E3125/2/1 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER-OPTIC SYSTEM

UNIT 2

INTRODUCTION TO FIBER-OPTIC SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES

General Objective

: To understand the concept of the Fiber-Optic System.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to : define the terms optical and light. name six typical communications applications for fiberoptic cable. draw a basic block diagram of a fiber-optic communications system and tell what each part of it does. explain how light is propagated through the fiber-optic cable. name the three basic types of fiber-optic cables, and state the two materials from which they are made.

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INPUT INPUT

2.0

Introduction to Fiber-Optic

Throughout the world, thousands of simultaneous voice conversations are now being transmitted over the fiberoptic cable which has a diameter of less than the diameter of a human hair.

Light wave communication was first considered more than 100 years ago. The implementation of optical communication using light waveguides was restricted to very short distance prior to 1970. Corning Glass Company achieved a breakthrough in 1970 by producing a fused silica (SiO2) fiber with a loss approximately 20 dB/km. The development of semiconductor light source also started to mature at about that time, allowing the feasibility of transmission over a few kilometers to be demonstrated. Since 1970, the rate of technological progress

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has been phenomenal, and optical fibers are now used in transoceanic service. Besides the long-distance routes, fibers are used in the inter-CO (inter exchange) routes, and the subscriber loop in the final link in what will eventually be the global interconnection chain. Optical fibers are associated with high-capacity communications. A lot of attention is presently being given to optical fibers to provide a very extensive broadband ISDN.

Fiber optics is defined as that branch of optics that deals with the transmission of light through ultrapure fibers of glass, plastic, or some other form of transparent media. From a decorative standpoint, most of us are familiar with the fiber optic lamp, which uses bundles of thin optical fibers illuminated from the base end of the lamp by a light source. The light source is made to vary in color, which can be seen at the opposite ends of the fiber as a tree of illuminating points radiating various colors of the transmitted light. Although the lamp is used for decorative purposes only, it serves as an excellent model of how light can be transmitted through the fiber.

2.1

Light Light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. The basic characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is its frequency or wavelength. Light frequencies fall between microwaves and xrays, as shown in Figure 2.1.

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Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum Light frequency spectrum can be divided into three general bands: 1. Infrared : Band of light wavelengths that are too long to be seen by the human eye. 2. Visible : Band of light wavelengths to which the human eye will respond. human eye. Light waves are commonly specified in terms of wavelength instead of frequency. Units typically used are the nanometer or micrometer ( 1 micrometer = 1micron). 3. Ultraviolet :Band of light wavelengths that are too short to be seen by the

2.2 Applications of Fiber-Optic Fiber-optic communications systems are being used more and more each day. Their primary use is in long-distance telephone systems and cable TV system. Fiber-optic cables are no more expensive or complex to install than standard electrical cables, yet their information-carrying capacity is many times greater. In all cases, the fiber-optic cables replace conventional coaxial or twisted-pair cables. Below are some applications which use fiber-optic cables :1. 2. 3. 4. 5. TV studio to transmitter interconnection eliminating a microwave radio link. Closed-circuit TV systems used in buildings for security. Secure communications systems at military bases. Computer networks, wide area and local area. Shipboard communications.

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6. 7. 8. 9.
10.

Aircraft communications. Aircraft controls. Interconnection of measuring and monitoring instruments in plants and laboratories. Data acquisition and control signal communications in industrial process control systems. Nuclear plant instrumentation. College campus communication. Utilities ( electrical , gas, and so on) station communications. Cable TV systems replacing coaxial cable.

11. 12. 13.

Television, Television, for for cable cable operators operators networks, networks, together together with with coaxial coaxial cable cable is is used used for for the the final final connection connection to to the the subscriber subscriber and and medicine, medicine, where where optical optical fiber fiber is is used used

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2.3

Fiber-Optic System Block Diagram Figure 2.2 shows a simplified block diagram of an optical fiber communications link. The three primary building blocks of the link are the transmitter, the receiver, and the fiber guide.

Fiber Coder Coder Light Light Source Source Repeater Repeater (long (long distance) distance)

Light pulses Fiber Light Light Detector Detector Decoder Decoder

Figure 2.2 Simplified fiber optic communications block diagram The transmitter consists of an analog to digital converter (coder), and a light source. The A/D converter is used to convert continuous analog signals such as

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voice or video (TV) signals into a series of digital pulses. The digital pulses are then used to flash a powerful light source off and on very rapidly. The light source is either a light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection laser diode (ILD).The light-beam pulses are then fed into a fiber-optic cable where they are transmitted over long distances. The optical fiber consists of a glass or plastic fiber core, a cladding, and a protective jacket. Repeaters are used to ensure the signals can be transmitted efficiently when the two stations are separated far enough from each other. The receiver includes a light detector or photocell and a decoder. The light detector is very often either a PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type) diode or an APD (avalanche photodiode). The light detector, acting as the receiving element, converts the received light pulses back to pulses of electrical current. The electrical pluses are amplified and reshaped back into digital form that is fed to a decoder such as a D/A converter, where the original voice or video is recovered. 2.4 Fiber-optic cable construction An optical fiber is a long, cylindrical, transparent material that confines and propagates light waves shown in Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4 . It is comprised of three layers; the centre core that carries the light, the cladding layer covering the core that confines the light to the core, and the coating that provides protection for the cladding. The fiber itself is generally regarded as the core and its cladding. The material composition of these two layers can be any of the following : Glass cladding and glass core Plastic cladding and glass core Plastic cladding and plastic core

Coating materials include lacquer, silicone, and acrylates.

Figure 2.3

Typical Fiber Optic Cabling

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The index of refraction in the silica core is about 1.5 and the cladding is slightly less, at about 1.48. The index of refraction of air is 1.003. The fiber coating is normally colored using manufacturers standard color codes to facilitate the identification of fiber. Optical fibers can also be made completely from plastic or other materials. They are usually less expensive but have higher attenuation (loss) and limited application.

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Example 2.1 The optical spectrum is made up of three parts. Name them.

Solution to Example 2.1 In the optical spectrum, the three parts are infrared, visible and ultraviolet.

Lets have some activity !!! Yeah.!!!!

VROOOOM..VROO VROOOOM..VROO OOM. OOM.

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Activity 2A

TEST OUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT! Answer the following questions. 2.1 2.2 2.3 The major use of fiber-optic cables is ______________________. True or False. Fiber-optic cable has more loss than electric cable over long distance. True or False. Fiber-optic cable is smaller, lighter, and stronger than electric cable. 2.4 Voice and video signals are converted into ____________ before being transmitted by a light beam.

Choose the letter which best answers each question. 2.5 The core of a fiber-optic cable is made of . a. b. c. Air Glass Diamond

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2.6

Which of the following is not a common application of fiber-optic cable? a. b. c. Computer networks Telephone systems Consumer TV

2.7

The core of a fiber-optic cable is surrounded by a. b. c. Cladding Wire braid shield Paper

2.8

Which of the following is not part of the optical spectrum? a. b. c. Infrared Gamma-rays Ultraviolet

2.9

The speed of light in plastic compared to the speed of light in air is. a. b. c. Less More The same

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Feedback To Activity 2A

2.1 2.2 .3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

telephone systems false true binary or digital pulses c a b a a

II have have done done all all the the questions questions in in activity activity 3A 3A successfully. successfully.

Well Well done! done! And And now now you you can can proceed proceed to to the the next next input. input.

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INPUT INPUT

2.5

Basic Optical Laws When light traveling in a transparent material meets the surface of another transparent material two things happen:a) b) some of the light is reflected some of the light is transmitted into the second transparent material

The light which is transmitted usually changes direction when it enters the second material. This bending of light is called refraction and it depends upon the fact that light travels at one speed in one material and at a different speed in a different material. As a result each material has its own Refractive Index which we use to help us calculate the amount of bending which takes place. Refractive index is defined as:

n =C

Equation 2.1

where n is the refractive index C is the speed of light in a vacuum

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is the speed of light in the material

The indexes of refraction of several common materials are given in Table 2.1. Medium Vacuum Air Water Ethyl alcohol Fused quartz Glass fiber Diamond Silicon Gallium-arsenide 1.0 1.0003 ( 1.0 ) 1.33 1.36 1.46 1.5-1.9 2.0-2.42 3.4 3.6 Index of Refraction

Index of refraction is based on a wavelength of light emitted from a sodium flame (5890 ) Table 2.1 Typical Indexes of Refraction

How a light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two transmissive materials that have different indexes of refraction can be explained with Snells law. Snells law simply states

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
where n1 = refractive index of material 1 (unit less)

Equation 2.2

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n2 = refractive index of material 2 (unit less) 1 = angle of incidence (degrees) 2 = angle of refraction (degrees) A refractive index for Snells law is shown in figure 2.5. At the interface, the incident ray may be refracted toward the normal or away from it, depending on whether n1 is less than or greater than n2 .

Normal 2

( n1 < n2 )

( n1 = n 2 ) Unrefracted Ray

( n1 > n2 ) 2 Medium n2 Medium n1 1 (angle of incidence) Incident ray Figure 2.5 Refractive model for Snells law 2.5.1 Critical Angle The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray may strike the interface of two media and result in an angle of refraction of 90 or greater, as shown in Figure 2.6. This definition pertains only when the light ray is traveling from a more dense medium into a less dense medium. The critical angle can be derived from Snells law as follows: n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 Refracted Ray

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sin 1 = n2 sin 2 n1

When 2 = 90 which result to sin 2 = 1, then 1 = C , Therefore,

1 n2 Critical Angle : C = sin n 1

Equation

2.3

Normal

n2 less dense n1 more dense 1=C (minimum) Incident ray

Refracted ray (more to less dense)

Figure 2.6 Critical Angle Refraction 2.5.2 Total Internal Reflection

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The transmitted ray now tries to travel in both materials simultaneously for various reasons this is physically impossible so there is no transmitted ray and all the light energy is reflected. This is true for any value of 1, the angle of incidence is equal to or greater than c Figure 2.7 shows the Total Internal Reflection (TIR). We can define the two conditions necessary for TIR to occur: 1. The refractive index of the first medium is greater than the refractive index of the second one. 2. The angle of incidence, 1, is greater than or equal to the critical angle, c

The phenomenon of TIR causes 100% reflection. In no other situation in nature, where light is reflected, does 100% reflection occur. So TIR is unique and very useful. Normal

n2 less dense n1 more dense 1>C Incident ray Figure 2.7 The Total Internal Reflection

Total Internal Reflection of Incident Ray

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2.5.3 Numerical Aperture One of the properties of a fiber, which we need to know, is called the Numerical Aperture. The numerical aperture is defined as:

Equation 2.4

and Also, Where NA n1 n2 A

NA =

2 n12 n2

Equation 2.5

sin 1 NA = A

= = = =

numerical aperture (unitless) refractive index of the glass core (unitless) refractive index of the cladding (unitless) acceptance angle (degrees)

It is a measure of the light gathering power of the fiber. It lies between 0 and 1. A numerical aperture of 0 means that the fiber gathers no light (corresponding to A = 0o). A numerical aperture of 1 means that the fiber gathers all the light that falls onto it (corresponding to A = 90o).

2.6 Light Ray Propagation in a Fiber-Optic Cable The angle A in the Figure 2.8 is called the Acceptance Angle. Any light entering the fiber at less than this angle will meet the cladding at an angle greater than c. If light meets the inner surface of the cladding (the core-cladding interface) at greater than or equal to c then TIR occurs. So all the energy in the ray of light is reflected back into the core and none escapes into the cladding. The ray then crosses to the other side of the core and because the fiber is more or less straight, the ray will meet the cladding on the other side at an angle which again causes TIR. The ray is then reflected back across the core again and the same thing

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happens. In this way the light zigzags its way along the fiber. This means that the light will be transmitted to the end of the fiber. Cladding n=1.47
TIR

1 A

Core
Cladding

n=1.5

Figure 2.8 Propagation of light in a fiber-optic 2.6.1 Mode of Propagation and Index profile In fiber-optic terminology, the word mode can be defined as path. If there is only one path for light to take down the cable, it is called single mode. If there are more paths that can be used in a fiber-optic cable, it is called multimode. Where by the index profile of an optical-fiber is a graphical representation of the value of the refractive index across the fiber. There are two basic types of index profile: Step and graded. A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index less than that of the central core. In a graded-index fiber there is no cladding, and the refractive index of the core is non-uniform; it is highest at the center and decreases gradually with distance toward the outer edge.

Multimode step-Index Fiber The index of refraction step from the core Multimode Graded-Index down to the cladding Fiber Optical fibers whose index of refraction of the core is manufactured to be

graded from the center out to the cladding interface

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For long distance 2.7 Difficult Classification of Fiber to work with. Essentially, fiber-optic can be classified into three types of configurations: Phone companies single-mode and CATV step index, multi-mode step index and multimode graded index, as companies shown in figure 2.9.

For short distance Easy to work with. LANs Provides more bandwidth than (c) Most common and widely used type

For short distance Easy to work with. LANs For very high pulse rates

Figure 2.9 Core index profiles: (a) single-mode step index; (b) multi-mode step index; (c) multi-mode graded index

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HINTS & HELPThe

Example 2.2

The simplest way of manipulating light is to reflect it. direction of reflected light can be predicted by applying the law of reflection : the angle of incidence is equal to

In figure 2.5 , let medium 1 be glass and medium 2 be ethyl alcohol. For an angle of incidence of 30 , determine the angle of refraction .

Solution to Example 2.2 From Table 2.1, n1 (glass) = 1.5 1.36 n2 (ethyl alcohol) =

Rearranging Equation 2.2 and substituting for n1, n2 and 1 gives us

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n1 sin 1 = sin 2 n2 1.5 sin 30 = 0.5514 = sin 2 1.36

2 = sin 1 0.5514 = 33.47

Example 2.3 Determine the critical angle for the fiber describe in Example 2.2. Solution to Example 2.3 Using the Equation 2.2,
1 2 C = sin n 1

C=

1.36 sin 1 1 .5

= 65.05

Example 2.4 Determine the numerical aperture for the fiber describe in Example 2.2. Solution to Example 2.4 Using the Equation 2.4,

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2 2 NA = n1 n2

(1.5) 2 (1.36) 2

= 0.633

Activity 2B

TEST OUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT! Answer the following questions. 2.10 2.11 The device that converts the light pulses into an electrical signal is a _________________. Light is a type of _________________ radiation.

Choose the letter which best answers each question. 2.12 Total internal reflection takes place if the incident ray strikes the interface at an angle with what relationship to the critical angle? a. b. c. Less than Greater than Zero

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2.13

The operation of a fiber-optic cable is based on the principle of a. b. c. Reflection Dispersion Absorption

2.14

Which of the following is not a common type of fiber-optic cable? a. b. c. Single-mode step index Multi-mode graded index Single-mode graded index

2.15

The ratio of the speed of light in air to the speeds of light in another substance is called the a. b. c. Speed factor Index of reflection Index of refraction

2.16

Refraction is the a. b. c. Reflection of light waves Distortion of light waves Bending of light waves

2.17

Which type of fiber-optic cable is the most widely used? a. b. c Multimode step-index Single-mode step-index Multimode graded-index

2.18

Which type of fiber-optic cable is best for very high-speed data?

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a. b. c.

Multimode step-index Single-mode step-index Multimode graded-index

Feedback To Activity 2B

2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19

light detector or photocell electromagnetic c b a b c c a c

CONGRATULATIONS !!!
Now you can proceed to the next activity

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KEY FACTS

1. Fiber-optics is a communications technology using transmission of light over glass or plastic fibers. 2. Total Internal Reflection is a used in fiber-optics, governing how light rays propagate through a transparent medium by reflecting off its boundaries. 3. The multimode step index fiber cable is widely used at short to medium distances at relatively low pulse frequencies. This cable is also the easiest to make and the least expensive of the fiber-optic cable.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT

You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on SelfAssessment given on the next page. Question 2-1 a. Question 2-2 a. Question 2-3 a. Question 2-4 a. State Snells law for refraction and outline its significant in fiber-optic cables. b. Define the following terms : refractive index, critical angle and total internal reflection. c. For a glass (n = 1.5) / quartz (n=1.41) interface and an angle incidence of 38, determine the angle of refraction, the critical angle and the numerical aperture for the cable. d. A glass fiber has an index of refraction of 1.55 is surrounded by water whose index of refraction is 1.33. Compute the critical angle,c , above which total internal reflection occurs in the glass slab. e. A glass fiber has an index of refraction of 1.62. It surrounded by cladding material having an index of refraction of 1.604. Compute the critical angle, c. Outline the primary building blocks of a fiber-optic system. b. Briefly describe the construction of a fiber-optic cable. Fiber-optic communications system is primary used in _________________________. List three general bands in the light frequency spectrum.

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Feedback To Self-Assessment

Have you tried the questions????? If YES, check our answers now. Answer 2-1 a. a. Answer 2-3 a. Infrared, visible and ultraviolet. Long-distance telephone systems and cable TV system. Answer 2-2

Coder

Light source
Fiber Optic Cable

Decoder
b.

Light Light Detector Detector

It is comprised of three layers ; the centre core that carries the light, the cladding layer covering the core that confines the light to the core, and the coating that provides protection for the cladding.

Answer 2-4 a. Snells law simply states

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
where n1 = refractive index of material 1 (unit less)

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n2 = refractive index of material 2 (unit less) 1 = angle of incidence (degrees) 2 = angle of refraction (degrees) Snells law is applied in TIR concept when : i. The refractive index of the first medium is greater than the refractive index of the second one. ii. The angle of incidence, 1, is greater than or equal to the critical angle, c

b.

refractive index undergoes

Determines the amount of bending that light

when entering a different medium. critical angle : The minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray may strike the interface of two media and result in an angle of refraction of 90 or greater. total internal reflaction. : The principle of how light rays propagate through a transparent medium by reflecting off its boundaries. c. d. e. 2 = 41 C = 59 C = 82 C = 70 NA = 0.512