A PROJECT REPORT ON

EFFECT OF LEACHATE ON ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

By
Akhil Shukla (0934800004) Aman Juneja (0934800006) Arvind Dixit (0934813009) Prasoon Kumar Maurya (0934800029) Shashank Singh (0934800048) Shobhit Omar (0934800049) Vishal Singh (0934800057) Submitted to the department of civil engineering In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

Civil Engineering

PSITC.O.E., Kanpur
GAUTAM BUDDH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW
APRIL , 2013

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Akhil Shukla (0934800004)

Aman Juneja (0934800006)

Arvind Dixit (0934813009)

Prasoon Kumar Maurya (0934800029)

Shashank singh (0934800048) Vishal Singh (0934800057)

Shobhit Omar (0934800049)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PSIT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KANPUR, U.P-209305

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the project report entitled EFFECT OF LEACHATE ON THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL submitted by Akhil Shukla (Roll No. 0934800004), Aman Juneja (Roll No. 0934800006 ), Arvind Dixit (Roll No. 0934813009), Prasoon Kumar Maurya (Roll No. 0934800029 ), Shashank Singh (Roll No. 0934800048), Shobhit Omar (Roll No. 0934800049), Vishal Singh(Roll No. 0934800057) as a part of their Final Year project for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering from PSIT College Of Engineering, Kanpur, is a record of students own work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision. The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Place: Kanpur
Date:

(ASHISH YADAV)
Asst. Professor Civil Engineering Department PSIT COE

Acknowledgement
It gives us immense pleasure to present the project report on Effect Of Leachate On The Engineering Properties Of The Soil. We feel obliged to express our sincere gratitude and thanks to our honorable guide Ashish Yadav, Asst. Professor ,Department of Civil Engineering, PSIT College Of Engineering, Kanpur, for his affably, erudite and worthy guidance, supervision, consistent encouragement, cooperation, keen interest shown through our work, without which it would have been impossible to complete this work in a fruitful manner. Having been able to complete our project successfully, it is the moment of great satisfaction for us and we feel euphoric to extend our sincere thanks to all our friends and faculty members of the Department of Civil Engineering, PSIT College Of Engineering, Kanpur, for helping us directly or indirectly in completion of this work.

Akhil Shukla (0934800004)

Aman Juneja (0934800006)

Arvind Dixit (0934813009)

Prasoon Kumar Maurya (0934800029)

Shashank singh (0934800048) Vishal Singh (0934800057)

Shobhit Omar (0934800049)

ABSTRACT
The project work on THE EFFECT OF LEACHATE ON ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL is an effective study on the physical characterstics of the soil after being exposed to a highly reactive and nutrient rich liquid , which has the ability of deteorating materials like gypsum and cemet. The project work comes under two different streams environmental engineering and geotechnical engineering. Our work is confined to the geotechnical portion. The physical analysis of the soil includes testing the soil for various engineering and index properties of soil.

Solid waste open dumps are sited indiscriminately in Kanpur and are always potential hazards to health , loss of soil nutrients and are sources of groundwater pollution. The study investigates the effects of leachate on some engineering properties of three different soil conditions which includes a soil site where no dumping has been done , second site is one where dumping has been done for past one year and the last is the site where dumping has been done for a longer span of time around ten years. A comparative study has been done to determine the effect of leachate . In order to determine whether there are significant differences between the characteristics at different dump a statistical test of hypothesis was carried out. The values of the specific gravity, liquid limit, plasticity limit, permeability, moisture content, dry density and direct shear test were evaluated in the soil under the dumps. The results indicate the needs for proper site investigation before solid waste dumps are selected.

The project work comprises of a comparative analysis of three different soil samples in order to bring out the contrast in the change in properties of the affected soil. Vast research is being done in the field of environmental science
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to counter the problem of leachate and to treat the affected soil. As it is known that leachate is not any special structured chemical compound nor it is a highly reactive nuclear waste , it is just liquid which through the leaching action collect all the ingredients presents in that layer it passes by. It is a naturally occuring liquid which is so reactive that it can completely deteriorate the soil and make it barren . The project work has been divided into 4 stages 1. Site selection 2. Sampling of soil 3. Lab testing 4. Comparative analysis

1. Site selection
The selection of site has been done keeping in mind the need to evaluate the effect of leachate over the soil at the sites. For this purpose the sites need to be old enough and must have seen atleast one monsoon. The season of monsoon is necessary for the formation of leachate , as leachate is formed by the percolation of water through the layer in open garbage dumps. Sites of varying age have been selected in order to highlight the effect of leachate. The older the site is more is the leachate formed and more is the effect on soil. The site selected is rich in garbage dump and the variety of refuse in it. A healthy site has also been taken into consideration to highlight the difference between the properties of a heathy soil and an affected one. The two affected sites taken into consideration vary in their age, which contrasts effect of leachate on the soil.

SITE 1 at PSIT, kanpur : Normal Soil Site

Site 2 at psit , Kanpur : Young Dumping Site

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Site 3 at panki padao : Old Dumping Site (age more than 10 years)

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2.Sampling of soil
Soil sampling has been done in mind the various tests to be perfomed. The samples extracted are the disturbed samples. Soil samples have been extracted from the at considerable depth wiz. At grass root level for the healthy site , at a depth of 1 ft. at the dumping site in PSIT, Kanpur and the depth of extraction of soil from the site at panki padao was more than 15 ft. The soil samples were collected from the points where the concentration of leachate was assumed to be maximum on the basis of observed surface moisture content.

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3. Lab Testing
After collecting soil sample we tested the soil sample by performing test of liquid limit , plastic limit , permeability , direct shear , specific gravity ,moisture content and dry density test. We are highly thankful to our HOD , department of civil engineering , for making us available the lab support from HBTI Kanpur . we are thankful to Deepesh sir , Kartikeya sir , Abhishek sir and staff that devoted their precious time in completion of the practicals.

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4.Comparative Analysis
The comparative analysis in the project has been done on the basis of the result obtained from various tests performed on the soil samples. These results clearly depict the effect of leachate over the soil samples. The tests are performed in order to carry out a physical analysis of the soil samples. The tests performed to get the current state of the physical properties such as liquid limit, plastic limit, etc.

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Table of Contents DECLARATION.ii CERTIFICATE...iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..iv ABSTRACTv 1.Introduction 1.1. General.19 1.2. More on Leachate 22 1.3. Landfill Leachate....23 1.4. Composition of landfill leachate 24 1.5. History of landfill leachate collection25 1.6. Environmental Impact25 1.7. Other types of leachate ...26 1.8. Engineering Properties & Index properties ....27 1.8.1. Engineering Properties .27 1.8.2. Index Properties27 1.9. Objective28 2.0.Site selected.30 3.1 Permeability.33 3.2. Importance of Permeability...34 3.3. Use of Permeability...34 3.4. Units of coefficient of permeability(k) ..35 3.5. Permeability Test...35 3.6.1. Preparation of specimen...36 3.6.2. Procedure..38 3.6.3. Record of observation..39 3.6.4. Calculations.39 4.1 Shear Strength..42 4.2. Shear strength in soils...44 4.3. Mohr-coulomb failure criteria..44 5.1. Consolidation47

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5.2. Elastic settlement or emmediate settlement47 5.3. Primary consolidation settlement48 5.4. Secondary consolidation settlement 49 5.5. Excess pore water pressure( )..49 6.1. Soil consistency51 6.2. Cohession and adhesion..53 6.3. Rupture Resistance..53 6.4. Dry Consistency..54 6.5. Dry and moist consistency..54 6.6. Wet consistency..55 6.7. Stickyness Classes..55 6.8. Plasticity.57 6.9. Atterberg Limits.57 6.10. Liquid Limit..59-63 6.11.Importance of liquid limit test 6.12. Derived Limits 6.13. Liquidity Index 6.14. Plasticity Index 6.15. Activity

6.2. Test for liquid limit63-69 6.2.1. Procedure 6.2.2. Apparatus 6.2.3. Method 6.2.4. Report 6.2.5. Precautions

6.3. Determination of plastic limit ...70-73 6.3.1. Apparatus 6.3.2. Procedure 6.3.3. Report 6.3.4. Precautions
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7.1. Specific Gravity By Density Bottle Method74-78 7.1.1. Apparatus Required 7.1.2. Theory 7.1.3. Application 7.1.4. Procedure 7.1.5. Test Procedure 7.1.6. Observation and calculation table 7.1.7. Precautions

8.1. Density of soil By Core-Cutter Method...79-84 8.1.1. Apparatus Required 8.1.2. Theory 8.1.3. Applications 8.1.4. Procedure 8.1.5. Observation and Calculation table 8.1.6. Precaution 9.1. Determination of moisture content...85-88 9.1.1. Standard Reference 9.1.2. Significance 9.1.3. Equipments 9.1.4. Test procedure 9.1.5. Data Analysis

10. Conclusion89 -90 11. References.91

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Chapter I

1. Introduction
1.1 GENERAL:1.1 What is Leachate? The Secret Story of Leachate
Leachate can be any water that once it has drained through a medium takes up chemicals and solid materials during its passage. The term leachate is most often used in connection with landfills. Landfill leachate is contaminated 'dirty' water that is produced when rainwater comes into contact with waste materials on the area of the landfill. It contains a large number of different contaminants, probably the most significant of which is ammonia.

The second most common type of leachate encountered is the black odorous run-off from manure heaps and from so me composting facilities. If leachate is allowed to leak from a landfill it will usually cause pollution both locally around the waste, and it may form a plume of contamination within groundwaters it enters and a plume of gr oundwater pollution may move away from the landfill over time to contaminate wells and any drinking water taken from them.
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Leachate forms from both the combination of liquids that are dumped in a tip or landfill, and liquids that form through decomposition of wastes, as precipitation filters through the wastes. It is a liquid which is mostly organically contaminated but which will also contain low levels of most of the liquids disposed of in the landfill from which it emanates. Sometimes leachate can be produced by a landfill, which is sealed by a low permeability capping layer. That is normally the result of a rise in pressure on the landfill when additional loads are placed on the landfill forcing compression of the structure or the presence of excess water. Leachate is produced by the percolation of precipitation through a landfill (from rainfall and snowmelt) once it penetrates the landfill's daily, intermediate, or final cover. However, the quantity that penetrates a well vegetated cover is lower than many expect, due to the evaporation from the surface, which will

include the transpiration from the leaves of the foliage on the surface . As the water passes vertically downward through the waste mass, it comes into contact
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with the waste, picking up chemical contaminants and biological impurities as it goes, and the deeper the waste he stronger it gets. It also gets stronger if it stands from a long while in the waste which is not highly surprising. There are two main types of leachate produced in landfills which contain biological municipal solid waste (MSW). These are known as acetogenic leachate and methanogenic leachate. The methanogenic type is often black in color always smelly and may smell of bad eggs. Methanogenic only has only a slight smell and is brown or golden colored. Acetogenic leachate is the young leachate which is produced in a landfill first. It has a very high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) which can be as high as hundreds of thousands of milligrams per litre for short periods, soon after the cells of he organic waste break open or "lyse" and the complex compounds which make up live cell tissue drain out of the cells.

The demand for oxygen in a modern quite rapidly filled landfill, is so intense that within a few months of deposition a new cell of waste will lack oxygen

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within the airspaces. Oxygen will be present in the waste which is then said to be in an anoxic condition. Over time the original oxygen in the waste and in the leachate becomes depleted as biological fermentation proceeds, and at some point ancient bacteria which have always been present in airless bogs and swamps and lie dormant in our environment multiply and take over the reaction within he waste. These are known as methanogenic bacteria. Why are they called that? Well, it is simple really! They produce the gas known as methane! All that brings me around to the point where I can now define methanogenic leachate. Yes. You have guessed it. Methanogenic leachate is the leachate that is produce by a methane producing anaerobic landfill. By the time it has become methanogenic however, the process of decomposition by fermentation has reduced the COD to quite possibly 1/100 th of its maximum value, or even 1/1000 th. However, the leachate is hardly any less toxic to aquatic life, because the ammonia present in dissolved and gaseous forms remains high, and thus as we stated earlier is one of the most important contaminants in leachate. That is the story of leachate from young (acetogenic) to old (methanogenic)

1.2 MORE ON LEACHATE

Leachate is any liquid that, in passing through matter, extracts solutes, suspended solids or any other component of the material through which it has passed. Leachate is a widely used term in the environmental sciences where it has the specific meaning of a liquid that has dissolved or entrained environmentally harmful substances which may then enter the environment. It is most commonly used in the context of land-filling of putrescible or industrial waste. In the narrow environmental context leachate is therefore any liquid material that drains from land or stockpiled material and contains significantly elevated concentrations of undesirable material derived from the material that it has passed through.

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Leachate may also be defined as a product or solution formed by leaching, especially a solution containing contaminants picked up through the leaching of soil. Leachate is a water that carries salts dissolved out of materials through which it has percolated, especially polluted water from a refuse tip. Leachate is a solution resulting from leaching, as of soluble constituents from soil, landfill, etc., by downward percolating ground water.

1.3 Landfill leachate

Leachate from a landfill varies widely in composition depending on the age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains . It can usually contain both dissolved and suspended material. The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it then flows out of the waste material it is termed leachate. Additional leachate volume is produced during this decomposition of carbonaceous material producing a wide range of other materials including methane, carbon dioxide and a complex mixture of organic acids, aldehydes, alcohols and simple sugars.

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The risks of leachate generation can be mitigated by properly designed and engineered landfill sites, such as sites that are constructed on geologically impermeable materials or sites that use impermeable liners made of geomembranes or engineered clay. The use of linings is now mandatory within both the United States and the European Union except where the waste is deemed inert. In addition, most toxic and difficult materials are now specifically excluded from landfilling. However despite much stricter statutory controls leachates from modern sites are found to contain a range of contaminants that may either be associated with some level of illegal activity or may reflect the ubiquitous use of a range of difficult materials in household and domestic products which enter the waste stream legally.

1.4 Composition of landfill leachate

When water percolates through the waste, it promotes and assists the process of decomposition by bacteria and fungi. These processes in turn release byproducts of decomposition and rapidly use up any available oxygen creating an anoxic environment. In actively decomposing waste the temperature rises and the pH falls rapidly and many metal ions which are relatively insoluble at neutral pH can become dissolved in the developing leachate. The decomposition processes themselves release further water which adds to the volume of leachate. Leachate also reacts with materials that are not themselves prone to decomposition such as fire ash, cement based building materials and gypsum based materials changing the chemical composition. In sites with large volumes of building waste, especially those containing gypsum plaster, the reaction of leachate with the gypsum can generate large volumes of hydrogen sulfide which may be released in the leachate and may also form a large component of the landfill gas. In a landfill that receives a mixture of municipal, commercial, and mixed industrial waste, but excludes significant amounts of concentrated specific chemical waste, landfill leachate may be characterized as a water-based solution of four groups of contaminants; dissolved organic matter (alcohols, acids, aldehydes, short chain sugars etc.), inorganic macro components (common cations and anions including sulphate, chloride, iron, aluminium, zinc and

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ammonia), heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Hg), and xenobiotic organic compounds such as halogenated organics, (PCBs, dioxins, etc.). The physical appearance of leachate when it emerges from a typical landfill site is a strongly odoured black, yellow or orange coloured cloudy liquid. The smell is acidic and offensive and may be very pervasive because of hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur rich organic species such as mercaptans.

1.5 History of landfill leachate collection

In the UK, in the late 1960s, central Government policy was to ensure new landfill sites were being chosen with permeable underlying geological strata to avoid the build-up of leachate. This policy was dubbed "dilute and disperse". However, following a number of cases where this policy was seen to be failing and an expose in "The Sunday Times" of serious environmental damage being caused by inappropriate disposal of industrial wastes both policy and the law was changed. The Deposit of Poisonous Wastes Act 1972 together with The 1974 Local Government Act, made local government responsible for waste disposal and also responsible for environmental standards enforcement for waste disposal. Proposed landfill locations also needed to be justified not only by geography but also scientifically. Many European countries decided to select sites in groundwater free clay geological conditions or to seal each site with an engineered lining. In the wake of European advancements, the United States increased its development of leachate retaining and collection systems. This quickly led from lining in principle, into the use of multiple lining layers in all landfills (minus those truly inert).

1.6 Environmental impact

The risks from waste leachate are due to its high organic contaminant concentrations and high concentration of ammonia. Pathogenic microorganisms that might be present in it are often cited as the most important, but pathogenic organism counts reduce rapidly with time in the landfill, so this only applies to the most fresh leachate. Toxic substances may however be present in variable concentration and their presence is related to the nature of waste deposited.
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Most landfills containing organic material will produce methane, some of which dissolves in the leachate. This could in theory be released in weakly ventilated areas in the treatment plant. All plants in Europe must now be assessed under the EU ATEX Directive and zoned where explosion risks are identified to prevent future accidents. The most important requirement is the prevention of discharge of dissolved methane from untreated leachate when it is discharged into public sewers, and most sewage treatment authorities limit the permissible discharge concentration of dissolved methane to 0.14 mg/l, or 1/10 of the lower explosive limit. This entails methane stripping from the leachate. The greatest environmental risks occur in the discharges from older sites constructed before modern engineering standards became mandatory and also from sites in the developing world where modern standards have not been applied. There are also substantial risks from illegal sites and ad-hoc sites used by criminal gangs to dispose of waste materials. Leachate streams running directly into the aquatic environment have both an acute and chronic impact on the environment which may be very severe and can severely diminish biodiversity and greatly reduce populations of sensitive species. Where toxic metals and organics are present this can lead to chronic toxin accumulation in both local and far distant populations. Rivers impacted by leachate are often yellow in appearance and often support severe overgrowths of sewage fungus.

1.7 Other types of leachate

Leachate can also be produced from land that was contaminated by chemicals or toxic materials used in industrial activities such as factories, mines or storage sites. Composting sites in high rainfall also produce leachate. Leachate is also associated with stockpiled coal and with waste materials from metal ore mining and other rock extraction processes, especially those in which sulphide containing materials are exposed to air and thus to oxygen generating acidic, sulphur-rich liquors, often with elevated metal concentrations. In the context of civil engineering (more specifically reinforced concrete design), leachate refers to the effluent of pavement wash-off (that may include
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melting snow & ice with salt) that permeates through the cement paste onto the surface of the steel reinforcement, thereby catalyzing its oxidation and degradation. Leachates can be geotoxic in nature.

1.8 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES & INDEX PROPERTIES 1.8.1 (a)Engineering Properties-The main engineering properties of the
soil are permeability, compressibility and shear strength. Permeability indicates the facility with which water can flow through soils. It is required for estimation of seepage discharge through earth masses. Compressibility is related with the deformations produced in soils when they are subjected to compressive loads. Compression characteristics are required for computation of settlement of structures founded on soils. Shear strength of a soil is its ability to resist the shear stresses. The shear strength determines the stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soils and the earth pressure on retaining structures.

1.8.2 (b)Index Properties-The tests required for determination of

engineering properties are generally elaborate and time consuming. Sometimes, the geotechnical engineer is interested to have some rough assessment of the engineering properties without conducting elaborate tests. This is possible if index properties are determined. The properties of soils which are not of primary interest to the geotechnical engineer but which are indicative of the engineering properties are called index properties. Simple tests which are required to determine the index properties are known as classification tests. The soils are classified and identified based on the index properties.

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The index properties are sometimes divided into two categories. (1) Properties of individual particles, and (2) Properties of soil mass, also known as aggregate properties. The properties of individual particles can be determined from a remoulded, disturbed sample. These depend upon the individual grains and are independent of the manner of soil formation. The soil aggregate properties depend upon the mode of soil formation, soil history and soil structure. The properties should be determined by undisturbed samples or preferably from in-situ tests. The most important properties of the individual particles of coarse grained soils are the particle size distribution and grain shape. The aggregate property of the coarsegrained soils of great practical importance is its relative density. The index properties give some information about engineering properties. It is tacitly assumed that soils with like index properties have identical engineering properties. However, the correlation between index properties and engineering properties is not perfect. A liberal factor of safety should be provided if the design is based only on the engineering properties. Design of large, important structures should be done only after determination of engineering properties.

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1.9 OBJECTIVE
To prepare a comparative analysis report on the effect of leachate on the engineering properties of the soils taken from three different sites. Sites are so chosen that the waste dump on them differs in age.

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Chapter II

2. SITE SELECTED
Site -1 : Normal soil

The Normal site is taken as the PSIT PLAY GROUND keeping in mind that there no dumping activity is being done in past years and regular maintenance of soil is being done for gardening. Hence we are taking this site for comparing all the test results from the other two dumping sides.

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Site -2 : PSIT Dumping Site

This is our another site where dumping is being done for past few years, All the domestic waste of the organisation is been done here, hence fresh layers of dump can be obtained . This particularly will help us in making an easy comparison of the test results in between the normal site and other sites of different dumping conditions.

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SITE -3 : PANKI PADAO

This site lies in the outskirts of Kanpur city where nearly all the waste is being dumped from past few decade .This site is of great importance in making a healthy comparison of the test results.

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Chapter III 3.1 Permeability Due to the existence of the inter-connected voids, soils are
permeable. The permeable soils will allow water flow from points of high energy to points of low energy. Permeability is the parameter to characterize the ability of soil to transport water. Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences (commonly symbolized as , or k) is a measure of the ability of a porous material (often, a rock or unconsolidated material) to allow fluids to pass through it.

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3.2 Importance of permeability 1. Permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated soil under load. 2. The design of earth dams is very much based upon the permeability of the soils used. 3. The stability of slopes and retaining structures can be greatly affected by the permeability of the soils involved. 4. Filters made of soils are designed based upon their permeability. 3.3 Use of Permeability Knowledge of the permeability properties of soil is necessary to: 1. Estimating the quantity of underground seepage ; 2. Solving problems involving pumping seepage water from construction excavation; 3. Stability analyses of earth structures and earth retaining walls subjected to seepage forces.

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3.4 Units of the coefficient of Permeability k

The permeability k is in the dimension of velocity. However, in deferent field people prefer use different units for permeability simply because different fields deal different scales of subsurface fluid flow. In hydrogeology a used to be popular unit is meinzer; in geotechnical world is cm/sec; and in petroleum engineering people just use the unit of darcy. Here are the conversions: 1cm/sec=864 m/day 1 darcy= 1 cm3 of fluid with viscosity of 1 centiposein 1 sec, under a pressure change of 1 atm. over a length of 1 cm through a porous medium of 1 cm2in crosssectional area. 1 Meinzer= 1gal/day/ft2

3.5 Permeability Test This standard describes the method for determining coefficient of permeability of granular Foils by a constant head method and under conditions of laminar flow of water. This method is suitable for disturbed granular soil containing less than 10 percent soil passing 75-micron IS Sieve, the type of material used for construction of embankments base courses under pavements. Prerequisite for laminar flow of water through granular soils is that, water shall flow below critical velocity so that there is no movement or disturbance of soil particles; moreover, water shall flow through saturated soil voids without having bubbles in them, and there shall be no change in soil volume nor any change in hydraulic gradient during the performance of the test.

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The permeameter shall have specimen cylinders with minimum diameters approximately 8 or 12 times the maximum particle size in accordance with Table 1. The permeameter shall be fitted with: a) A porous disc or suitable reinforced screen at the bottom with a permeability greater than that of the soil specimen, but with openings sufficiently small ( not larger than 10 percent of finer size of the soil to be tested ) to prevent the movement of particles; b) Manometer outlets for measuring the loss of head, 11. over a length, L, equivalent to at least the diameter of the cylinder; and c) A porous disc or suitable reinforced screen with spring attached to the* top, or any other device for applying a light spring pressure of 2 to 4 kg total load when the top plate is attached in place. This will hold the placement density and volume of soil without significant change during the saturation of the specimen and the permeability testing to satisfy the requirement that there should be no soil volume change during a test.

3.6.1 PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN

Make the following initial measurements and record on the data sheet ( Appendix A ), the inside diameter, D, of the permeameter; the length, L, between the manometer outlets; and the depth, H1, measured at four symmetrically spaced points from the upper surface of the top plate of the permeability cylinder to the top of the upper porous stone or screen temporarily
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placed on the lower porous plate or screen. This automatically deducts the thickness of the upper porous plate or screen from the height measurements used to determine the volume of soil placed in the permeability cylinder. A duplicate top plate containing four large symmetrically spaced openings through which the necessary measurements can be made, shall be employed to determine the average value for HI. Calculate the cross sectional area A of the specimen. Small portion of the sample selected as prescribed in 3.2 and 3.3 shall be taken for water content determinations. Record the weight of the remaining air-dried sample , 11/l, for unit weight determinations. Place the prepared soil by one of the following procedures in uniform thin layers approximately 15 tO 20 mm. For soils having a maximum size of 10 mm or less, place the appropriate size of funnel, as prescribed in 2.3, in the permeability device with the spout in contact with the lower porous plate or screen or previously formed layer, and fill the funnel with sufficient soil to form a layer, taking soil from different areas of the sample in the pan Lift the funnel by 15 mm or approximately the unconsolidated layer thickness to be formed, and spread the soil with a slow spiral motion, working from the perimeter of the device towards the centre, so that a uniform layer is formed. Remix the soil in the pan for each successive layer to reduce segregation caused by taking soil from the pan. For soils with a maximum size greater than 10.00 mm, spread the soil from a scoop. Uniform spreading can be obtained by sliding a scoopful of soil in a nearly horizontal position down along the inside surface of the device to the bottom or to the formed layer, then tilting the scoop and drawing it towards the centre with a single slow motion, this allows the soil to run smoothly from the scoop in a windrow without segregation. Turn the permeability cylinder sufficiently for the next scoopful, thus progressing around the inside perimeter to form a uniform compacted layer of a thickness equal to the maximum particle size. Compact successive layers of soil to the desired relative density by appropriate procedure, as follows, to a height of about 20-mm above the upper manometer outlet. Minimum Density ( Zero Percent Relative Density ) - Continue placing layers of soil in succession by one of the procedures described in 4.4.1 until the device is filled to the proper level. Maximum Density ) Density ( 100 Percent relative 4.5.2.1 Compaction by vibrating tamper - each layer of soil thoroughly with the vibrating tamper,
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distributing the light tamping action uniformly over the surface of the layer in a regular pattern. The pressure of contact and the length of time of the vibrating action at each spot should not cause soil to escape from beneath the edges of the tamping foot, thus tending to loosen the layer. Make a sufficient number of coverages to produce maximum density, as evidenced by practically no visible motion of surface particles adjacent to the edges 01 the tamping foot. Compacting with sliding weight tamper -Compact each iayer of soil thoroughly by tamping blows uniformly distributed over the surface of the layer. Adjust the height of drop and give sufficient coverages to produce maximum density, depending on the coarseness and gravel content of the soil. Compaction by other methods Compaction may be accomplished by other approved methods, such as deposition under water, by vibratory packer equipment where care is taken to obtain a uniform specimen without segregation of particle sizes. Relative Density Intermediate Between zero and 100 Percent - By trial in a separate container of the same diameter as the permeability cylinder, adjust the compaction to obtain reproducible values of relative density. Compact the soil in the permeability cylinder by these procedures in thin layers to a height of about 20 mm above the upper manometer outlet.

3.6.2 PROCEDURE Open the inlet valve from the filter tank slightly for the first run, delay measurements of quantity of flow and head until a stable head condition without appreciable drift in water manometer level is attained. Measure and record the time t, head h ( the difference in level in the manometers ), quantity of flow Q, and water temperature T. Repeat the test runs at heads, increasing by 5 mm in order to establish accurately the region of laminar flow with velocity u ( where u = Q/At ), directly proportional to hydraulic gradient i ( where i = h/L ). When departures from the linear relation become apparent, indicating the initiation of turbulent flow conditions, 10 mm intervals, of head may be used to carry the test run sufficiently along in the region of turbulent flow to define this region if it is significant for field conditions. At the completion of the permeability test, drain the specimen and inspect it to establish whether it was essentially homogenous and isotropic in character. Any light and dark alternating horizontal streaks 01 layers are evidence of segregation of fines.

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3.6.3 RECORD OF OBSERVATION The inside diameter D of the permeamcter, the length L between manometer outlets and depth are measured and recorded in Appendix A. For the given soil, water content is determined and recorded. The weight W8, of air dried soil used in preparing soil specimen is also recorded. The final height of specimen after compression by spring, HI - Hz, is measured and recorded. Dry unit weight and void ratio are calculated. The temperature of water, T is measured and recorded, During the test, observations are made of manometer readings hl and h2, quantity of flow Q collected in a graduated jar in the time t and are recorded in columns ( 2 ) to ( 5 ) respectively. Head h ( = hl - h2 ) is calculated to column ( 6 ) and gradient i ( = h/L ) is calculated and recorded in column ( 7 ). Finally, permeability k, is calculated and recorded in column ( 8 ).

3.6.4 CALCULATIONS Permeability k T at temperature T is calculated by: kT = q/(ait) and permeability at 27C by using the expression k27=kt-ut/u27 where ut = Coefficient of viscosity at TC, and u27 = Coefficient of viscosity at 27C.

39

SITE 1

SITE 2

40

SITE 3

41

Chapter IV
4.1 Shear strength (soil)
Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that a soil can sustain. The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles, and possibly cementation or bonding at particle contacts. Due to interlocking, particulate material may expand or contract in volume as it is subject to shear strains. If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the strength will decrease; in this case, the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress. The stress-strain relationship levels off when the material stops expanding or contracting, and when interparticle bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which the shear

stress and density remain constant while the shear strain increases may be called the critical state, steady state, or residual strength. The volume change behaviour and interparticle friction depend on the density of the particles, the intergranular contact forces, and to a somewhat lesser extent, other factors such as the rate of shearing and the direction of the shear stress. The average normal intergranular contact force per unit area is called the effective stress. If water is not allowed to flow in or out of the soil, the stress path is called an undrained
42

stress path. During undrained shear, if the particles are surrounded by a nearly incompressible fluid such as water, then the density of the particles cannot change without drainage, but the water pressure and effective stress will change. On the other hand, if the fluids are allowed to freely drain out of the pores, then the pore pressures will remain constant and the test path is called a drained tress path. The soil is free to dilate or contract during shear if the soil is drained. In reality, soil is partially drained, somewhere between the perfectly undrained and drained idealized conditions. The shear strength of soil depends on the effective stress, the drainage conditions, the density of the particles, the rate of strain, and the direction of the strain. For undrained, constant volume shearing, the Tresca theory may be used to predict the shear strength, but for drained conditions, the MohrCoulomb theory may be used. Two important theories of soil shear are the critical state theory and the steady state theory. There are key differences between the critical state condition and the steady state condition and the resulting theory corresponding to each of these conditions.

43

4.2 Shear Strength in Soils The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual soil particles Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between particles Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are such that they slide or roll past each other Soil derives its shear strength from two sources: Cohesion between particles (stress independent component) Cementation between sand grains Electrostatic attraction between clay particles Frictional resistance between particles (stress dependent component)

4.3 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria This theory states that a material fails because of a critical combination of normal stress and shear stress, and not from their either maximum normal or shear stress alone.

44

where c = cohesion; c=effective cohesion = angle of internal friction; = effective angle of internal friction = coefficient of friction; ' = effect ive coefficient of friction =n.

45

46

Chapter V
5.1 Consolidation
Civil Engineers build structures and the soil beneath these structures is loaded. This results in increase of stresses resulting in strain leading to settlement of stratum. The settlement is due to decrease in volume of soil mass. When water in the voids and soil particles are assumed as incompressible in a completely saturated soil system then - reduction in volume takes place due to expulsion of water from the voids. There will be rearrangement of soil particles in air voids created by the outflow of water from the voids. This rearrangement reflects as a volume change leading to compression of saturated fine grained soil resulting in settlement. The rate of volume change is related to the rate at which pore water moves out which in turn depends on the permeability of soil. Therefore the deformation due to increase of stress depends on the Compressibility of soils As Civil Engineers we need to provide answers for 1. Total settlement (volume change) 2. Time required for the settlement of compressible layer The total settlement consists of three components 1. Immediate settlement. 2. Primary consolidation settlement 3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Creep settlement) St = Si + Sc + Ssc

5.2 Elastic Settlement or Immediate Settlement This settlement occurs immediately after the load is applied. This is due to distortion (change in shape) at constant volume. There is negligible flow of water in less pervious soils. In case of pervious soils the flow of water is quick at constant volume. This is determined by elastic theory.

47

5.3 Primary Consolidation Settlement

It occurs due to expulsion of pore water from the voids of a saturated soil. In case of saturated fine grained soils, the deformation is due to squeezing of water from the pores leading to rearrangement of soil particles. The movement of pore water depends on the permeability and dissipation of pore water pressure. With the passage of time the pore water pressure dissipates, the rate of flow decreases and finally the flow of water ceases. During this process there is gradual dissipation of pore water pressure and a simultaneous increase of effective stress as shown in Fig 1. The consolidation settlement occurs from the time water begins move out from the pores to the time at which flow ceases from the voids. This is also the time from which the excess pore water pressure starts reducing (effective stress increase) to the time at which complete dissipation of excess pore water pressure (total stress equal to effective stress). This time dependent compression is called Consolidation settlement Primary consolidation is a major component of settlement of fine grained saturated soils and this can be estimated from the theory of consolidation. In case of saturated soil mass the applied stress is borne by pore water alone in the initial stages

With passage of time water starts flowing out from the voids as a result the excess pore water pressure decreases and simultaneous increase in effective stress will takes place. The volume change is basically due to the change in effective stress . After considerable amount of time flow from the voids ceases the effective stress stabilizes and will be is equal to external applied total stress and this stage signifies the end of primary consolidation.

48

5.4 Secondary Consolidation Settlement:This is also called Secondary compression (Creep). It is the change in volume of a fine grained soil due to rearrangement of soil particles (fabric) at constant effective stress. The rate of secondary consolidation is very slow when compared with primary consolidation.

5.5 Excess Pore water Pressure (Du) It is the pressure in excess of the equilibrium pore water pressure. It is represented as Du. Du= h gw Where h --- Piezometric head gw --- Unit weight of water

49

When saturated soil mass is subjected to external load decrease in volume takes place due to rearrangement of soil particles. Reduction in volume is due to expulsion of water from the voids. The volume change depends on the rate at which water is expelled and it is a function of permeability. The total vertical deformation (Consolidation settlement) depends on 1. Magnitude of applied pressure (sD) 2. Thickness of the saturated deposit We are concerned with _ Measurement of volume change _ The time duration required for the volume change

50

Chapter VI
6.1 Soil Consistency
Soil consistency is defined as the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed use the terms of soft, firm, or hard. Consistency largely depends on soil minerals and the water content. Atterberg limits are the limits of water content used to define soil behavior. The consistency of soils according to Atterberg limits gives the following diagram.

LL: The lowest water content above which soil behaves like liquid, normally below 100. PL: The lowest water content at which soil behaves like a plastic material PI: The range between LL and PL. Shrinkage limit: the water content below which soils do not decrease their volume anymore as they continue dry out. needed in producing bricks and ceramics .
51

normally below 40.

Soil consistence provides a means of describing the degree and kind of cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles as related to the resistance of the soil to deform or rupture. Since the consistence varies with moisture content, the consistence can be described as dry consistence, moist consistence, and wet consistence. Consistence evaluation includes rupture resistance and stickiness. The rupture resistance is a field measure of the ability of the soil to withstand an applied stress or pressure as applied using the thumb and forefinger. Soil consistency is defined as the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed use the terms of soft, firm, or hard. Consistency largely depends on soil minerals and the water content.

52

6.2 Cohesion & Adhesion

Cohesion is the attraction of one water molecule to another resulting from hydrogen bonding (water-water bond). Adhesion is similar to cohesion except with adhesion involves the attraction of a water molecule to a non-water molecule (water-solid bond).

When We Describe Consistency We Attempt to Describe the Following Engineering/Environmental Rupture Resistance Moist and Dry Consistency Stickiness Wet Consistency Plasticity-Wet Consistency Geophysical Manner and Type of Failure Penetration Resistance

6.3 Rupture Resistance

A measure of the strength of the soil to withstand an applied stress Moisture content is also considered Dry Moist (field capacity)

53

6.4 Dry Consistency

6.5 Dry and Moist Consistency

54

6.5 Wet Consistency Describe Stickiness The capacity of soil to adhere to other objects Estimated at moisture content that displays maximum adherence between thumb and fore finger Describe Plasticity Degree a soil can be molded or reworked causing permanent deformation without rupturing.

6.6 Stickiness Classes

Non-Stickylittle or no soil adheres to fingers after release of pressure Slightly Stickysoil adheres to both fingers after release of pressure with little stretching on separation of fingers Moderately Sticky soil adheres to both fingers after release of pressure with some stretching on separation of fingers Very Sticky -soil adheres firmly to both fingers after release of pressure with stretches greatly on separation of fingers

55

Water Content Significantly affects properties of Silty and Clayey soils (unlike sand and gravel). Plasticity property describes the response of a soil to change in moisture content. Strength decreases as water content increases Soils swell-up when water content increases Fine-grained soils at very high water content possess properties similar to liquids As the water content is reduced, the volume of the soil decreases and the soils become plastic If the water content is further reduced, the soil becomes semi-solid when the volume does not change

56

6.7 Plasticity The degree to which puddled or reworked soil can be permanently deformed without rupturing Evaluation done by forming a 4 cm long wire of soil at a water content where maximum plasticity is expressed 6.8 Atterberg limits

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behaviour of a soil is different and consequently so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it can distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande. These distinctions in soil are used in assessing the soils that are to have structures built on. Soils when wet retain water and some expand in volume. The amount of expansion is related to the ability of the soil to take in water and its structural make-up (the type of atoms present). These tests are mainly used on clayey or silty soils since these are the soils that expand and shrink due to moisture content. Clays and silts react with the water and thus change sizes and have varying shear strengths. Thus these tests are used widely in the preliminary stages of designing any structure to ensure that the soil will have the correct amount of shear strength and not too much change in volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture contents.

57

58

6.9 Liquid limit The liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil changes from plastic to liquid behavior. The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 1012 cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand. Casagrande subsequently tandardized the apparatus and the procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its center with a standardized tool of 13.5 millimetres (0.53 in) width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 13.5 millimetres (0.53 in) is defined as the liquid limit. The test is normally run at several moisture contents, and the moisture content which requires 25 blows to close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The
59

Liquid Limit test is defined by ASTM standard test method D 4318.[3] The test method also allows running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are required to close the groove; then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid limit from the moisture content..

The following is when one should record the N in number of blows needed to close this 1/2-inch gap: The materials needed to do a liquid limit test are as follows Casagrande cup (liquid limit device) Grooving tool Soil pat before test Soil pat after test Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the fall cone test. It is based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Although the Casagrande test is widely used across North America, the
60

fall cone test is much more prevalent in Europe due to being less dependent on the operator in determining the Liquid Limit.

6.10 Importance of liquid limit test

The importance of the liquid limit test is to classify soils. Different soils have varying liquid limits. Also, one must use the plastic limit to determine its plasticity index.

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6.11 Derived limits

The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability, and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg limits are not only used to identify the soil's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering properties.

6.12 Liquidity index

The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and liquid limit: LI=(LL-PL) Where W is the natural water content. The effects of the water content on the strength of saturated remolded soils can be quantified by the use of the liquidity index, LI: When the LI is 1, remolded soil is at the liquid limit and it has an undrained shear strength of about 2 kPa. When the soil is at the plastic limit, the LI is 0 and the undrained shear strength is about 200 kPa.

6.13 Plasticity index

The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay. PI and their meanings 0 - Nonplastic (1-5)- Slightly plastic (5-10) - Low plasticity (10-20) - Medium plasticity (20-40) - High plasticity >40 Very high plasticity
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6.14 Activity
The activity (A) of a soil is the PI divided by the percent of clay-sized particles (less than 2 m) present. Different types of clays have different specific surface areas which controls how much wetting is required to move a soil from one phase to another such as across the liquid limit or the plastic limit. From the activity,one can predict the dominant clay type present in a soil sample. High activity signifies large volume change when wetted and large shrinkage when dried. Soils with high activity are very reactive chemically. Normally the activity of clay is between 0.75 and 1.25, and in this range clay is called normal. It is assumed that the plasticity index is approximately equal to the clay fraction (A = 1). When A is less than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is greater than 1.25, it is considered active. 6.2 Test For Liquid Limit 6.2.1 Procedure About 120 g of the soil sample passing 425-micron IS Sieve shall be mixed thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish or on the flat glass plate to form a uniform paste. The paste shall have a consistency that will require 30 to 35 drops of the cup to cause the required closure of the standard groove. In the case of clayey soils, the soil paste shall be left to stand for a sufficient time ( 24 hours ) so as to ensure uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil mass.

63

The soil should then be re-mixed thoroughly before the test. A portion of the paste shall be placed in the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base, squeezed down and spread into position shown in Fig. 1, with as few strokes of the spatula as possible and at the same time trimmed to a depth of one centimetre at the point of maximum thickness, returning the excess soil to the dish. The soil in the cup shall be decided by firm strokes of the grooving tool along the diameter through the centre line of the cam follower so that a clean, sharp groove of the proper dimensions is formed . In case where groovingtool, Type A does not give a clear groove as in sandy soils, grooving tool Type B or Type C should be used. The cup shall be fitted and dropped by turning the crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until the two halves of the soil cake come in contact with bottom of the groove along a distance of about 12 mm . This length shall be measured with the end of the grooving tool or a ruler. The number of drops required to cause the groove close for the length of 12 mm shall be recorded. A little extra of the soil mixture shall be added to the cup and mixed with the soil in the cup. The pat shall be made in the cup and the test repeated . In no case shall dried soil be added to the thoroughly mixed soil that is being tested. The procedure given and in this clause shall be repeated until two consecutive runs give the same under of drops for closure of the groove A representative slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, extending from about edge to edge of the soil cake at right angle to the groove and including that portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together, shall be taken iu a suitable container and its moisture content expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight otherwise determined as described in IS : 2720 ( Part 2 )1973*. The remaining soil in the cup shall be transferred to the evaporating dish and the cup and the grooving tool cleaned thoroughly. The operations specified shall be repeated for at least three more additional trails ( minimum of four in all ), which the soil collected in the evaporating dish or flat glass plate, to with sufficient water has been added to bring the soil to a more fluid condition. In each case the number of blows shall be recorded and the moisture content determined as before. The specimens shall be of such consistency that the number of drops required to close the groove shall be not less than 15 or more than 35 and the points on the flow curve are evenly distributed in this range. The test should proceed from the drier ( more drops ) to the wetter ( less drops ) condition of the soil. The test may also be conducted from the wetter to the drier condition provided drying is achieved by kneading the wet soil and not by adding dry soil.

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6.2.2 APPARATUS Casagrande apparatus confirming to IS: 9259-1979. Grooving tool. Balance of capacity 500 grams and sensitivity 0.01gram. Thermostatically controlled oven with capacity up to 2500 C. Porcelain evaporating dish about 12 to 15cm in diameter. Spatula flexible with blade about 8cm long and 2cm wide. Palette knives with the blade about 20cm long and 3cm wide. Wash bottle or beaker containing distilled water. Containers airtight and non- corrodible for determination of moisture content.

6.2.3 PROCEDURE Take representative soil sample of approximately 120gms passing through 425 micron IS sieve and mix thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish to a uniform paste. The paste shall have a consistency that will require 30 to 35 drops of the cup to cause the required closure of the standard groove.

Liquid Limit test

65

 Leave the soil paste to stand for 24 hours to ensure uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil mass. Remix the soil thoroughly before the test. Place a portion of the paste in the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base, squeeze down and spread in to position with a few strokes of the spatula as possible and at the same time trim to a depth of 1cm at the point of maximum thickness. Make a clean, sharp groove by a grooving tool along the diameter through the centre line of the cam follower. Drop the cup from a height of 10 + 0.25 mm by turning the crank at the rate of two-revolutions/ sec, until the two halves of the soil cake come in contact with the bottom of the groove along the distance of about 12mm. Record the number of drops required to cause the groove close for the length of 12mm. Collect a representative slice of sample of soil approximately the width of spatula, extending from about edge to edge of the soil cake at right angle to the groove in to an air tight container and keep in the oven for 24hrs,maintained at a temperature of 1050 to 1100C and express its moisture content as the percentage of the oven dried weight. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the evaporating dish and clean the cup and the grooving tool thoroughly. Repeat the operation specified above for at least three more additional trials (minimum of four in all) with soil collected in evaporating dish to which sufficient water has been added to bring the soil to more fluid condition.

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In each case record the number of blows and determine the moisture content as before. The specimens shall be of such consistency that the number of drops required to close the groove shall not be less than 15 or more than 35.

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Observation And Calculations

SITE 1

SITE 2

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SITE 3

6.2.4 REPORT Plot a flow curve with the points obtained from each determination on a semi logarithmic graph representing water content on the arithmetical scale and the no of drops on the logarithmic scale. The flow curve is a straight line drawn as nearly as possible through the four or more plotted points. The moisture content corresponding to 25 drops as read from the curve shall be rounded off to the nearest second decimal and is reported as liquid limit of the soil. 6.2.5 PRECAUTIONS This test should proceed from the drier (more drops) to the wetter (less drops) condition of the soil. This test may also be conducted from wetter to drier condition provided drying is achieved by kneading the wet soil and not by adding dry soil.

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6.3 DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT Plastic limit is defined as minimum water content at which soil remains in plastic state 6.3.1 APPARATUS Porcelain evaporating dish about 12cm in diameter. Flat glass plate 10mm thick and about 45cm square or longer. Spatula flexible with the blade about 8cm long and 2cm in wide. Ground glass plate 20 x 15 cm. Airtight containers. Balance of capacity 500grams and sensitivity 0. 01gram. Thermostatically controlled oven with capacity up to 250 0C. Rod 3mm in diameter and about 10cm long.

6.3.2 PROCEDURE Take representative soil sample of approximately 20g from the portion of the material passing 425 micron IS sieve and mix thoroughly with distilled water in an evaporating dish till the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers. In the case of clayey soils, leave the soil mass to stand for 24 hours to ensure uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil. Form a ball with about 8 grams of this soil mass and roll between the fingers and the glass plate as shown with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 and 90 strokes/minute counting the stroke as one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position again. Continue the rolling till the thread crumbles exactly at 3mm diameter. If the soil thread doesnt crumble exactly at 3mm knead the soil tog ether to a uniform mass and roll it again. Continue this process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles under the pressure exactly at 3mm diameter. Collect the pieces of crumbled soil thread in an airtight container and determine its moisture content

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Determine the plastic limit for at least two points of the soil passing 425 micron IS sieve

SITE 1

71

SITE 2

SITE 3

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6.3.3 REPORT Report the individual and the mean of the results as the plastic limit of the soil to the nearest second decimal. 6.3.4 PRECAUTIONS

At no time shall an attempt be made to produce failure at exactly 3mm diameter by allowing the thread to reach 3mm then reducing the rate of rolling or pressure or both and continuing the rolling without further deformation until the thread falls apart.

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Chapter VII
7.1 Specific Gravity Method by Density Bottle Method
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density (mass of the same unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly always water for liquids or air for gases. Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm equal to 101.325 kPa. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British brewing practice the specific gravity as specified above is multiplied by 1000. Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines, hydrocarbons, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must etc.) and acids. To determine the Specific Gravity of soil a particle passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve using Density bottle. 7.1.1 APPARATUS REQUIRED:i. ii. iii. Density bottle of 100 mm capacity. Desiccators. Balance with sensitivity of 0.01 gm.

7.1.2 THEORY:Specific Gravity is the ratio of the mass in air of given volume of dry soil solids to the mass of equal volume of distilled water at 4 o C. Or ratio of unit weight of soil solids to that of water. Let, in the figure

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M1 = Mass of empty density bottle. M2 = Mass of density bottle + Soil grains. M3 = Mass of empty density bottle + Soil grains + water. M4 = Mass of empty density bottle + water.

The value of specific gravity depends on the temperature hence its value is reported as standard temperature of 27 o C. G (at 27 o C) = G (at t o C) * (SG of water at t o C / SG of water at 27 o C)

7.1.3 APPLICATION: Specific gravity of the soil grains is an important property and is used to determine the voids ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation if density and water content are known. Its value helps to some extent in identification and classification of solids. It gives an idea about the stability of soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity gives more strength for roads and foundation. It is used in comparing the soil particle size by means of hydrometer analysis. It is also used in estimation of critical hydraulic gradient in soil when sand boiling condition is being studied and in zero air void calculation in the compaction theory of solids. Its value ranges as follows: i. ii. iii. Coarse grained soils: 2.6 to 2.7 Fine grained soil: 2.7 to 2.8 Organic soil: 2.3 to 2.5

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7.1.4 PROCEDURE: i. ii. iii. Take the Weight of clean and dry density bottle. Keep about 10 15 gm of oven dried cool soil in bottle and weight (M 2). Cover the soil with air free distilled water from the plastic wash bottle. Give some time of socking. A gentle heating may be required to dispel any air inside the soil. Gently stir the soil in the density bottle by clean glass rod. Observed the temperature of the contents (o C) in the bottle and record. Insert the stopper in the density bottle, wipe and weight (M3) Empty the content of bottle, rinse thoroughly, fill it with distilled water at the same temperature, insert the stopper, wipe dry from outside and weight it (M4). Note the ridings as given in Table and at least three such observation and Calculate the Specific Gravity using stated equation. 7.1.5 i. ii. iii. iv. v. TEST PROCEDURE: Select the size of density bottle. Empty bottle is appearing on the screen, and note the mass (M 1). Select the type and mass of soil. Bottle with some amount of soil with close lead will appear on the screen and note the mass (M2). Click arrow, some amount of water is added in the bottle and wait for some time (till the soil is completely saturated) mostly around 30 min to 2 hr. Then add again water in bottle till the bottle is full and give some stare for removing the air from bottle and close the lead. Bottle with some soil and full of water is appearing on the screen and note the mass (M3). Click arrow, Empty the bottle and fill completely with distal water and note the mass (M4). Then run the experiment specific gravity of soil will appear.

iv.

v.

vi. vii. viii. ix.

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7.1.6 OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION TABLE: SITE 1

SITE 2

77

SITE 3

7.1.7 PRECAUTIONS: i. ii. iii. The soil grains whose specific gravity is to be determined should be completely dry. Inaccuracies in weighting and failure to eliminate the entrapped air are the main source of error. Both should be avoided by careful working. If pycnometer is used, the cap of the pycnometer should be screwed up to the same mark for each test.

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Chapter VIII
8.1 DENSITY OF SOIL BY CORE CUTTER METHOD
To determine the field or in-situ density or unit weight of soil by core cutter method 8.1.1 Apparatus Required: a) Special: i. Cylindrical core cutter ii. Steel rammer iii. Steel dolly b) General: i. Balance of capacity5 Kg and sensitivity 1 gm. ii. Balance of capacity 200gms and sensitivity 0.01 gms. iii. Scale iv. Spade or pickaxe or crowbar v. Trimming Knife vi. Oven vii. Water content containers viii. Desiccator.

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8.1.2 Theory: Field density is defined as weight of unit volume of soil present in site. That is = W V =Density of soil W = Total weight of soil V = Total volume of soil The soil weight consists of three phase system that is solids, water and air. The voids may be filled up with both water and air, or only with air, or only with water. Consequently the soil may be dry, saturated or partially saturated. In soils, mass of air is considered to be negligible, and therefore the saturated density is maximum, dry density is minimum and wet density is in between the two. Dry density of the soil is calculated by using equation, d= /(1+w) Where, d=dry density of soil =Wet density of soil w = moisture content of soil. Density or unit weight of soils may be determined by using the following method: i. Core cutter method ii. Sand replacement test iii. Rubber balloon test iv. Water displacement method v. Gamma ray method Hear we use core cutter method, the equipment arrangement is shown as follows

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8.1.3 Application: Field density is used in calculating the stress in the soil due to its overburden pressure it is needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system, settlement of footing earth pressures behind the retaining walls and embankments. Stability of natural slopes, dams, embankments and cuts is checked with the help of density of those soils. It is the density that controls the field compaction of soils. Permeability of soils depends upon its density. Relative density of cohesionless soils is determined by knowing the dry density of soil in natural, loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation need the help of density of soil. Core cutter method in particular, is suitable for soft to medium cohesive soils, in which the cutter can be driven. It is not possible to drive the cutter into hard, boulder or murrumy soils. In such case other methods are adopted.

8.1.4 Procedure: i. Measure the height and internal diameter of the core cutter. ii. Weight the clean core cutter. iii. Clean and level the ground where the density is to be determined. iv. Press the cylindrical cutter into the soil to its full depth with the help of steel rammer. v. Remove the soil around the cutter by spade. vi. Lift up the cutter. vii. Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample carefully. viii. Clean the outside surface of the cutter. ix. Weight the core cutter with the soil. x. Remove the soil core from the cutter and take the representative sample in the water content containers to determine the moisture content

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8.1.5 Observation and Calculation Table: SITE 1

SITE 2

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SITE 3

8.1.6 Precautions: i. Steel dolly should be placed on the top of the cutter before ramming it down into the ground. ii. Core cutter should not be used for gravels, boulders or any hard ground. iii. Before removing the cutter, soil should be removed around the cutter to minimize the disturbances. iv. While lifting the cutter, no soil should drop down

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Chapter IX
9.1 Determination of Moisture Content This test is performed to determine the water (moisture) content of soils. The water content is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of pore or free water in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids. 9.1.1 Standard Reference: ASTM D 2216 - Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures 9.1.2 Significance: For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index used for establishing the relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely depends on its water content. The water content is also used in expressing the phase relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil. 9.1.3 Equipment: Drying oven, Balance, Moisture can, Gloves, Spatula

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. 9.1.4 Test Procedure : (1) Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of an empty, clean, and dry moisture can with its lid (MC) (2) Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and record the mass of the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with the lid (MCMS). (3) Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in the drying oven that is set at 105 C. Leave it in the oven overnight. (4) Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the moisture can using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature. Determine and record the mass of the moisture can and lid (containing the dry soil) (MCDS). (5) Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.

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9.1.5 Data Analysis:

(1) Determine the mass of soil solids. MS = MCDS MSC (2) Determine the mass of pore water. MW = MCMS MCDS (3) Determine the water content. w = Ms x100 Mw SITE 1

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SITE 2

SITE 3

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CHAPTER X

CONCLUSION

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On the basis of the analysis of the three soil samples from different sites it has been observed that the leachate has adverse effect on the properties of soil. These effect can be lead to infertility of soil at the particular site , degrading the bearing capacity of the soil which makes the soil unsuitable for construction of various infrastructure which can be effected to bear very heavy loads. The results of various test performed on the soil show that there has been a drastic change in the properties of soil , which is alarming . Open dumping of garbage for a considerable period of time can lead to formation of leachate in effective volume ,which can cause catastrophic effects on the properties of soil. The leachate formed will not only hamper the properties of soil but if seeps through the soil layers can also cause groundwater pollution. The properties of soil get easily affected by the leachate because of its highly reactive nature. The composition of leachate is not predefined , it is liquid formed by leaching of water from various layers of garbage dump. Hence there is no predefined treatment for leachate . The measure to check the problem of leachate is the adoption of the practice of solid waste management , lining of landfill site and the use of geotextile material for lining of the site.

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Chapter XI REFERENCES
Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering K.R.Arora Soil mechanics and Foundation Dr. B.C. Punmia Soil Mechanics In Engineering Practice Karl Terzaghi Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Springer Wikipedia.org http://www.uic.edu/classes/cemm/cemmlab/Experiment%201Water%20Content.pdf 7. http://www.prbdb.gov.in/files/Quality%20Control%20Training/Tests%20 on%20Soils/Atterbergs%20Limit/Atterbergs%20Limits.pdf 8. http://virtual-labs.ac.in/labs/CEVL/CEVL02 SM/Data%20files/02%20Unit_Weight.pdf 9. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/11/enotes/geotechengg/Unit6-SVD.pdf 10. http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~cnan/Principles%20of%20geotechnical%20e ngineering%20(Fifth%20Edition,%20Das)/259-310.PDF 11. http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~swan/courses/53030/notes/consol1.p df 12. http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~lanbo/G229Lect05042SoilMech1.pdf 13. http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~lanbo/CE240LectW111shearstrength1.pdf 14. http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~lanbo/CE240LectW093soilcompressibility3. pdf 15. http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~lanbo/CE240LectW043permeability1.pdf 16. http://www.ele.com/euro/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_do wnload&gid=88 17. http://www3.nd.edu/~asimonet/CE20500/SPRING_2012/LECTURES_P DF/Lecture15_Soils_03_20_2012.pdf 18. http://www.science.marshall.edu/niemann/GLY%20457/Eng%20Geo%2 0of%20Soils.pdf 19. http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~lanbo/CE240LectW031consistencyAtterber glinmits.pdf 20. Lab Manuals and Indian Standard Codes. IS 2720 (PART III/sec 1)-1980 Determination of specific Gravity IS 2720 (PART III/sec 2)-1980 Determination of specific Gravity IS 2720 (sec 5)-1985 Determination Of Liquid & Plastic Limit IS 2720 (sec 36)-1987 -Determination of Permeability IS 9259-1979 Specification for Liquid Limit Apparatus For Soil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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