Q1. What do you understand by Information processes data?

Ans: Information as Processed Data Data are generally considered to be raw facts that have undefined uses and application; information is considered to be processed data that influences choices, that is, data that have somehow been formatted, filtered, and summarized; and knowledge is considered to be an understanding derived from information distinctions among data, information, and knowledge may be derived from scientific terminology. The researcher collects data to test hypotheses; thus, data refer to unprocessed and unanalyzed numbers. When the data are analyzed, scientists talk about the information contained in the data and the knowledge acquired from their analyses. The confusion often extends to the information systems context, and the three terms maybe used interchangeably. Data processing is any computer process that converts data into information. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on a mainframe, minicomputer, microcomputer, or personal computer. Because data are most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data processing systems are often referred to as information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are roughly Synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output. To better market their profession, a computer programmer or a systems analyst that might once have referred, such as during the 1970s, to the computer systems that they produce as data-processing systems more often than not nowadays refers to the computer systems that they produce by some other term that includes the word information, such as information systems, information technology systems, or management information systems. In the context of data processing, data are defined as numbers or characters that represent measurements from the real world. A single datum is a single measurement from the real world. Measured information is then algorithmically derived and/or logically deduced and/or statistically calculated from multiple data. Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or a meaningful stimulus that can cascade into further queries. Q2. How do you retrieve information from manual system? Ans: Retrieving desired data from manual systems can be time consuming and expensive executives spend approximately six weeks a year on average looking for misplaced material. Secretaries may spend as much as 30 percent of their time looking for paper documents and approximately 20 percent of that time searching for misfiled items. Because paper files require large amounts of space, managers may store the data on a different floor or even in a different building. The labour costs of retrieving even small amounts of information exceed those for retrieving information electronically unless the organization can create small and compact storage for its paper records.

Electronic systems provide rapid and inexpensive access to information stored electronically in an organized fashion. The costs incurred are only those of using the computer equipment for a fraction of a second, particularly when retrieval is part of ongoing processing. If an individual requests the retrieval, it may require additional processing to translate the retrieval request from a form understood by the person to a form understood by the computer. Then the information is stored in a different place from where it is requested, the request must be transmitted electronically to where the data are stored, and the retrieved data must be transmitted back. Communication costs are relatively low for small amounts of information, but the communication equipment and infrastructure can be expensive unless amortized over a sufficiently large volume of data communication. Companies that have small communication needs can pay to use the infrastructure of third parties, such as telephone companies. More generally, the term data processing can apply to any process that converts data from one format to another, although data conversion would be the more logical and correct term. From this perspective, data processing becomes the process of converting information into data and also the converting of data back into information. The distinction is that conversion doesnt require a question (query) to be answered. For example, information in the form of a string of characters forming a sentence in English is converted or encoded from a keyboard's key-presses as represented by hardware oriented integer codes into ASCII integer codes after which it may be more easily processed by a computernot as merely raw, amorphous integer data, but as a meaningful character in a natural language's set of graphemesand finally converted or decoded to be displayed as characters, represented by a font on the computer display. In that example we can see the stage-by-stage conversion of the presence of and then absence of electrical conductivity in the key-press and subsequent release at the keyboard from raw substantially meaningless integer hardware-oriented data to evermoremeaningful information as the processing proceeds toward the human being. Q3. What are the challenges of information management? Ans: Challenges of Information Management In identifying their information management requirements, individuals face four major challenges in addition to securing the most appropriate information. First, they must deal with large quantities of information that may create overload. Second, they may face insufficient or conflicting information. Third, they must find ways to enhance their personal productivity. Fourth, they must acquire and maintain the technical skills needed for effective personal information management. The gap between the amount of information that an organization can collect and the ability of its employees to make sense of that information has been widening rather than narrowing. The early fear that computers would so improve a person's ability to process and manage information that a job holder would need only one-third to one-half the time to do his or her job has been dispelled The reverse has occurred. Often employees face an infoglut, an overload of information. As individuals move higher in the organizational hierarchy and assume more managerial responsibility, information overload become an

even more significant challenge. To avoid such overload individuals must carefully asses their information needs and then find effective ways of managing the required and available information. They must also find ways to manage data better. Although computers can make large quantities of information available to individuals, such information may not address their needs. Ramesh, ASM of Airtel, may wish to do some library research about competitors' products. In spite of the large amount of information in the library's electronic catalog, she may not be able to secure the precise information she needs. Because computers process input from diverse sources, users may also obtain conflicting information if one source updates information more frequently than another does. Q4. Explain the different components of MIS. Ans: Components of MIS The physical components of MIS comprise the computer and communications hardware, software, database, personnel, and procedures. Almost all organizations employ multiple computer systems, ranging from powerful mainframe machines (sometimes including supercomputers) through minicomputers, to widely spread personal computers (also known as microcomputers). The use of multiple computers, usually interconnected into networks by means of telecommunications, is called distributed processing. The driving forces that have changed the information processing landscape from centralized processing, relying on single powerful mainframes, to distributed processing have been the rapidly increasing power and decreasing costs of smaller computers. Though the packaging of hardware subsystems differs among the three categories of computers (mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers), all of them are similarly organized. Thus, a computer system comprises a central processor (though multiprocessors with several central processing units are also used), which controls all other units by executing machine instructions; a hierarchy of memories; and devices for accepting input (for example, a keyboard or a mouse) and producing output (say, a printer or a video display terminal). The memory hierarchy ranges from a fast primary memory from which the central processor can fetch instructions for execution; through secondary memories (such as disks) where on-line databases are maintained; to the ultra high capacity archival memories that are also employed in some cases. Multiple computer systems are organized into networks in most cases. Various network configurations are possible, depending upon an organization's need. Fast local area networks join machines, most frequently clusters of personal computers, at a particular organizational site such as a building or a campus. The emerging metropolitan area networks serve large urban communities. Wide area networks connect machines at remote sites, both within the company and in its environment. Through networking, personal-computer users gain access to the broad computational capabilities of large

machines and to the resources maintained there, such as large databases. This connectivity converts personal computers into powerful workstations. Computer software falls into two classes: systems software and applications software. Systems software manages the resources of the system and simplifies programming. Operating systems (UNIX, for example) control all the resources of a computer system and enable multiple users to run their programs on a computer system without being aware of the complexities of resource allocation. Even if you are just using a personal computer, a complex series of actions takes place when, for example, you start the machine, check out its hardware, and call up a desired program. All of these actions fall under the control of an operating system, such as DOS or IBM OS/2. Telecommunications monitors manage computer communications; database management systems make it possible to organize vast collections of data so that they are accessible for fast and simple queries and the production of reports. Software translators-compilers or interpreters, make it possible to program an application in a higher-level language, such as COBOL or C. The translator converts program statements into machine instructions ready for execution by the computer's central processor. Professional MIS personnel include development and maintenance managers, systems analysts, programmers, and operators, often with highly specialized skills. The hallmark of the present stage in organizational computing is the involvement of end users to a significant degree in the development of information systems. Procedures to be followed in using, operating, and maintaining computerized systems are a part of the system documentation. Q5. Explain various Organizational limits to Relational Decision Making? Ans: Organizational Limits to Rational Decision Making The rational model of organizational decision making reflects only some aspects of the decision-making environment: those that lend themselves most readily to receiving support from information systems. Other aspects include instrumentalism, chance-driven choice making, political/competitive behavior, and programmed choice making. As you shall see, most of these decision-making behaviors are rooted in the divergent interests of the people involved in making a decision. Therefore, various types of group decision support systems (GDSSs) can help these groups to negotiate, foresee, and manage a crisis, or to look at a broad array of alternatives before arriving at a decision. Charles Lindblom analyzed how the decision-making process, particularly in large organizations (including governments), differs from the rational model. He contended that decision making in large organizations under ordinary circumstances is a process of "muddling through"-making small, incremental changes from existing actions and policies. The important criteria in this decision-making mode are avoiding the uncertainty of major changes and maintaining the consensus of all involved. Making a decision is not

concluded by the "choice" of an alternative; it is rather a continuous process, during which any chosen course of action may be modified as it is implemented. The more recent, and most pessimistic, so-called garbage can theory of organizational decision making is based on the premise that not all organizations are destined to succeed-many companies (even those considered excellent at some point) will fail. These firms are unable to adapt to the changing environment, and much of their decision making consists of attaching solutions to problems in a rather random manner. In one sense, "garbage-can" decision making is present to some extent in all companies: because of the difficulty in forecasting outcomes, chance does playa role in providing a solution to many an organizational problem. Other aspects of organizational decision making are reflected by what George Huber called the political/competitive model. A decision process generally includes several participants, each of whom may seek to influence the decision in a direction favorable to themselves or to the unit they represent. For example, several studies of budget development clearly point to it being a political process. The need to reconcile the diverging interests of various stakeholders (for example, senior management, labor, government, and others) often leads participants to avoid making major departures from current policies-and is thus one of the reasons for incremental decision making. Rational decision making in organizations is also limited by programmed behavior. When decision makers engage in this type of behavior, they follow standard operating procedures, which constrain their choices and prevents creative problem solving as they opt for the "safe and tried." An analysis of the results of previous choices, assisted by information systems, may help decision makers relax the constraints of programmed choice making. Q6. Write a note on Ethical and Social issues with E-Commerce. Ans Ethical and social issues with network Home office Information technology has made it possible for many people to perform their job functions using their home as an office. Many of the salespeople, may spend most of their time working from home because they require minimal interaction with the corporate office. Computer programmers increasingly work at home because they essentially require only a computer, modem, and telephone line to perform their job. These and other forms of telecommuting, where an individual works from home and typically communicates extensively with the corporate office using electronic media, have increased in popularity. In 1991, for example, the National Association for the Cottage Industry estimated that 38 million Americans spend a significant amount of time working out of a home office. Experts estimate that about 75 percent of all information workers, encompassing more than 55 percent of the U.S. workforce, are potential telecommuters. Even in India, the telecommuting is welcomed and more and more of the organisation are adopting, as they find it has various advantages.

The Value of Telecommuting A home office offers a worker increased flexibility in work hours, increased ability to deal with family issues, less time spent in commuting, and the ability to purchase less costly homes distant from city centers; it also increases personal autonomy and control. An organization that allows employees to spend most of their time working from a home office may hire or retain talented and unique employees who avoid a more traditional work location. Apple Computer, AT&T, exemplify the growing number of companies whose policies include telecommuting as an accepted corporate practice. Many professionals who deal in foreign markets or with foreign companies maintain an office in their home in addition to or instead of an office at their company. This remote location permits them to work more easily throughout the night to stay in touch with key clients and branch offices and to monitor key market information as it evolves. In India it has helped organizations to retain female computer professionals, as they get wedlock and leave the organisation due to their commitment towards the bringing up of the child. Telecommuting has helped to reduce such numbers to a large extent. The major disadvantage of telecommuting is a decrease in face-to-face communication with others in the organization. In the near future, however, the increasing availability and lower cost of teleconferencing equipment that permits transmission of video images across the phone lines may reduce this problem. Some small cities are trying to attract telecommuters as residents by significantly upgrading their communication capabilities. Managers may oppose telecommuting because they fear a loss to control over workers, are concerned about an employee's legal obligations to the company when off-site, or fail to understand the benefits of this arrangement to the organization. Improvements in telecommunication, greater acceptance of employee autonomy, and a greater number of successful home offices may address this problem. Other Remote Options Some individuals perform only part of their work at home, rather than doing the majority of it at home on a computer during regular work hours. For example, may spend several hours a day working at home so that they can travel in off-peak hours. Workers may participate in after hours telecommuting, where they perform their work on the computer at home outside regular office hours. This type of alternative work arrangement potentially increases workers' flexibility by helping them handle multiple responsibilities, spend more time with children, and control the pacing of work. Although this flexibility should reduce the conflict between work and family, research suggests that the reverse has occurred. In particular, after-hour telecommuting has two consequences. First, it increases role overload because of the increase in the number of hours spent per week working. Second, it interferes with workers' performing multiple roles because work spills into family time and intrudes on nonwork responsibilities.