Concepts That Shape Politics and Government in Cameroon: A Handbook of Political Theory for Stakeholders

CONCEPTS THAT SHAPE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

IN CAMEROON

A Handbook of political

theory for stakeholders

Akwalefo Bernadette Djeudo

AuthorHouse™ UK Ltd.

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© 2013 by Akwalefo Bernadette Djeudo. All rights reserved.

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Published by AuthorHouse 10/17/2013

ISBN: 978-1-4918-7722-7 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4918-7721-0 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-4918-7723-4 (e)

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CONTENTS

Preface

General Introduction

CHAPTER 1:   POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

1.1   What Is Politics?

1.1.1   Distorted and Real Nature of Politics.

1.1.2   Politics and Its Distributive Effects:

1.1.3   Politics—The High Stakes Involved.

1.1.4   Politics—The Pursuit & Interplay of Interests:

1.1.5   Politics as a class struggle

1.1.6   Politics and Political Conflict—The Role of Government:

1.1.7   Politics as the pursuit of common good

1.1.8   Different views about the nature of politics

1.2   Government as an instrument of political society

1.2.1   Government—A Definition

1.2.2   Public Institutions—Distinguishing Characteristics

1.2.3   Universality of the Government’s Reach within Society:

1.2.4   The Government’s Control of the Use of Physical Force and Coercion:

1.2.5   The Government and Political Legitimacy:

1.2.6   Authoritative Decisionmaking and Action by the Government

1.2.7   The Government’s Authoritative Allocation of Resources and Values:

1.2.8   Governmental Activity and Public Concern:

1.2.9   Major Functions of Modern Government:

Government—A Summary.

1.3   Political power

1.3.1   Politics and Political Power

1.3.2   Political Power and Political Behavior:

1.3.3 Political Power and Public Policy:

1.3.4   Government, Private Citizens, and Political Power:

1.3.5   Political Authority and Political Influence:

1.3.6   Theories of power in society

1.4   Politics & political competition

1.4.1   Why People Go into Politics:

1.4.2   Political Competition in a Constitutional Democracy

1.4.3   Political Elites, Political Competition, and Elite Accomodation:

1.5   Politics, Political Resources, And Political Power

1.5.1   Political Resources—The Sources and Bases of Political Power:

1.5.2   Political Resources and Political Inequality:

1.6   Politics, government, & political power: summary & conclusion

CHAPTER 2:   WHAT IS POLITICAL THEORY AND POLITICAL CULTURE?

2.1   Political theory.

2.1.1   Meaning of political theory

2.1.2   What do we study in political theory?

2.1.3   Significance of Political theory

2.1.4   Putting political theory to practice

2.1.5   Why should we study political theory?

2.1.6   Major schools of political theory

2.2   Political Culture

2.2 1.   Political Culture—Definition and Description:

2.2.2   The Content of a Political Culture

2.2.3   Political Culture and Political Regimes:

SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 3:   CITIZENSHIP

Overview

3.1   Definition of concept and development of the idea

3.1.1   Definition of concept

3.1.2   Development of the idea of citizenship and factors for its growth

3.2   Full and equal membership

3.3   Equal rights

3.4   Citizen and nation

3.5   Universal citizenship

3.6   Global citizenship

3.7   Citizenship, equality and rights

3.8   Theories of citizenship

3.8.1   Greek theories of citizenship

3.8.2   Roman concept of citizenship

3.8.3   Renaissance and citizenship

3.8.4   Liberal theory of citizenship

3.8.5   Marxism and citizenship

3.8.6   Marshall’s theory of citizenship

3.8.7   Contributions made by Anthony giddens

3.8.8   Citizenship and rights

3.8.9   Citizenship education

3.9   Critical evaluation

1.1.1   LIBERTARIAN critique of citizenship

1.1.2   FEMINIST critique of citizenship

1.1.3   SUBALTERN critique of citizenship

Conclusion

CHAPTER 4:   RIGHTS

Overview

4.1   What Are Rights?

4.2   Where Do Rights Come From?

4.3   Legal Rights And The State

4.4   Kinds Of Rights

4.5   Rights And Responsibilities

4.6   Bases of rights

4.6.1   Theory of natural rights

4.6.2   Legal theory of rights

4.6.3   Historical theory of rights

4.6.4   Moral theory of rights

Revision Questions

CHAPTER 5:   FREEDOM

Overview

5.1   The ideal of freedom

5.2   What is freedom?

5.3   Why do we need constraints?

5.4   Harm principle

5.5   Negative and positive liberty

5.6   Marxist concept of freedom

5.6.1   Meaning of freedom

5.6.2   Freedom AS an end to alienation

5.6.3   Freedom from exploitation

5.6.4   Freedom AS recognition of necessity

5.6.5   Freedom as a collectivistic enterprise

CHAPTER 6:   EQUALITY

Overview

6.1   Why Does Equality Matter?

6.2   What Is Equality?

6.2.1   Equality of Opportunities

6.2.2   Natural and Social Inequalities

6.3   Four Dimensions Of Equality

6.3.1   Legal equality

6.3.2   Political Equality

6.3.3   Social Equality

6.3.4   Economic Equality

6.4   How can we promote equality?

6.4.1   Establishing Formal Equality

6.4.2   Equality through Different Treatment

6.4.3   Affirmative Action

6.5   Potentialities and limitations of equality

6.6   Equality and justice

CHAPTER 7:   SOCIAL JUSTICE

Overview

7.1   What Is Justice?

7.1.1   Equal Treatment for Equals

7.1.2   Proportionate Justice

7.1.3   Recognition of Special Needs

7.1.4   Dimensions of Justice

7.2   Just Distribution

7.2.1   Theories of distributive Justice

7.2.2   JOHN RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE

7.2.3   VIEWS OF JOHN RAWLS

7.4   Pursuing Social Justice

7.4.1   Free Markets versus State Intervention

7.4.2   ANARCHISM AND JUSTICE

7.4.3   FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES OF JUSTICE

7.4.4   SUBALTERN PERSPECTIVE OF JUSTICE

Subalterism and justice

CHAPTER 8:   PEACE

Overview

8.1   PEACE: An introduction

8.2   The Meaning Of Peace

8.3   Can Violence Ever Promote Peace?

8.4   Peace And The State

8.5   Different Approaches To The Pursuit Of Peace

8.6   Contemporary Challenges

CHAPTER 9:   SECULARISM

Introduction

9.1   What Is Secularism?

9.2   Secular State

9.3   The Western Model Of Secularism

9.4   The Cameroonian Model Of Secularism

CHAPTER 10:   NATIONALISM

Overview

10.1   Introducing Nationalism

10.2   Nations And Nationalism

10.3   National Self-Determination

10.4   Nationalism And Pluralism

CHAPTER 11:   SOCIAL CHANGE

Overview

11.1   What Is Revolution?

11.2   Theories Of Social Evolution

11.2.1   Popper’s piecemeal social change

11.2.2   Evolutionary theory by contemporary writers

CHAPTER 12:   DEVELOPMENT

Overview

12.1   Introduction

12.2   The Challenge Of Development

12.3   Criticisms Of Development Models

12.4   Alternative Conceptions Of Development

Bibliography

About the Author

DEDICATION

I write first of all for myself, for that is how I learn. I also write for world values such as TRUTH, COMPASSION AND TOLERANCE.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank God, my mentors,

and family for their unwavering support

PREFACE

Cameroonians have different ideas about what politics is. Political leaders, and persons who contest elections and hold political office, may argue that it is a kind of public service. Some others associate politics with manipulation and intrigue undertaken to pursue ambitions and satisfy wants. A few think of politics as what politicians do. If they see politicians defecting from parties, making false promises and tall claims, manipulating different sections, pursuing personal or group interests ruthlessly and in worst cases stooping to crime, they link politics with ‘scams’. So prevalent is this way of thinking that when we see people in different walks of life trying to promote their interests by any means possible, we say they are playing politics. If we see a cricketer manipulating to stay in the team, or a fellow student trying to use his father’s position, or a colleague in office mindlessly agreeing with the boss, we say he or she is playing ‘dirty’ politics.

Disillusioned by such pursuits of selfishness we despair of politics. We say, I am not interested in politics or that I am going to stay away from politics. It is not only ordinary people who despair of politics; even businessmen and entrepreneurs routinely blame politics for their woes even as they benefit from and fund various political parties. Cinema stars also complain of politics though they seem to be adept at the game once they join it. We are thus confronted with conflicting images of politics. Is politics an undesirable activity that we should stay away from and get rid off? Or, is it a worthwhile activity which we must engage with in order to make a better world? In this book we defend that politics is a worthwhile activity that stakeholders should do from a professional perspective. A mastery of the concepts and values that shape politics and government is very important in this respect. Understanding these concepts and values is a matter of understanding political theory and the political cultures of different countries.

Cameroon’s degree of success in operating a governmental system that is democratic in character depends, to a very large extent, upon the nature and content of its political culture compared to the contents of political theory. For democracy to work, the Cameroon’s political culture must be compatible with and support the very concepts of constitutionalism, the rule of law, citizenship, peace, justice, freedom and representative democracy—as well as be consistent with and sustain the country’s established, agreed-upon Constitution, including the constitutionally prescribed procedures for managing and resolving controversy over public questions, making and carrying out authoritative decisions on public policy, protecting the rights and liberties of citizens, and peacefully transferring governing authority from one group of political leaders to another.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

It is unfortunate that politics in Cameroon has come to be associated with the pursuit of self-interest by any and every method. We need to realize that politics is an important and integral part of any society. Mahatma Gandhi once observed that politics envelops us like the coils of a snake and there is no other way out but to wrestle with it. No society can exist without some form of political organization and collective decision making. A society that wants to sustain itself needs to take into account the multiple needs and interests of its members. A number of social institutions such as the family, tribes, and economic institutions have emerged to help people fulfill their needs and aspirations. Such institutions help us find ways of living together and acknowledging our obligations to each other. Among such institutions governments play an important part. How governments are formed and how they function is thus an important focus of politics.

But politics is not confined to the affairs of government. In fact what governments do is relevant because it affects the lives of the people in many different ways. We see that governments determine our economic policy and foreign policy and educational policy. These policies can help to improve the lives of people but an inefficient or corrupt government can also endanger people’s lives and security. If the government in power allows communal conflicts to occur, markets close down and schools are shut. This disrupts our lives; we cannot buy things that we may need urgently; those who are sick cannot reach the hospital; even the school schedule gets affected, syllabi cannot be completed and we may have to take extra coaching for the exams and pay tuition fees. If, on the other hand, the government makes policies to increase literacy and employment, we may get an opportunity to go to a good school and get a decent job.

Since the actions of the government affect us deeply we take a lively interest in what governments do. We form associations and organize campaigns to articulate our demands. We negotiate with others and try to shape the goals that governments pursue. When we disagree with the policies of the government, we protest and organize demonstration to persuade our governments to change the existing laws. We passionately debate the actions of our representatives and discuss whether corruption has increased or decreased. We ask whether corruption can be rooted out; whether reservations for specific groups are just or not. We try to understand why some parties and leaders win elections. In this way we look for the rationale underlying the prevalent chaos and decay, and aspire to create a better world.

To sum up, politics arises from the fact that we have different visions of what is just and desirable for us and our society. It involves the multiple negotiations that go on in society through which collective decisions are made.

At one level, it involves what governments do and how they relate to the aspirations of the people; at another level, it involves how people struggle and influence decision making. People may be said to engage in political activity whenever they negotiate with each other and take part in collective activities which are designed to promote social development and help to resolve common problems.

These days everybody acknowledges this fact that politics is influencing every aspect of human life. Whatever the type of administration, political activities seem to be going on around us. We may, or may not participate in political activities, we can’t get rid of politics. People are considered to be the rulers in democratic countries and they are given the right to choose their representatives to rule over them. Therefore, the citizens of such countries are more vigilant about politics. They, not only choose their representatives after every five years, but, go on evaluating the work of their rulers daily. Thus, all citizens take active part in politics in a democracy.

In modern time, state is considered a social welfare institution. Therefore, it is always busy in making the daily life of the citizens happy and, consequently, it fulfils every type of their need. This work is done by those persons who are elected rulers by the public. They run the administration according to the will of their voters. Thus, there is close relationship between the rulers (elected representatives) and the ruled (voters). Rulers, for remaining in their position, always try to secure the support of their voters through various means and on the other hand, the voters, with the help of their limited wisdom, try to hand over the reins of administration in the hands of those who work for public interest. Election of the rulers by the voters and the effort to solve the problems of the citizens by the rulers is the most significant problem of the modern times. The solution of this problem gives birth to politics.

It is because of this relationship of politics with common man’s life that Aristotle has called man, a political being. Politics is involved in the mutual relations of men, in the relations of citizens and rulers and in the efforts of satisfying the unlimited needs of man with limited means. When Aristotle calls politics, the Master Science, he tries to prove that the knowledge of politics is extremely essential to understand the environment around the man. In the views of Aristotle, political aspect of man’s existence is the most important aspect and this aspect determines the other aspects of human life. He has said that legally politics tells us as to what we should do and what not. The relationship between politics and individual life being so important, it is extremely essential to study it systematically.

Politics exist because Human beings are unique in two respects: they possess reason and the ability to reflect on their actions. They also have the capacity to use language and communicate with each other. Unlike other species, they can express their innermost thoughts and desires; they can share their ideas and discuss what they consider to be good and desirable. Political theory has its roots in these twin aspects of the human self. It analyzes certain basic questions such as how society should be organized? Why do we need government? What is the best form of government? Does law limit our freedom? What does the state owe its citizens? What do we owe each other as citizens? Political theory examines questions of this kind and systematically thinks about the values that inform political life—values such as freedom, equality and justice etc. It explains the meanings and significance of these and other related concepts. It clarifies the existing definitions of these concepts by focusing on some major political thinkers of the past and present. It also examines the extent to which freedom or equality are actually present in the institutions that we participate in everyday such as schools, shops, buses or trains or government offices. At an advanced level, it looks at whether existing definitions are adequate and how existing institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policy practices must be modified to become more democratic. The objective of political theory is to train citizens to think rationally about political questions and assess correctly the political events of our time. In this chapter, we will examine what is meant by politics and political theory and why we should study it.

The systematic reflection on politics, the nature and purpose of government and political institutions, involving both to understand them and if necessary, how to change them, is quite old. Political activity is an activity concerned with the management of man’s collective life through the state. From classical period onwards, political speculation has been about: how fundamental political activity is; how it provides the groundwork for human civilization which distinguishes man from all other living creatures; and to inquire into the basic problem of ‘how to live together’ in a community because living together is necessitated by human nature and forms the core of individual life. Political theory seeks to understand, explain and analyse the political phenomena and prescribe ways and means to rectify the shortcomings. Political theory is a complex subject. This is because in the Western tradition, it is at least 2300 years old and has been attended to by philosophers, theologians, kings, economists, sociologists, popes and others. The number of political theorists is very large, and the interests and commitments of those engaged in this field have been so different that we are faced with the difficult task of answering a simple question: What is political theory? Moreover, because of the diversity and changes in the socio-economic circumstances, there have been substantial changes both in the subject matter of political theory and the methods of studying it.

In applying political theory, some countries are more successful than others due to the variations in political culture from country to country. A country’s degree of success in operating a governmental system that is democratic in character depends, to a very large extent, upon the nature and content of the political culture of that country. For democracy to work, the country’s political culture must be compatible with and support the very concepts of constitutionalism, the rule of law, and representative democracy—as well as be consistent with and sustain the country’s established, agreed-upon Constitution, including the constitutionally prescribed procedures for managing and resolving controversy over public questions, making and carrying out authoritative decisions on public policy, protecting the rights and liberties of citizens, and peacefully transferring governing authority from one group of political leaders to another.

For the purpose of study, we define politics, government and political theory with regards to the values that inform political life—values such as freedom, equality and justice etc. We shall talk in detail on this subject in the course of this book.

CHAPTER 1

POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

1.1   WHAT IS POLITICS?

1.1.1   DISTORTED AND REAL NATURE OF POLITICS.

Now-a-days, there is more distorted form of politics as we daily hear about politics of the family, politics of the college, politics of the village etc. All this implies that to achieve our aims by telling lies, by cheating and by dishonesty, is called politics. Conferences, processions, slogans, stribes and riots, are being accepted as parts of politics. In fact, it is the distorted form of politics.

For the sake of brevity and simplification, politics, at this point in our study, may be defined as human activity concerned with (1) controversies over public questions and (2) the resolution, or settlement, of those controversies.

i.   Politics and Public Questions:

Public questions—variously referred to as public issues, political issues, and political questions"—may be defined as questions, or issues, which relate to (1) public problems and (2) the making and carrying out of governmental decisions relevant to public problems. Very important public questions which a politically organized society like Cameroon must more or less continually face and resolve include (1) who is to control the government and (2) how and for what purposes the power of government is to be employed. Which political elite, party, or coalition is to control and direct the government, exercising authority to make and implement decisions for and in the name of the entire political society, or community? To what ends is the exercise of political authority, or governmental power, to be directed? What means are to be employed by the government in its exercise of political authority to achieve the ends? What official decisions are to be made by the government and by what methods is it to enforce these decisions?

In short, politics exists whenever there is disagreement within society over (1) who should hold government office, or public office, (2) what decisions should be made by government officeholders, and (3) how these decisions should be carried out.

ii.   Politics and Public Problems:

A "public problem is any problem which a large number of persons—or a small number of politically influential persons—within the political society think is a problem that the government should endeavor to solve. A problem has become a public problem when individuals and groups concerned about the problem begin to coalesce (i.e., unite, or join together) and mobilize political resources in a drive to get the government to do something about the problem. The individuals and groups advocating governmental action are convinced that private individuals, groups and institutions, acting privately, voluntarily and without the assistance of public authority and public funds, cannot solve the problem. They are demanding that the government, the public authority and the holder and dispenser of public funds, take official action to deal with the problem.

Public problems, in other words, are governmental problems—problems which the government is expected to solve.

Politics, then, is concerned with the solution of any public, or governmental, problem—a problem which emerges when a group of citizens with sufficient numerical strength and/or political influence perceives the existence of a problem with which only the government can cope effectively. The group demands that the government take action to deal with the problem. Another group may have contrary perceptions, seeing the problem as a private matter and therefore opposing governmental action to deal with it. Alternatively, the opposing group may see the matter as a public problem, but object to the particular governmental action advocated by the first group. In either case, a public issue, or public question, has been raised. There is considerable controversy regarding the issue. This political controversy must be resolved. And human activity concerned with such a controversy and its resolution is the very definition of politics.

1.1.2   POLITICS AND ITS DISTRIBUTIVE EFFECTS:

a.   Politics as a Governmental Distribution.

In defining politics, many modern political scientists emphasize the distributive, or allocative, consequences of decisionmaking and action by the government to resolve public questions and solve public problems. They point out that politics very importantly involves an authoritative distribution of a political society’s relatively scarce resources, i.e., an allocation of resources through official decisionmaking and action by the government.

b.   Harold Lasswell’s Definition—Politics as Governmental Determination of Who Gets What, When, and How.

Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, author of a major study of the distributive consequences of political activity, gave his book the title, Politics—Who Gets What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined politics as involving questions as to who gets what, when, and how. Politics, according to Lasswell, is concerned with determination, by official governmental decisionmaking and action, of (1) who in political society receives what benefits, rewards, and advantages and how much of them they receive, (2) when they receive the benefits, rewards, and advantages, and (3) the methods by which they receive them. Conversely, politics is also concerned with determining, by governmental decisionmaking and action, (1) who in society is denied what benefits, rewards, and advantages, (2) when and how long they are denied them, and (3) the methods by which they are subjected to such deprivations.

c.   David Easton’s Definition—Politics as the Authoritative Allocation of Values for Society.

David Easton, another modern political scientist, defines politics as the authoritative allocation by the political system of values for society. Easton, in A Framework for Political Analysis, uses the term political system to designate the pattern or system of human inter—actions and relationships in any political society through which authoritative allocations are made and implemented—allocations that are binding on all members of the society and are recognized as such by the great majority of the members. Easton defines a society’s political system as those patterns of interaction through which values are allocated for a society and these allocations are accepted as authoritative by most persons in the society most of the time. Allocating society’s values and obtaining widespread acceptance within the society of the authoritative, or binding, nature of the allocations, according to Easton, constitute the basic functions of any political society. It is through the presence of activities that fulfill these two basic functions that a society can commit the resources and energies of its members in the settlement of differences that cannot be autonomously [i.e., individually or privately] resolved.

In A Systems Analysis of Political Life, Easton again defines the political system as consisting of those interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society. Easton sees politics as human activity involved in the operation, or functioning, of the political system—activity concerned with authoritative decisionmaking and action by the government, decisionmaking and action resulting in an authoritative allocation of values for the society. To say it another way, Easton defines politics as activity relating to the authoritative decisions of a society’s government and to the effect that enforcement of these decisions has on the allocation, or distribution, of rewards and values among the different segments of the society.

By the word value, Easton means any soughtafter value in life. A value is any object, activity, idea, principle, goal, or other phenomenon upon which large numbers of people place appreciable value, something which is considered by many individuals and groups within the political community to be good, desirable, attractive, useful, rewarding, beneficial, or advantageous. One set of values may be tangible, or material, in form—i.e., in the form of money, property, and/or other economic goods, services, and conditions. Another set of values may be intangible; that is, the values may be symbolic, ideological, cultural, ethical, moral, or religious in character. Examples of intangible values in contemporary American politics include the expressed goals of political activists who assert that they are concerned primarily with social or family issues that they seek mainly to promote and defend «social or family" values.

1.1.3   POLITICS—THE HIGH STAKES INVOLVED.

In focusing upon the distributive consequences of politics, modern political scientists have provided us with a framework of study and analysis which calls attention to the high stakes involved in political controversy—a framework which points out the potential for significant gains or losses for particular individuals and groups in controversy over the resolution of public questions, depending on how the questions are resolved. The resolution of questions regarding who is to control the government and how and for what purposes its power is to be employed is also a determination of how certain very important benefits, rewards, and advantages are to be allocated among the different segments of the political society. It is a determination of who gets what, when, and how. It is a determination of how a political community’s resources and values are to be allocated.

The allocation never has been and probably never can be equally satisfying to all segments of a political society. Different groups are differently situated within the society and therefore have varying and competing interests. No matter what the government does, its decisions and actions affect different groups differently. The interests of some groups are furthered by particular actions and decisions of the government, while the interests of other groups are thwarted; or the interests of some groups are furthered more than those of other groups. Some groups receive more of the benefits, rewards, and advantages allocated by the government; other groups receive less of them, or are allocated more of the costs and burdens associated with life in a politically organized society. In short, there are sharp conflicts of interest over the government’s authoritative allocation of resources and values.

Hence, the levels of social tension and political conflict can be and often are quite high. Under such circumstances, competition for political power is likely to be very keen. Groups and factions with clashing interests compete with each other for political power. Opposing political forces compete with one another for the ability to shape and control the content and direction of public policy. Rival political parties and candidates for public office compete for the formal-legal authority to govern the political community, i.e., to control and direct the government and decide how and for what purposes its power will be used. Organized interest groups compete for the capacity to influence the official decisions and actions of the public officeholders who control the government and exercise its authority.

1.1.4   POLITICS—THE PURSUIT & INTERPLAY OF INTERESTS:

a. The Concept of Interest. "Interest has been a key concept in the study of politics since the early 1500s. In politics, the concept of interest suggests the existence of a claim or demand for some benefit, reward, or advantage to be allocated by the government. An interested individual or an interest" group engages in political activity in expectation of deriving something of value from the authoritative decisions and actions of government.

b. Politics—The Definition of Karl Deutsch. Political scientist Karl Deutsch defines politics primarily in terms of the pursuit and interplay of interests. Politics, according to Deutsch, occurs largely in the pursuit of interests of particular individuals and groups and deals with the interplay of interests—the claiming and distributing of rewards, that is, of values, things or relationships that people would like to have or to enjoy. The interest of a politically active individual or group in a given situation generally consists of the benefits or rewards that the political actor is able to extract from the situation. Politics is the process by which values are allocated authoritatively… and legitimately… .

Politics, in other words, consists of the activities of politically interested individuals and groups operating within a society’s political arena and seeking to affect the nature and outcome of official decisionmaking and action by the government. Interested individuals and groups, each striving to further its own special interests by making particular demands, or claims, on the entire political community, engage in competition, conflict, negotiation, bargaining, and compromise over governmental determination of who in the community, or society, gets what, when, and how. Politically interested and active individuals and groups seek to impact on the government’s authoritative allocation of society’s resources and values, each individual or group hoping to maximize, increase, or, at least, prevent a reduction in the benefits, rewards, and advantages it receives from the allocation and to minimize, lower, or, at least, prevent an increase in the costs, burdens, and deprivations.

c. Political Interest Groups. Deutsch’s definition of politics can be utilized to explain or account for the existence and operation of political interest groups within a political community, or society.

When the individuals comprising a particular segment of a political society have a common interest in a particular situation in that society and are conscious of their shared interest, they typically form an interest group, which makes certain claims, or demands, on other segments of the society. The members of the interest group feel that, on the basis of and with respect to their common interest, they have justifiable claims on other persons and groups within the society.

If the members of an interest group have a common interest in a given set of political phenomena and are aware of their shared political interest, they will perceive of themselves as having a justifiable claim on the entire political society, or community. The interest group which they have formed will operate as a political interest group, making demands on the government, which is the agent, or instrument, of the whole society. There may be demands for certain decisions to be made and carried out by the government; or there may be demands that the government refrain from making and implementing particular decisions.

In this perspective, politics has been termed as the means of establishing conciliation and coordination among different interests. We know that people living in the society have different desires and aspirations. In order to fulfil them numerous organisations, communities and institutions are formed. We see countless such institutions in economic, social, religions and cultural spheres.

State is also a political institution/organisation but due to its prime importance it is the most powerful one among all the institutions. Man goes on trying always to fulfil his desires, aspirations and wants. In the course of fulfilling them it is natural to face opposition, confrontation and struggle. Thus there remains a continuous situation of struggle and confrontation between man and various institutions formed by him. Politics is the means of establishing rapport, coordination and conciliation among different interests created among individuals, communities and groups (classes). As politics establishes conciliation after removing various confrontations and struggles, where there is politics there would be problems, confrontations, oppositions and struggles. In this way every walk of life is confronted with politics. Stephan L. Wasby has rightly said that it is generally said that politics will exist where there is a dispute. Where there is a problem there is politics. Where there is no dispute, there is no situation of debate on problems and there is no question of the existence of politics. (Political Science—The Discipline and its Dimensions). Politics is such a process of removing confrontation and solving disputes and problems that goes on in every field of society without break.

1.   Controversy should be within State limits. Disputes may be of two types-one of individual or private disputes and the other of state limits. Individual disputes between husband and wife may be on what is to be prepared in the meals and to which park we have to go on strolling in the evening, what should be the cost of cloths to be purchased from the market? And in which institution/school children should be admitted. Such disputes do not come in the scope of state limits, hence they are out of our study. The other group of disputes are those disputes which come under the scope of state limits. If there is a dispute or controversy between husband and wife over the division of a property, its solution is possible only through politics or in other words through state. The subject matter of studies is the solution of such disputes and controversies which come under the scope of state.

2.   Existence of Established Laws about Controversy. It is also necessary to have established laws to settle these disputes or controversies. Such established laws are accepted by one and all. Both the parties should also be made confident that through laws framed by state we are capable of settling disputes and controversies.

3.   The state and politics will bring about unity and agreement in the society full of conflicts and disagreements. Man is a rational animal, he bases his behaviour on criteria of good and bad or useful and useless. He is vigilant about his interests, and he is busy in the fulfilment of his various types of interests. In the society, there is clash of interests of the individuals. And, because of it, the conflicts and struggles among them are natural. Where, in a society there is disorder and lack of peace because of the conflict of interests, development is restricted and the individual interests also are not satisfied. The liberals hold that, in the society full of conflicts and differences, state and politics try to establish unity and agreement. They say that state is an instrument for establishing unity and agreement in the human society. Politics is the process through which unity and agreement are born. J.B. Miller has said that The origin of politics lies in social diversity. By saying this, he meant that politics comes into being for removing the conflicts, differences and disagreements present in the society. The process in the instrument, i.e. the state lessens the gulf between these interests. Thus, the liberals consider the state and politics as the means for developing a peaceful society minus conflicts.

In this context, according to Maurice Duverger, two self-contradictory points of view come to the fore, regarding the aims of politics. The first point of view is that of the Communists. They say that the powerful men, who are in authority, to maintain their hold in the society and to achieve their interest, make use of politics. In their eyes, there is no good aim of politics. It is an instrument of the strong to maintain their domination over the weak. According to the other view, politics is an effort to bring about the rule of order and justice in which power guarantees the general interest and the common good against the pressures of private interest. The fact is, that in every society, the above given both the forms of politics, are active. On the one hand, the ruling class tries to use politics for the fulfilment of its interests and for making its authority permanent to dominate others, and, on the other hand, politics works as such an instrument with the help of which a definite social order is established and in which, the efforts are made to limit the individual interest for the satisfaction of the general interest. The liberals support the second aspect of politics.

(4)   Politics is the process through which peaceful social change is possible. By studying the history of the political ideologies, it becomes clear that liberalism was a revolt against blind faith, traditionalism, conservatism and religious fundamentalism. It always supported the wise and reasonable ideas because liberalism