MetamorphicThought:TheWorksofFrantzFanon byAchilleMbembe,AfricanStudies,Vol.71,No.1,22March2012 Fiftyyearsago,theParisbasedMasperopublishedFrantzFanonslastwork,Lesdamnesdelaterre,a bookthatachievedanalmostbiblicalstatusandbecameacornerstoneofpostcolonialthought.Last yearsawthepublicationofFanonsOeuvresbyLaDecouverte.Thisarticleexploresthemeaningsof Fanonandthemetamorphicnatureofhisthought. Wemustshakeofftheheavydarknessinwhichwewereplunged,andleaveitbehind. (Fanon1961:251) Itis50yearssinceFrantzFanondiedleavinguswithhislasttestimony,TheWretchedoftheEarth. WritteninthecrucibleoftheAlgerianwarofindependenceandtheearlyyearsofThirdWorld decolonisation,thisbookachievedanalmostbiblicalstatus.Itbecamealivingsourceofinspirationfor thosewhoopposedtheVietnamWar,marchedwiththecivilrightsmovement,supportedrevolutionary blackstrugglesinAmerica,thestruggleagainstapartheidinSouthAfricaandcountlessinsurgent movementsaroundtheworld.FanonslifehadledhimfarawayfromtheislandofMartiniqueinthe CaribbeanwherehewasbornaFrenchcitizen.

en.Hetookpartattheageof19inthewaragainstNazism onlytodiscoverthatintheeyesofFrancehewasnothingbutaNegro,thatis,anythingbutamanlike anyotherman.Hewouldendupfeelingadeepsenseofbetrayal.BlackSkin,WhiteMaskhisfirstbook inpartrelatesthestoryofthisandmanyotherfraughtencounterswithcolonialformsof dehumanisation(Macey2011). ByAnyMeansNecessary ButitwasinAlgeriawhereheworkedasapsychiatristthatFanonfinallycutthecordthatboundhimto France.ThecountryforwhichhehadalmostlosthislifeinthestruggleagainstHitlerhadstartedto replicateNazimethodsduringasavageandnamelesswaragainstapeoplewhichitdeniedtherightto selfdetermination.Thedehumanisingviolenceofcolonialism,towhichhewasexposeddailyandwhich heattemptedtoheal,tooktheformofrelentlessracismand,moreespecially,thetortureofAlgerian resistancefightersbyFrenchtroops.AboutthiswarFanonoftensaidithadtakenonthelookofan authenticgenocide,anexerciseinextermination.Itwasthemosthorrifying,themosthallucinatory [war]thatapeoplehasconductedinordertodestroycolonialoppression,awarthatwasresponsible fortheimposition,inAlgeria,ofabloodyandruthlessregimeofviolence.Thewarwascharacterised bythelargescalegeneralisationofinhumanepractices,whichledmanyofthecolonisedtobelieve

thattheywerewitnessingaveritableapocalypse.Duringthisfighttothedeath,Fanonsidedwiththe AlgerianpeopleandFrancedisownedhim.Hehadbetrayedthenation.Hebecameanenemyand,long afterhisdeath,Francestilltreatedhimassuch. FollowingitsdefeatinAlgeriaandthelossofitscolonialempire,Franceplungedintoapostimperial winter(Stoler2010).Sufferingfromaphasia,itturneditsbackonitscolonialpastandforgotFanon,thus largelymissingoutonthenewvoyagesofthoughtwhichcharacterisedthelastquarterofthe20th centurymostnotablypostcolonialtheoryandcriticalracestudies(Mbembe2010a).Butintherestof theworldmanyofthemovementsfightingfortheemancipationofpeoplecontinuedtoinvokethis hereticname.Forthosecommittedtothecauseofoppressedpeoplestrugglingforracialjusticeorfor newpsychiatricpractices,Fanonsnameremainednotonlyasignofhope,butalsoservedasan injunctiontoriseup(Mellino2011).TodaytherearethousandsofworksandscholarlyarticlesonFanon andthereexistsagrowingFanonlibrary,avibrant,globalcritiqueinspiredbyhiswritingandwhich strivestodevelophisthought. EvenifFranceisyetfullytoexperiencetheFanonphenomenon,everythingwouldseemtoindicatethat Fanonhasfinallyemergedfromtheobscuritytowhichhehadbeenrelegated.HiscompleteWorkshave recentlybeenpublished.Foralmosthalfacentury,thegoalhadbeentopreventhisnamefrombeing lostandforgotten(seeCherki2000).Theveilhasbeenliftedonhisworkandwearefinallyinaposition, atthestartofthe21stcentury,toread,inrelativeserenitybutnonethelesswithsenseofsomeurgency inregardtothebrutalrealitywhichconfrontsthenewwretchedoftheearth. ButreadingFanontoday,wehavetotaketheexactmeasureofhisprojectinordertodevelopitfurther. IfFanonsthoughtisliketheringingoftheangelus,fillingthosetimeswiththepealingofbells,itis becauseitwasrespondingtothebuglecallofcolonialism,totheneedforimplacableandforceful oppositiontothelatter.Fanonsthinkingwasbornofreal,lived,unstableandchangingexperience. ForFanon,tothinkmeanttravellingalongthesameroadasotherstowardsaworldthatwasperpetually andirrevocablycreatedinandthroughstruggle.Inthisprocess,critiquehadtobelikeabullet destroying,traversingandtransformingtherocky,mineralwallandtheintersticesofcolonialism.Itis thisenergythatcharacterisedFanonsthoughtasmetamorphicthought.ForFanon,theirrepressible andrelentlesspursuitoffreedomrequiredustomobilisealllifereserves.Itdrewthecolonisedintoa fighttothedeathafightthattheywerecalledupontoassumeastheirdutyandthatcouldnotbe delegatedtoothers.

Inthisalmostsacrificialaspectofhisthought,toriseup,torevoltwasaninjunction.Itwenthandin handwiththedutyofviolenceastrategicterminFanonslexiconwhich,followingmanyhastyand superficialreadings,hasgivenrisetomuchmisunderstanding.Itisthereforeusefultoreviewbrieflythe historicalconditionsinwhichFanondevelopedhisconceptualisationofviolence.Inthisregard,itis perhapsimportanttobearinmindtwothings.First,thatinFanonviolenceisbothapoliticalanda clinicalconcept.Itisasmuchtheclinicalmanifestationofapoliticaldiseaseasanactofre symbolisation,whichallowsforthepossibilityofreciprocityandhenceforrelativeequalityintheface ofthesupremearbiterwhichisdeath.Thus,bychoosingviolenceratherthanbeingsubjectedtoit,the colonisedsubjectisabletorestoretheself.Hecomestotherealisationthathislife,hisbreath,his beatingheartarethesameasthoseofthesettlerorthatthesettlersskinisnotofanymorevalue thananativesskin.Insodoing,heredefineshimselfandlearnstovaluehislifeandtheshapeofhis presenceinrelationtohisbody,hisspeech,totheOtherandtotheworld. ForFanon,thepoliticalandtheclinicalshareincommonthefactofbeingeminentpsychicsites(Postel andRazanajo1975).Intheseaprioriemptyspacesanimatedbylaparoletherelationbetweenbodyand languageisplayedout.Bodyandlanguageareevents.Theytestifytothefragilityoftherelationshipto theselfandtotheotherasengenderedbythecolonialsituation,ontheonehand,and,ontheother,to theextraordinaryvulnerabilityofthepsychewhenconfrontedwiththetraumaofthereal.Butthe relationbetweenbodyandlanguageisfarfrombeingstable.Inthelongrun,Fanondoesnotconfuse thehealingofthecolonised(lapolitiquedupatient)andthepoliticalitselfasaformofhealing(la cliniquedupolitique).Heoscillatescontinuouslybetweenthetwo.Attimesheviewsthepoliticalasa formoftheclinicalandtheclinicalasaformofthepolitical;andattimeshestressestheinevitabilityas wellasthefailureoftheclinicaloritsimpasse,especiallywherethetraumaofwaranddestruction,the painandsufferingcausedingeneralbythecolonialnomosunderminetheabilityofthesubjectorofthe patienttoreturntotheworldofhumanspeech(Douville2006:709).Revolutionaryviolenceistheshock thatcausesthisambivalencetoexplode.ButFanonshowsthat,althoughitisakeyphaseinthe becomingsubjectofthecolonised,violenceisinturn,attheverymomentofitsoccurrence,thecause ofdeeppsychicdamage.Iftrulysubjectiveviolenceatthetimeofaliberationstrugglecanbearticulated asspeech,itisalsocapableofweighingonlanguageandproducing,inthosewhosurvivethewar, mutism,hallucinationsandtrauma. Atthehistoricallevel,Franceattempted,inAlgeria,toconductatotalonslaughtwhichprovokedin returnaresponsethatwasjustastotalonthepartoftheAlgerianresistance.Followinghisexperience ofthewar,Fanonwasconvincedthatcolonialismwasanecropoliticalforceanimatedatitscorebya genocidaldrive.Sinceinordertoreproduceandperpetuateitselfcolonialviolencehadtobe transformedintoanontologyandgenetics,thedestructionofcolonialismcouldonlybeassuredby meansofanabsolutepraxis.ItwasonthebasisofthisobservationthatFanondevelopedhisthoughts onthreeformsofviolencecolonialviolence(whichreacheditspinnaclewiththeAlgerianwar),the emancipatoryviolenceofthecolonised(thefinalstageofwhichwasthewarofnationalliberation),and

violenceininternationalrelations.Inhisview,colonialviolencehadthreedimensions.Itwasinstitutional insofarasitoversawtheentrenchmentofsubjugationbyforce,theoriginofwhichwasdependenton forceandthemaintenanceofwhichwasdependentonforce.Itwas,inthesecondinstance,empirical.It enmeshedthedailylifeofthenativeinnodes,networkanddetail.Thiscontrolwasindeedphysical likethebarbedwirefencessurroundingtheinternmentcentresandcampsduringtheperiodof insurrectionbutitwasalsomadeupofanetworkofmesh,which,inspatialandtopologicalterms, extendedbothhorizontallyandvertically.Moreover,searches,unlawfulassassinations,expulsionand mutilationtargetedtheindividualsubjectwhohadtobemonitoreddowntohiseverybreath.This violencewasimposedevenonlanguage.Itweighedheavilyoneverydaylife,includingspeech.Itwas evidentespeciallyintheeverydaybehaviourofthesettlervisa`visthenative:aggression,racism, contempt,interminableritualsofhumiliation,murderswhatFanonreferredtoasthepoliticsof hatred. Inthethirdinstance,colonialviolencewasphenomenal.Ittouchedboththesenses,thepsychicand affectivedomains.Itwasthepurveyorofmentaldisorders,whichweredifficulttotreatandcure.It excludedanydialecticofrecognitionandwasindifferenttoanymoralargument.Overtimeitattacked eventhemostprivate,innermostareasofsubjectivityandrantheriskofdeprivingthecolonisedofany mnesictracethatturnedsuchlossintosomethingmorethanahaemorrhagicvoid(Douville2006:709). Itsgoalwasnotonlytovoidthecolonialsubjectofanysubstance,butalsotoforeclosethefuture.It attackedthesubjectphysically,causinghismusclestocontractandstiffenandhisbodytobow.His psychewasnotsparedsincetheviolencewasintendedtodonothinglessthandecerebrate.Itwasthese scars,woundsandgashes,crisscrossingthebodyandpsycheofthecolonialsubjectthatFanon,in practice,attemptedtonarrateandcure.AccordingtoFanon,thisthreefoldviolence(letusrefertoitas sovereignviolence)madeupinrealityofmultiple,diverse,repeatedandcumulativeviolencewas livedbythecolonialsubjectatthelevelofbloodandmuscle.Itforcedthecolonisedtoseehislifeasa permanentbattleagainstatmosphericdeath.Itgavethewholeofhislifethesemblanceofincomplete death.Butaboveall,itreleasedinhimtheinternalangerofapursuedmanforcedtocontemplatethe realityofatrulyanimalexistence. EverysinglewordofFanonwasadepositioninfavourofthisdamagedandruinedexistence.Forhim, critiquebecamearelentlesssearchforthetracesoflife,which,hebelieved,continuedtoexistwithin thisthunderousdestruction.Heunderstoodthetaskofcritiquetobeafirsthandcombatwithdeathat thesametimeasitannouncedthebirthofnewformsoflife(Renault2009).Hisincandescentwords werebothanattestationtoanddeclarationofjustice.Tobearwitnesstothecolonialsituationmeant travelingstepbystepthelengthofthewoundinflictedonthepeopleandonAlgeriansoil.Itwas necessary,hesaid,tointerrogateAlgeriansoil,inchbyinch,tomeasurethefragmentationand dispersalcausedbycolonialoccupation.Itwasnecessarytobearwitnesstothehaggardandfamished orphans;tothehusbandcarriedoffbytheenemyandwhoreturnswithhisbodycoveredinbruises, hislifenearlyextinctandhisspiritextinguished.Insuchacontext,thetaskofcritiquewastobear

witnesstoscenesofmourning,inthosespacesoflossanddestructionwherethelamentationsofold werereplacedbynewformsofbehaviour.Havingexperiencedthestruggle,onedoesnotweep,norcry out,onedoesnotbehaveasoneusedto,hecomments.Instead,onegritsonesteethand,afterone morestep,thedeathofamoudjahidwhohasfalleninthefieldofhonourwillbemetwithcriesofjoy. Eventually,thistransfigurationofsufferinganddeathwouldgiverisetoanewspiritualcommunity. TheEmancipatoryViolenceoftheNative ForFanon,settlerviolencewasdifferentfromtheviolenceofthenative.Inthefirstinstance,the violenceofthecolonisedwasnotideological.Itwasdiametricallyopposedtocolonialviolence.Before consciouslyturningagainstcolonialrepressionatthetimeofnationalliberation,theviolenceofthe colonialsubjectwaspurelyresponsiveadhoc,reptilianandepilepticviolence,themurderousgesture andprimalaffectofthehuntedman,withhisbacktothewall,knifepressedagainsthisthroator, moreaccurately,electrodespressingagainsthisgenitals,whodesperatelyseekstoshowthatheis preparedtofightforhislife. Howcanoneconvertthisexcessenergyandthisbanalinstinctforselfpreservationintoafulland completepoliticalstatement?Howcanoneturnitintoacounteraffirmationinthefaceofdeath purveyedbyanoccupyingpower?Howisitpossibletoturnitintoanemancipatorygestureloadedwith value,reasonandtruth?ThisisthestartingpointforFanonsreflectionsontheviolenceofthecolonised theviolencewhichthecolonisednolongersuffers,whichisnolongerimposedonhimandtowhichhe isnolongermoreorlessresigned.Onthecontrary,thisistheviolencethatthecolonisedchoosesto givetothecolonist.ThisgiftisdescribedbyFanoninthelanguageofwork violentpraxis,asaresponsetotheinitialviolenceofthesettler.Thisviolenceisproducedintheform ofcirculatingenergy,outofwhicheachonecreateshisownviolentarmourinalargechain,alarge violentorganism,inthemortarbuiltthroughbloodandrage.Thisradicalrejectionofimposed violencerepresentsasignificantmomentintheprocessofresymbolisation(Doray2006).Theobjective ofthislabouristoproducelife.However,thislifecanonlyemergefromthedecomposingcadaverof thesettler. Fanonisawarethatbychoosingcounterviolence,thenativeisopeningthedoortoapossibly disastrousresponsethecomingandgoingofterror.Hebelievesthatinextremecircumstances, wherethereisnodistinctionbetweencivilandmilitarypower,theonlywayforthenativetobe restoredtolifeisforthetermsthatdictatehowdeathisdistributedtoberadicallyredefined.The resultingexchangeisnonethelessunequal.Surelytheensuingairraidsandcruisemissilesarefarin excessintermsofhorrorandsize,oftheresponseofthenative?Moreover,recoursetoviolencedoes

notautomaticallyrestorethebalanceofempathybetweenthenativescauseandthesettlers.Fordoes nottheinjuryordeathofsevenFrenchmenattheSakamodypassrousegreateroutrageamongthe civilisedthanthesackingofGuergourdouars,theDjerahdechra[or]themassacreofpeoplewhowere preciselythereasonfortheambush? Bethatasitmay,theethicaldimensionoftheviolenceofthenativeliesinthecloserelationship betweenviolenceandhealingtreatmentprovidedtotheinjuredinthemilitaryhospitalsofthe resistancefighters,toprisonerswhotheresistancerefusestokillintheirbedsasisdonebythecolonial troops,topermanentlymentallydisorderedtorturevictims,toAlgerianwomenwhohavebeendriven madafterbeingraped,andeventotorturershauntedbythetwofoldtraumaandhorroroftheirvictims. Inadditiontohealingthewoundsofcolonialatrocities,theviolenceofthenativeachievedthreegoals. Firstitservedasacalltoapeoplecaughtinthegripofhistoryandplacedinanuntenablesituationto exercisetheirfreedom,totakecharge,tonamethemselves,tospringtolifeor,iftheyfailedtodothis, tobeseentobeinbadfaith.Theywereforcedtomakeachoice,torisktheirlives,toexpose themselves,todrawonalltheirreservesandhiddenresourcesaconditionforachievingliberty. NonethelessFanonstheoryofviolenceonlymakessensewithinthecontextofamoregeneraltheory, thatoftheriseinhumanity(monteeenhumanite).Thecolonisedhastopropelhimself,byhisown force,toalevelabovetheonetowhichhehadbeenconsignedasaresultofracismorsubjugation.The embattledhumansubject,broughttohiskneesandsubjectedtoabuse,ralliesonhisown,scalesthe rampandpullshimselfuptohisfullheightandtothatofotherhumanbeings,ifnecessarythrough violencewhatFanontermedtheabsolutepraxis.Inthisway,herestoresthepossibility,forhim personallyandforhumanityasawhole,startingwithhisexecutioners,ofnewandopendialogue betweentwoequalhumansubjectswhere,previously,therehadbeenoppositionbetweenaman(the colonialist)andhisobject(thecolonised).Fromthenonthereisnomoreblackorwhite.Thereisonlya worldfinallyridoftheburdenofrace,aworldtowhicheveryonehasaright. Conclusion Fanonwas,atoneandthesametime,Martinican,Algerian,black,FrenchandAfrican.Hewas,even more,amanoftheworld.LifechoiceshadtakenhimfarfromtheCaribbean,wherehewasborn,to Africa,whereheexperiencedanewbirthinAlgeria.Hehadnonethelesssoughtthisrerootingof himselfinAfricansoilasawayofbearingwitnessonbehalfoftheentirehumanrace,and,inparticular, asasacrificeinthenameofthesufferingbodyofhumanity.

Thisiswhythefigureofthepatientorthesubjectinthefaceofhisownagonyissofundamentalto Fanonsthought.Howwasonetoputanendtothissufferingandagonytoallowanotherworldand otherfiguresofthehumantoemergeinthefuture?Thisisprimarilywhatinterestedhim.Ifhewas proposinganyformofknowledge,thiswasknowledgeincontextknowledgeofthedehumanising colonialcontextandknowledgeofthemeanstobringthistoanend.Whetheritwasacaseoftouching themiseryoftheBlackmaninthefaceoftheracistsocialorderorofbeingawareofthetransformation engenderedbythewarofliberationinAlgeria,thisknowledgewasalwaysopenlypartisan.Itdidnot aimforobjectivityorneutrality.Ididnotwishtobeobjective.Infactthatisnottrue:Iwasnotallowed tobeobjective,hedeclared.Itwasinthefirstinstanceacaseofaccompanyingandwhereverthis wasstillpossibleofcuringandhealingthosewhohadbeenwounded,decerebratedandsentmadasa resultofcolonialviolence. ToreadFanontodaymeans,ontheonehand,torestorehislife,hisworkandhislanguagetoitsplacein thehistorywhichhesawunfoldingatthetimeandwhichhewishedtochangethroughstruggleand critique.Ontheotherhand,itmeanstotranslateintothelanguageofourtimesthemajorquestions whichforcedhimtostandup,uproothimselfandtravelwithothers,hiscompanions,alonganewroad whichthecolonisedhadtocarveoutontheirown,throughtheirowningenuityandtheirindomitable will.Inordertoreenacthisprojectincontemporaryterms,wehavetothinkbothwithandagainst Fanon,thedifferencebetweenhimandsomeamongusbeingthat,forhim,tothinkmeantplacingones lifeatrisk. Havingsaidthis,ourworldisnolongerthesameashis.Hisdiagnosisoflifeaftercolonialismwas uncompromising.Forhim,therewasadistinctpossibilitythatpostliberationpoliticsandculturemight taketheroadofretrogressionifnottragedy.Theprojectofnationalliberationmightturnintoacrude, emptyshell;thenationmightbepassedoverfortherace,andthetribemightbepreferredtothestate. Hebelievedthattheliberationstrugglehadnothealedtheinjuriesandtraumathatwerethetruelegacy ofcolonialism.Afterliberation,thenativeelitehadbeenensconcedinintellectuallazinessand cowardice.Initswilltoimitationanditsinabilitytoinventanythingofitsown,thenativebourgeoisie hadassimilatedthemostcorruptformsofcolonialistandracistthought.Afflictedwithprecocious senility,theeducatedclasseswerestuckinagreatprocessionofcorruption. Hewarnedagainstthedescentoftheurbanunemployedmassesintolumpenviolence.Assoonasthe struggleisover,heargued,theystartafightagainstnonnationalAfricans.Fromnationalismtheypass tochauvinism,negrophobiaandfinallytoracism.TheyarequicktoinsistthatforeignAfricansgohome totheircountry.Theyburntheirshops,wrecktheirstreetstallsandspilltheirbloodonthecitys pavementsandinthedarkordustyalleysoftheshantytowns.

Surveyingthepostcolony,Fanoncouldseeacomingnightmareanindigenousrulingclassluxuriatingin thedeliciousdepravitiesofthewesternbourgeoisie,addictedtorestandrelaxationinpleasureresorts, casinosandbeaches,spendinglargesumsondisplay,oncars,watches,shoesandforeignlabels.Inhis postliberationnightmare,hecoulddistinctlyseestupidityparadingasleadership,patriarchyturning womenintowives,vulgaritygoinghandinhandwiththecorruptionofthemindandtheflesh,allinthe midstofhilarityanddemobilisation.ThespectacleofAfricansrepresentingthemselvestotheworldas thearchetypeofstupidity,brutalityandprofligacy,heconfided,madehimangryandsickattheheart. Globally,newformsofcolonialwarfareandoccupationaretakingshape,withtheirshareof counterinsurgenttacticsandtorture,Guantanamostylecamps,secretprisons,theirmixtureof militarismandplunderingofresourcesfromafar.Newformsofsocialapartheidandstructural destitutionhavereplacedtheoldcolonialdivisions.Asaresultofglobalprocessesofaccumulationby dispossession,deepinequitiesarebeingentrenchedbyanevermorebrutaleconomicsystem.The abilityofmanytoremainmastersoftheirownlivesisonceagaintestedtothelimits.Thequestionof selfdeterminationhasperhapschangedface,butitcontinuestobeposedintermsthatareas fundamentalasthoseinFanonstime.Novelformsofbalkanisationarebeingreinstitutedaround increasinglydeadlywallsandboundaries.Thefreedomtomoveisincreasinglyrestrictedformanyracial categories.Nowonderundersuchconditions,manyarenotonlywillingtoinvokeonceagainFrantz Fanonshereticname,hissparkling,volcanicvoiceandexplodingface.Theyarewillingtostandupand riseagain. IfweoweFanonadebtitisforhisideathatineveryhumansubjectthereissomethingindomitableand fundamentallyintangiblewhichnodominationnomatterinwhatformcanerase,eliminate,contain orsuppress,oratleastcompletely.Fanontriedtograsphowthissomethingcouldbereanimatedand broughtbacktolifeunderconditionsofsubjugation.Hearguedthatthisirrepressibleandrelentless pursuitoffreedomrequiredthemobilisationofalllifereserves.Itwasthewayinwhichthissomething workedthatFanonstrovetounderstand.Thisiswhyhisworkrepresented,foralltheoppressed,akind offibrouslignite,aweaponofsteel. ImyselfhavebeenattractedtoFanonsnameandvoicebecausebothhavethebrightnessofmetal.His isametamorphicthought,animatedbyanindestructiblewilltolive.Whatgivesthismetallicthinkingits forceandpoweristheairofindestructibilityand,itscorollary,theinjunctiontostandup.Itisthe inexhaustiblesiloofhumanitythatithousesandwhich,yesterday,gavethecolonisedstrengthand which,today,allowsustolookforwardtothefuture(Mbembe2010b).

References Cherki,A.2000.FrantzFanon.Portrait.Paris:Seuil. Doray,B.2006.Ladignite:lesdeboutsdelutopie[Dignity:TheStandUpsofUtopia].Paris:Editions LaDispute. Douville,O.2006.YatiluneactualitecliniquedeFanon?[TheclinicaldebateinFanon]. LevolutionPsychiatrique,71. Fanon,F.1961.TheWretchedoftheEarth.NewYork:GroveWeidenfeld. Fanon,F.2011.Oeuvres.Paris:LaDecouverte. Macey,D.2011.FrantzFanon,unevie[FrantzFanon,alife].Paris:LaDecouverte. Mbembe,A.2010a.ProvincializingFrance?PublicCulture23(1). Mbembe,A.2010b.Sortirdelagrandenuit.EssaisurlAfriquedecolonisee[Emergingfromthe darkness.AnessayondecolonisedAfrica].Paris:LaDecouverte. Mellino,M.2011.FrantzFanon,unclassiquepourlepresent[FrantzFanon,oneoftheclassicsfor now].IlManifesto19May,translatedfromtheItalianbyC.andM.A.Patrizio,http://www. paperblog.fr/5050979/291frantzfanon/ Postel,J.andRazanajo,C.1975.LavieetloeuvrepsychiatriquedeFrantzFanon[Thelifeand psychiatricworkofFrantzFanon].LInformationPsychiatrique51(10). Renault,M.2009.VieetmortdanslapenseedeFrantzFanon[LifeanddeathinFanonsthought]. Sens[public]Revueinternationale,1,http://www.senspublic.org/article.php3?id_article=618 Renault,M.2011.Corpsa`corps[Bodytobody].FrantzFanonsEroticsofNationalLiberation. JournalofFrenchandFrancophonePhilosophyXIX(1). Stoler,A.2010.ColonialAphasia:RaceandDisabledHistoriesinFrance.PublicCulture23(1). 28AfricanStudies,Vol.71,No.1April2012