaviour of fluids. In the oil field, this means that fluid mechanics is used to predict fluid friction pressures and the forces due to the dynamics of fluid flow. Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter, and in the oil field is used to predict the resistance of a fluid to the application of a force or pressure.

3.1

Fundamental Fluid Properties

A measure of how much matter a material contains within a unit of volume. The denser a material, the heavier a given volume. Provided the fluid composition remains constant, we can think of fluid density as a constant although it will actually decrease slightly with increasing temperature.

Density () -

Viscosity () -

Viscosity is a measure of how much a fluid resists deformation as a result of an applied force or pressure. It is a measure of how thick the fluid is. Viscosity is only very rarely a constant value, as it can change dramatically with temperature, applied shear stress and fluid composition. Viscosity is defines the relationship between shear stress and shear rate.

Temperature (T) -

A measure of how much energy a material contains the hotter the material, the more energy. Most fluid properties are affected to a greater or lesser extent by temperature.

3.2

Shear Stress and Shear Rate

Shear Rate (). In fluid mechanics, shear rate is a measure of how fast a fluid is flowing past a fixed surface. Shear rate can be thought of as a measure of how much agitation a fluid is receiving. Causes of Shear Rate:-

Spinning Centrifugal Flow Down a Pipe Fann 35 Test Jet Mixer Tank Agitators

Shear Stress (). Shear stress is the resistance the fluid produces to an applied shear rate. For instance, it requires more force (pressure) to pump water at 20 bpm than at 10 bpm. Viscosity (). The fluid property that defines how much shear stress is produced by a shear rate, is called viscosity. The greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance of a fluid to shear agitation.

Newtons Law of Fluids

= ............................................................................................. (3.1)

This is known as Newtons law of fluids, and is illustrated in figure 3.2a:-

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Shear Stress,

Slope =

0 0 Shear Rate,

Figure 3.2a Graph illustrating Newtons Law of Fluids

In oil field units, Newtons law can be expressed as follows: = 47,879 ................................................................................. (3.2)

with measured in cp (centipoise), in lbf/ft2 and in sec-1. Newton was the first to realise the relationship in fluids between an applied force and the resistance to that force. His experiments were carried out on simple fluids such as water and brine, and not on more complex fluids, such as those used in stimulation activities.

3.3

Types of Fluid

In the oil field, we generally deal with three different types of fluids, according to how the relationship between shear stress and shear rate develops. These fluid types are defined below.

Newtonian Fluids
As illustrated in Figure 3.2a, these are fluids for which Newtons law is valid. Viscosity is constant and does not vary with shear rate. Equations 3.1 and 3.2 are valid. Examples of Newtonian fluids include:Fresh Water Sea Water Most Acids (ungelled) Diesel Alcohols Gases

Bingham Plastic Fluids

Bingham plastic fluids require an initial shear stress to be induced before they will deform. Put another way, they have a gel strength that must be broken before the fluid can move. This type of fluid is not Newtonian, although they usually have a constant viscosity once the initial gel strength has been overcome. = Yp + Pv ............................................................................ (3.3)

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Yp is the yield point, and in the oil field has units of lbf/100 ft2 (note that in the oil field, has the units lbf/ft2, so the value for Yp has to be converted before it is used), whilst Pv is the plastic viscosity, with cp as its units. Figure 3.3a illustrates the behaviour of a Bingham plastic fluid:-

Shear Stress,

Slope = Pv

Yp

0 0 Shear Rate,

Figure 3.3a Relationship between shear rate and shear stress for a Bingham plastic fluid.

Examples of Bingham plastic fluids include most cement slurries and some drilling muds.

Power Law Fluids

The third type of fluids are generally referred to as power law fluids, although there are other names which have been used to describe them. In general, there is no linear relationship between shear rate and shear stress, so that the apparent viscosity (the viscosity which the fluid appears to have at a specific shear rate) changes with shear rate. The following equation describes the behaviour of the power law fluid, and this is illustrated in figure 3.3b. = K n ................................................................................. (3.4)

Shear Stress,

0 0 Shear Rate,

Figure 3.3b Relationship between shear rate and shear stress for a power law fluid. Note that the graph shows the relationship in its most common form. However, in certain fluids the line can also curve upwards.

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K is referred to as the power law consistency index, and in order to be consistent has the rather awkward units of lbf secn/ft2. n is the power law index and is dimensionless. In order to determine n and K, the log of equation 3.4 is taken; log = log K + n log ................................................................. (3.5)

On a plot of log against log , the intercept of the vertical axis is log K and the gradient of the line is n, as shown in figure 3.3c;

log

Slope = n

log K

0 0 log
Figure 3.3c Power law fluid log-log plot

Power law fluids can be divided into 3 major categories; Shear-thinning fluids. In these fluids, n is less than 1, so that the fluids experience a decrease in apparent viscosity as the shear rate increases. Most of the fluids used for fracturing fall within this category. Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids are a special case of power law fluids in which n is equal to one, i.e. the viscosity is constant and equal to K. Shear-thickening fluids. These fluids have an n greater than one, and so exhibit an increase in apparent viscosity as shear rate increases. Extreme examples of these fluids can behave as it they were solids when exposed to even moderate shear forces. Another example of a power law fluid is the Herschel-Buckley fluid, which is often used to model the flow behaviour of foams; = o + K n ....................................................................... (3.6)

where o is the threshold shear stress, K is the Herschel-Buckley consistency index and n the Herschel-Buckley exponent. Herschel-Buckley fluids are basically a combination of the Bingham plastic fluid and the power law fluid. An initial threshold shear stress has to be overcome before the fluid will flow. Once this has happened, the viscosity is not constant, and will vary according to the shear rate.

3.4

Measuring Viscosity

In order to measure viscosity, two items need to be measured. First, the shear rate of some moving device needs to be determined. Second, the resistance to this shear rate needs to be

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measured. This can be done either by measuring the amount of force required to move the source of shear rate, or by measuring the deflection on an object placed in the fluid, close to the source of shear rate. If the fluid being analysed is not Newtonian, then the apparatus will have to perform these tasks at several different shear rates. Once the resistance to the shear rate (i.e. the shear stress) has been determined at one or more known shear rates, the viscosity (or the components required to determine the apparent viscosity) can be derived.

Model 35 Viscometer
The model 35 viscometer, produced either by Fann or Chandler, is the most common device used in the oil industry for determining viscosity and rheological properties. It is robust, easy to use and reliable. It can also be fairly easily calibrated, provided the user is familiar with the process. Figure 3.4a shows a photograph of a model 35 viscometer, whilst figures 3.4b and 3.4c illustrate how it works;

Figure 3.4a Chandler 35 viscometer. The position of the rotor is indicated (A), whilst the bob is hidden inside this. The cup (B) hold the test fluid, and is mounted on a support (C) that can move up and down as required.

Torsion Spring

Rotor Fluid Bob Bob Shaft

Bob Shaft Bob

Figure 3.4b Cross-section through the rotor and bob on a model 35 viscometer

Figure 3.4c Schematic diagram showing the model 35 viscometer bob assembly

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The model 35 viscometer works by rotating the rotor (see figure 3.4b) around the bob. The fluid is positioned in a narrow gap between the rotor and the bob. As the rotor spins, it produces a shear on the fluid, which in turn produces a drag force on the bob. The bob is mounted on a spring loaded bob shaft (see figure 3.4c), so that as it experiences a drag force, it will rotate slightly. The greater the drag force, then more the bob rotates. Attached to the top end of the bob shaft is a dial indicator, allowing the operator to read how much the bob has rotated. As the bob deflection is directly related to the shear stress being experienced by the fluid, it is possible to use the dial reading as a measure of viscosity. Generally, the model 35 viscometer can spin the rotor at the following speeds, although these vary slightly from model to model. The speeds are 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 20, 30, 60, 100, 200, 300 and 600 rpm. By plotting the rpms of the rotor (shear rate) against the dial reading (shear stress) it is possible to determine what type of fluid is being measured, by analysing the shape of the curve. = = 0.01066 N ..................................................................... (3.7) 1.703 ............................................................................ (3.8)

where N is the spring factor of the torsion spring fitted to the model 35 viscometer (usually equal to 1), is the dial reading and is the speed of the rotor in rpms. It should be noted that equation 3.8 is valid only for the R1 rotor and B1 bob combination for other combinations refer to the manufacturers manual. By using equations 3.7 and 3.8, a plot of shear rate against shear stress can be produced, or if necessary, a log-log plot. From these, the viscosity defining parameters can be derived.

Other Methods for Measuring Viscosity

Various other methods for measuring viscosity are available; i) Helical Screw Rheometer. Uses a helical screw inside a sleeve. The screw rotates and fluid flows up the inside of the sleeve and out of the top. The amount of force taken to rotate the screw is measured to produce the shear stress. The shear rate is derived from the speed of the screw. Used by some service companies for in-line real-time viscosity measurement during frac jobs. Fann 50 HPHT Viscometer. Works on the same principle as the model 35 viscometer, but is designed so that the analysis can be carried out at high temperature and pressure. These viscometers are also usually remote controlled by a PC, allowing shear rate and temperature schedules to be used, as well as the recording of all data. Although quite expensive, these machines are commonly used for designing frac fluid systems. Figure 3.4d shows a Fann 50.

ii)

Figure 3.4d Fann 50 high pressure, high temperature rheometer. This model is fully computer controlled, whereas earlier models had manual controls and were twice the size of the model shown.

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iii)

Brookfield In-Line Viscometer. Viscometer designed to provide real time viscosity measurement for fluids flowing down a process line. This viscometer works on a similar principle to the model 35, although the rotor and bob are of a different size and shape. Funnel Viscometer. A simple device for determining apparent viscosity. It consists of a funnel with a hole in the end. A specific volume of the fluid is placed in the funnel, and the time taken for it to drain out of the small hole in the bottom of the funnel is measured. A chart then provides a quick conversion from time to apparent viscosity.

iv)

The above are the most commonly used varieties in the oil industry, although it should be remembered that a wide variety of devices and methods are available.

3.5

Apparent Viscosity

The apparent viscosity of a fluid is the viscosity of the fluid at a specific shear rate. For a Newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is the same as the actual viscosity. For all other fluids, the apparent viscosity is the slope of a line on a shear rate vs shear stress curve, from the origin to the line, at a specific shear rate, as shown in figure 3.5a:-

Shear Stress,

Slope = apparent viscosity

0 0 Shear Rate,

Figure 3.5a Graph illustrating the change in apparent viscosity for a power law fluid at two different shear rates.

As can been seen in figure 3.5a, for a shear thinning power law fluid, the apparent viscosity of the fluid (the slope of the two lines) decreases as the shear rate increases. In practice, it is the apparent viscosity that is usually measured. The model 35 viscometer is set up so that at 300 rpm (with an R1 rotor, B1 bob and spring factor = 1) the apparatus reads apparent viscosity directly no additional calculations are required. The apparent viscosity can be calculated as follows, for a power law fluid:app = 47879 K' ......................................................................... (3.9) 1-n'

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3.6

Flow Regimes and Reynolds Number

Figure 3.6a illustrates the three different flow regimes that a fluid can experience, with plug flow being at the lowest fluid velocities, and turbulent flow being at the highest.

Plug

Laminar

Turbulent

Figure 3.6a Diagram illustrating the three flow regimes

i)

Plug Flow. At low flow rates, the fluid flows with an almost uniform velocity profile. the fluid moves with a uniform front across almost its entire flow area. Laminar Flow. As the flow rate increases, the velocity profile begins to change. Fluid close to the walls of the pipe (or duct, or fracture) flows slowest, whilst fluid in the center of the pipe flows fastest. Also known as streamline flow. Turbulent Flow. As the flow rate continues to increase, the contrast in velocity across the flow area becomes unsustainable, and the fluid breaks down into turbulent flow. This is characterised by a series of small scale eddies and whirls, all moving in the same overall direction.

ii)

iii)

The friction pressure produced by the fluid flow is highly dependent upon the flow regime. Therefore, it is important to be able to determine the flow regime.

Reynolds Number
The flow regime is found by using the Reynolds number (NRe), as follows; 100 < NRe NRe NRe < 100 < 2000 > 2000 Plug Flow Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

It should be remembered that these are very generalised numbers. The actual numbers can vary significantly, depending upon the actual circumstances. The Reynolds number itself can be found from the following formula:NRe = dv .............................................................................. (3.10)

where is the fluid density, d is the inside diameter of the pipe, v is the bulk fluid velocity along the pipe and is the viscosity. Equation 3.10 is for SI units, so for oil field units;

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NRe =

132,624

SG q .............................................................. (3.11) d

where SG is the specific gravity, q is the flow rate in bpm, d is the inside diameter in inches and is the viscosity in cp. Obviously equations 3.10 and 3.11 only apply to Newtonian fluids, i.e. fluids with a constant viscosity. As stated before, Frac Engineers only rarely deal with Newtonian fluids, so below is equation 4.11 converted for power law fluids; NRe = SG v2-n' 15.49 K' (96/d)n' ............................................................ (3.12)

where v is the velocity in ft/sec. To make things easier, v can be easily found from the flow rate, q:v = q 17.157 d2 ..................................................................... (3.13)

with q in bpm and d in inches. Usually, when fracturing, it is best to keep abrasive fluids at flow rates below that needed for turbulent flow. This is to prevent the erosion of flow lines and the washing out of seals, caused by the action of the proppant.

3.7

Friction Pressure

One of the ultimate objectives of fluid mechanics - as far as the Frac Engineer is concerned, anyway is to be able to predict the friction pressure (Pf) of the fluids that are being pumped. This is often very difficult, as fluid composition and temperature is constantly changing as the treatment progresses. In addition, two-phase (liquid and proppant) and even three-phase (liquid, proppant and gas) flow is common. Predicting fluid friction pressure is therefore an unreliable process and there really is no substitute for reliable bottom hole pressure data. Failing that, the next best option is to use friction pressure tables, such as BJs Fracturing Fluids Friction Pressure Data. These tables are usually based on data generated by actually pumping the fluid around a flow loop, and so are based on a situation similar to the actual treatment process. Most modern fracture simulators incorporate data from these tests in their fluid models, so friction pressures predicted by these are also reasonably reliable (although not perfect, as the temperature of the wellbore is constantly changing). Finally, when the three methods outlined above are not possible, the friction pressure may be calculated from fluid data, using the one of several available methods. The method outlined below, based on the use of Fanning friction factors, is fairly reliable (i.e. it is just as good as the data used as inputs), but is not intended for use in narrow diameter pipes at higher than normal flow rates (such as for coiled tubing treatments). Pf = 0.325 SG L v2 f ............................................................ (3.14) d

where L is the length of pipe in feet and f is the friction factor (dimensionless). The friction factor is determined by using the Reynolds number. For plug and laminar flow:f = 16 NRe ................................................................................ (3.15)

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whilst for turbulent flow:f = 0.0303 NRe0.1612 ....................................................................... (3.16)

So the first step in the process of finding Pf is to determine the Reynolds number. Once that has been found, the friction factor can be determined, which in turn leads to the friction pressure.

References
Howard, G.C., and Fast, C.R.: Hydraulic Fracturing, Monograph Series Vol 2, SPE, Dallas, Texas (1970). Gidley , J.L., et al.: Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, Monograph Series Vol 12, SPE, Richardson, Texas (1989). Economides, M.J., and Nolte, K.G.: Reservoir Stimulation, Schlumberger Educational Services, 1987. Economides, M.J.: A Practical Companion to Reservoir Stimulation, Elsevier, 1992 FracRT Version 4.6 Users Manual, BJ Services, 1995 onwards Friction Pressure Manual, The Western Company, 1989 onwards Fracturing Fluids Friction Pressure Data, BJ Services, 1983 onwards API Recommended Practice 39, Measuring the Properties of a Cross-Linked Water-Based Fracturing Fluid, 3rd Edition, American Petroleum Institute, May 1998 Stimulation Engineering Support Manual, BJ Services, October 1996

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