Chemistry

Separating Mixtures
 Gravity: pour mixture into the funnel, which has cellulose filter paper
o Mechanical mixtures with large particles are best suited
o Long procedure, and does not remove dissolved materials
o FILTRATE: items that passed through
o RESIDUE: things that are caught by the filter
 Vacuum: water aspirator creates low pressure necessary to draw mixture through filter paper,
Bückner funnel, and into the sidearm flask
 Distillation: heated solution, gases produced are condensed to form a liquid condensate
o Boiling chips used to allow bubbles to form (surface of nucleation)
o Condenser has cold water running up the outer tube
o Gas produced is condensed by cold water, drips out on the other side
o FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: separate into distinct, multiple parts
 Centrifugation: capsules with mixtures are spun inside the centrifuge, usually separates the
suspension into a solid and a liquid
o DECANT: pouring so that only a solid is left
o PRECIPITATE: the solid that results
o SUPERNATANT: the clear liquid that results from centrifugation
 Separation funnel: a mixture of polar + non-polar substances; the stopcock is turned so that
the bottom layer of the mixture will drip down, and closed when that layer nearly drains
o Imprecise
 Flocculation/coagulation: to separate a suspension of very fine particles, ALUM (aluminum
potassium sulphate) and LIME (calcium hydroxide) react in the suspension to form a solid of
FLOC (aluminum hydroxide); the fine suspended particles sink with the floc
o Often used in water treatment
 Chromatography: to break a mixture into its components (often pigments), a small sample is
placed at the bottom of chromatography paper, and the rolled chromatography paper is then
placed in water; highly soluble parts are carried high by the water, while less soluble parts
appear lower
o Used to compare composition

Diagrams
 Lewis Dot diagrams for ions:
o [Na+] indicates +1 charge, one electron lost
o [ O -2] (8 dots around O) indicates full valence shell and -2 charge; superscript -2 and
the square brackets are necessary to indicate that the element is charged
Ionic Bonds
 OXIDATION NUMBER: no. of e- gained or lost by an atom in the formation of a chemical bond.
o Positively charged ions: cations o Negatively charged ions: anions
 Metal + non-metal elements transfer electrons to achieve a stable octet; the electrostatic
attraction keeps them together
 Names:
o First word is the metal’s name (e.g. magnesium)
o Second word is the –ide form of the non-metal’s name (e.g. bromide)
 Ionic compound properties
o Crystalline, brittle o Non-conductors of electricity
o High melting points when solids
 Variable valence metals
o Multiple possible charges
o Stock system
 In parentheses after metal name, roman numerals indicate charge of metal
(e.g. iron (II) oxide indicates that the iron has a charge of +2)
o “ic-ous” system
 Only for metals with 2 possible valences
 –ic indicates the higher valence
 –ous indicates the lower valence
 Latin: cupr– (copper), ferr– (iron), plumb– (lead), stann– (tin), aur– (gold)
 (e.g. ferric oxide indicates that iron has a +3 charge)

Covalent Bonds
 Non-metal + non-metal share electrons to form a covalent bond (a molecular compound)
 Names:
o Prefixes indicate number of each element
(e.g. dinitrogen tetroxide indicates 2 nitrogen atoms and 4 oxygen atoms)
 Mono 1  Hexa 6
 Di 2  Hepta 7
 Tri 3  Octa 8
 Tetra 4  Nona 9
 Penta 5  Deca 10
o Mono is omitted for the first element if it has a subscript of 1
o Usually the atom with the greater bonding capacity is written first
 Four valence electrons: bonding capacity = 4
 Five valence: bonding capacity = 3
 ...
 Seven valence: bonding capacity = 1
o Second atom changes name to –ide
o Exceptions:
 Water (H2O)  Ammonia (NH3)
Polyatomic Ions
 Important ones to know:
o OH-1 hydroxide ion o SO4-2 sulphate ion
+1 -2
o NH4 ammonium ion o SO3 sulphite ion
+ -1
(ammonia NH3 neutral plus H ) o CH3COO acetate ion
o CO3-2 carbonate ion o Cr2O7-2 dichromate ion
-1 -2
o HCO3 hydrogen carbonate ion o CrO4 chromate ion
-1
(a.k.a. bicarbonate ion) o MnO4 permanganate ion
-1 -1
o NO3 nitrate ion o CN cyanide ion
(extremely soluble)
 Negative polyatomics usually take place of non-metal in ionic bond

Acids/Bases
 Acids = higher concentration of H+ ions  Bases = higher concentration of OH- ions
 Characteristics:

Acids Bases
Properties: Properties:
− Sour taste − Bitter taste
− Water-soluble − Water-soluble
− Reacts with metals (to produce H2 gas) − Does not react with metals
− Reacts with carbonates − Reacts with fats to break them down
(to produce CO2 gas) (produces soapy substance when in
− H+ ions are released in solution contact with skin or fats, can cause
blindness if splashed in eye)
− OH- ions are released in solution
Examples: Examples:
− HCl (toilet bowl cleaner – removes rust − Drain cleaner – NaOH
and scale [CaCO3 + MgCO3], pH control − Baking soda
for pools, stomach acids) − Cleaners – windex, etc
− H2SO4 (car batteries, industrial uses) − Soaps, medicine treatment for stomach
− H3PO4 (coke, pepsi as flavouring) − Hair dye
− CH3COOH (vinegar – food flavor, scale − Bleach
remover)
− Citric acid (citrus fruits, flavouring)
 pH = −log[H + ]  [H + ] = 10−pH
 Strong acids
o HNO3 nitric o HClO3 chloric
o H2SO4 sulphuric o HClO4 perchloric
o HCl hydrochloric o (HBr hydrobromic)
 Producing acids
o Non-metal is burned in oxygen, product reacted with water
 Carbon burned in oxygen to form carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water makes carbonic acid
o Two steps: 1) burn; 2) take the product and place it in water
 Producing bases
o Metals that displace H from H2O directly produce bases
 Sodium(s) + Water → Sodium hydroxide(aq) + Hydrogen↑
o Metals below that line are burned, then reacted with water to form bases
∆
 Magnesium(s) + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide(s)
 Magnesium oxide(s) + Water → Magnesium hydroxide(aq)
 Acids ionize
 Bases dissociate
 Neutralization
o Acid(aq) + Base(aq) → Water(l) + a salt(aq)
 Indicators

Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base Colour in Neutral

red litmus paper red blue red
blue litmus paper red blue blue
neutral litmus paper red blue purple
phenolphthalein clear fuchsia clear
bromthymol blue yellow lighter blue (diluted) lighter blue (diluted)
universal indicator lighter orange/red purple diluted: lighter
purple cabbage juice red green purple