A Project Report On "Analysis of Electron Confinement in Gan/Algan Quantum Nano-Wire Heterostructure"

A
Project Report On
“Analysis of Electron Confinement in GaN/AlGaN Quantum Nano-

wire Heterostructure”
Submitted To
Department of Electronics,
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon.
By
Ulhas Shamkant Sonawane

Partial fulfillment of the degree of
Master of Science in Electronics (2008-2009)
Under the Guidance of
Dr. D .S. Patil.

Department of Electronics,
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
NORTH MAHARASHTRA UNIVERSITY, JALGAON
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that, the thesis entitled,
“Analysis of Electron Confinement in GaN/AlGaN Quantum Nano-wire

Heterostructure“
Submitted by,
Mr. Ulhas Shamkant Sonawane
Is the original and independent work of the student himself under the
supervision during his stay in this university in the year 2008-09 for his partial
fulfillment of the Master Degree in Electronics.
Project Guide Department of Electronics

Dr. D. S. Patil NMU, Jalgaon-
Jalgaon-425001
External Examiner
“I am enough of an artist to draw freely upon my
imagination. Imagination is more important than knowledge.
Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world.”
:- Einstein
Acknowledgment
The more tedious is a subject more it needs guidance,
encouragement and blessings from the pioneer of the field. I have
great sense of gratitude towards the able guidance given to me by our
learned guide in completion of this work.
My project guide Dr. D. S. Patil have been a source of steady
encouragement, enlighten and inspiration for smooth mobilization of
the progress of my project. His guidance in this project will always be
moral support for me in future. It is due to him only that I have
completed this project.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. Edmund Samuel for his
continuous encouragement and dedicated technical support. Thanks are
due to all the researchers for constant moral support, which yields the
completion of this tedious work.
This work is confined by the knowledge, inspiration of the people.
I am very thankful to Prof. D. K. Gautam, Dr. A. M. Mahajan for their
valuable suggestions and help.
I am thankful to my parents, friends and well wishers, without
their encouragement it is impossible for me to complete this project
work.
Date: Ulhas Shamkant Sonawane

Index
1. Introduction
2. Gallium Nitride Structure and Properties
3. Schrodinger Equation
4. Kronig-Penney Model
5. The Transfer Matrix Method
6. Results and discussion
7. Conclusions and Future Scope
8. References
Analysis of Electron Confinement in GaN/AlGaN Quantum Nano-wire Heterostructure
1. Introduction
A number of nano materials could enhance energy storage densities
in batteries and supercapacitors. Nanotechnology could reduce the
charge leakage between electrodes and dielectrics in batteries and
supercapacitors, thereby reducing long-term charge reduction from
unwanted currents. Successful implementation of silicon nanotubes or
other nanomaterials could reduce the dielectric-electrode reaction and
dramatically improve battery storage life. Increasing battery life would
have important ramifications for space vehicles and for energy
management in a number of terrestrial applications including plug-in
hybrid vehicles, fuel cell-battery hybrid designs, among other
opportunities.
Quantum wire (QWR) LASER:
Quantum wire lasers are generally fabricated through complex

overgrowth processes with molecular beam epitaxy. The material
systems of such overgrown quantum wires have been limited to
Al−Ga−As−P, which leads to emission largely in the visible region. A
research is in progress for making quantum wire lasers based on the
Al−Ga−N system using chemical vapor deposition process. A novel
quantum-wire-in-optical-fiber (Qwof) nanostructure is one of the
example of spontaneous Al−Ga−N phase separation at the nanometer
scale in one dimension. The simultaneous excitonic and photonic
confinement within coaxial Qwof nanostructures leads to the first GaN-
based quantum wire UV lasers with a relatively low threshold. It is
observed that a science to technology path is very tedious. Therefore,
over here some steps involved in Science and technology are being
mentioned.
1
Department of Electronics, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon.
Science to Technology: The basic flow of Science to

Technology is in four steps:
1. Idea
2. Proof of Concept
3. Demonstration
4. Commercialization
These four steps are again goes through several steps before the
product is being used by users. The steps are as follows:
1. Theory
2. Basic Research
3. Application Research
4. Bench Testing
5. Prototype
6. Pilot Program
7. Test and Evaluation
8. Demonstration
9. Pre-commercial Development
10. Commercialization
11. Distribution
Hence, from these points the motivation has been achieved to focus
to work on the theoretical concepts of quantum wire. This, theoretical
analysis will be very useful in application research of the laser diode
design. The optimized parameters will be used for prototype design
which will be tested and analyzed further for utilizing the device in a
commercial way. The main focus of this project is to analyze the
electron confinement probability in squared shaped and rectangle
shaped quantum wire heterostructure.
2
Confinement states:
Electron Confinement in different heterostructure is classified as
the Bulk Material, Quantum Well, Quantum Wire and Quantum dot on
the basis of the wandering path of the particle in the structure. In the
structure particle (Electron) can move along any path and this path
decides the heterostructure type.
If particle can move along any path in the structure i.e. there is no
any confinement of the particle then; it is known to be the Bulk structure.
Following figure(a) demonstrates the Bulk structure. In this there is no any
type of confinement of particle along any axis. Particle can move in any
direction. (Indicated by solid line)
Fig(a)
If particle can confined along one path in the structure i.e. there is
confinement of the particle in one direction then; it is known as the
Quantum Well. Following figure (b) demonstrates the Quantum Well. In
this there is confinement of particle along X-axis (Indicated by dotted
line). Particle can move in Y or Z direction. (Indicated by solid line)
Fig(b)
3
If particle can confined along two directions in the structure i.e.

there is confinement of the particle in two directions then; it is known as
the Quantum Wire. Following figure(c) demonstrates the Quantum Wire.
In this there is confinement of particle along X and Z-axis(Indicated by
dotted line). Particle can move in Y direction. (Indicated by solid line)
Fig (c)
If particle can confined along the three directions in the structure i.e.
there is confinement of the particle in all directions then; it is known as
the Quantum Dot. Following figure (d) demonstrates the Quantum Dot.
In this there is confinement of particle along the entire three axes
(Indicated by dotted line). Particle cannot move. And is confined in all
directions.
Fig (c)
The main area of interest of this work is the analysis of quantum

wire structure. Quantum wire can be used as interconnects and critical
devices in nanoelectronics and nano-optoelectronics.
Structure of the quantum wire is as shown in the figure (d).To form

the quantum wire we need to form the heterojunctions along the two
sides.In the figure with the help of heterojunctions formed along x and z
axis the path of movement of the electron is confined along X and Z-
axis, and it is free to move only in the direction of Y-axis.
4
AlGaN
AlGaN
X
Y
GaN
AlGaN
Figure 3-D view of Quantum Wire structure
In this work we tried to study some properties of the GaN we

intend to study these properties because GaN is material with the wide
band gap semiconductor so it can be useful for the blue LED and the
Laser Diodes. These LED and Laser Diodes are used in displays and
compact disc. Despite intense research efforts worldwide on GaN-
based devices, major technological challenges, as well as the need for
a more detailed understanding of microscopic physical processes,
remain. Numerical simulation can help to investigate those processes
and to establish quantitative links between material properties and
measured device performance.
To study the processes in GaN based quantum wire we prefer the

quantum mechanics rather classical (Newtonian mechanics), because
classical (Newtonian mechanics) solves the problem for systems in the
macroscopic world and quantum mechanics solves the problem at
atomic and subatomic scale. So with the help of quantum mechanics
we tried to analyze different properties of GaN based quantum wire at
electron level.
5
Transfer Matrix method:-
Quantum mechanics proposed the nature electron as particle as

well as the wave, and Transfer Matrix method is used to analyze the
propagation of wave through the medium. Therefore, here Transfer
Matrix method has been taken into account for quantum wire
heterostructure analysis.
Kronig–Penney model is simplest analytical model for electron in a

periodic motion. The Kronig–Penney model is a simple, idealized
quantum-mechanical system that consists of an infinite periodic array of
square potential barriers. It is often used as a tutorial model to illustrate
how periodic potentials can lead to the formation of electronic energy
bands and band gaps. Thanks to the simplicity of the model, it is possible
to solve for the band structure exactly. So, Kronig-penny model is a
simple to study and describes about the behavior of electrons in a
periodic crystal structure
6
2. Gallium Nitride Structure and Properties

Gallium Nitride (GaN) is one of the most promising wide band gap
semiconductors for applications in optoelectronic devices in the blue
and ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths, and in high-temperature and high-
power electronic devices. In the past several years, a number of notable
advances have been reported in the growth of GaN. However, the
success of GaN-based electronic and optoelectronic devices has been
limited due to the presence of large unintended donor concentrations,
the lack of high quality lattice-matched substrates, and the difficulty in
controlling electronic properties.
Gallium nitride is a very hard material commonly used in bright LEDs

since the 1990s. The compound is a direct-bandgap semiconductor
material of wurtzite crystal structure, with a wide (3.4 eV) band gap,
used in optoelectronic, high-power and high-frequency devices. It is a
binary group III/group V direct bandgap semiconductor. Its sensitivity to
ionizing radiation is low (like other group III nitrides), making it a suitable
material for solar cell arrays for satellites. Because GaN transistors can
operate at much hotter temperatures and work at much higher
voltages than GaAs transistors, they make ideal power amplifiers at
microwave frequencies.
Structure of GaN:-
At ambient conditions, the thermodynamically stable structure is

wurtzite for Bulk AlN,GaN and InN and zinc blend for BN. The wurtzite
structure has a hexagonal unit cell and thus two lattice constants, c and
a as shown in following figure fig2.1.It contains 6 atoms of each type. The
space grouping for the wurtzite structure is P65mc.
7
Figure Wurtzite Lattice structure of GaN
The wurtzite structure consists of two interpenetrating hexagonal

close packed (HCP) sub lattices, each with one type of atoms, offset
along the c axis by 5/8 of the cell height(5/8c).The zinc blend and
wurtzite structures are similar. The position of atoms within the unit cell is
identical to the diamond crystal structure. Both structures consist of two
interpenetrating face centered cubic (FCC) sub lattices, offset by one
quarter of distance along a body diagonal. Each atom in the structure
may be viewed as positioned at the center of a tetrahedron with its four
neighbors defining the four corners of a tetrahedron. In WZ structure
each group III atom (Al,Ga,In) is coordinated by four nitrogen atoms;
Conversely, each nitrogen atom is coordinated by four group-III atoms.
For the wurtzite structure, the stacking sequence of (0001) planes is
ABABAB in the (0001) direction. The stacking order along the [0001] c
8
direction is ABAB, meaning the mirror image but no in plane rotation in

the bond angles. The second nearest neighbors are eclipsed. All group
III-Nitrogen bond lengths are slightly differing III-nitrogen bond lengths.
Electronic Properties of GaN:-
• Large direct band gap of 3.44 eV that can be tailored to anything

between 1.9 eV (650 nm) and 6.2 eV (200 nm) by alloying with In and
Al respectively. Entire visible spectrum can be covered.
• Ideal for optoelectronic device.
• High breakdown field of 3x10-6 V cm-1 – allows for high power
operation
• High RT electron mobility of 1350 cm2 V-1 s-1
Chemical Properties of GaN:-
• GaN is exceedingly stable compound and exhibits significant

hardness.
• Due to wide energy bandgap, it is an excellent candidate for
device operation in high temperature and caustic environments.
9
3. Schrodinger Equation
Classical mechanics tells about the Energy that,
Total Energy=Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
In the quantum mechanics while commenting about the energy it

includes state of system also.
(1)
Eigen function describes the state of the system.
Again in analogy with the classical mechanics the kinetic energy

operator for particle of constant mass m is given by
(2)
Where, = quantum mechanical linear momentum operator.
(3)
Putting value of in equation (2),then put the value of in equation (1)
(4)
Where, is the potential energy of the system as a function of
spatial co-ordinates.
Restricting this to two dimensional potential. Then the total potential

can always be written as the sum of two dimensional
confinement potential plus potential along wire.
10
And eignfunction can be written as product of the two components.
Putting equation (5) and (6) in (4)
(7)
Writing the energy as a sum terms associated with two components of

motion then
(8)
Now it is possible to distinct the kinetic and potential energy on left hand
side of equation (8), with the component of and on R.H.S. thus it
gives the two different equations.
Along the x direction
(9)
Along the (y,z) direction
(10)
In the equation (9) is not acted upon by any operator and
similarly in equation (10) is not acted upon by any operator. And,
11
thus these both can be divided out. Also, potential component along
the x axis is zero i.e.
Therefore, final equations are as follows
(11)
(12)
Clearly, the first of these equations is satisfied by a plane wave form exp
(i thus giving the slandered dispersion relation
Equation (12) is merely the Schrodinger equation for the two dimensional
confinement potential characteristics of quantum wire.
12
4. Kronig-Penney Model
The essential feature of the behavior of electronic potential may be
studied by, considering a periodic rectangular well structure in one
dimension, which was first discussed by Kronig and Penney in 1931. This
model has an analytical solution and therefore allows for simple
calculations. More realistic models always require extensive numeric
calculations, often on the fastest computers available. The electronic
band structure is directly related to many macroscopic properties of the
material and therefore of large interest. Nowadays, hypothetical
(nonexistent) materials are often investigated by band structure
calculations – and if they show attractive properties, researchers try to
prepare these materials experimentally. The KP model is a strongly
simplified one-dimensional quantum mechanical model of a crystal.
Despite of the simplifications, the electronic band structure obtained
from this model shares many features with band structures that result
from more sophisticated models.
It is assumed here that the potential energy of an electron, when it
moves in one dimensional perfect crystal lattice, is represented in the
form of rectangular walls as shown in the following fig.1.
Figure: Periodic Quantum Structure

The period of the potential is (a +b). In regions where 0 < x < a, the
potential energy is assumed to be zero and in the regions -b< x < 0, the
potential energy is V. It is a model for which the Schrodinger equation
13
can be solved explicitly in terms of elementary functions. The

Schrodinger equation for the two region can be written as
And
Let the energy E of the electrons under consideration be less than ,
then let us put
and
Where and are real quantities. The equations (1) and (2) then
become
Now from the Bloch theorem the solution of wave equation for a
periodic potential will be of the form of a plane wave modulated with
the periodicity of the lattice of the form
14
Here, is periodic function in x with period of (a+b).
With reference to the bloch function is potential periodicity and
The solutions to (4) and (5) can be given as follows,
Solution is periodic, barrier of limited thickness - solution does not

continue decaying to zero. There is tunneling between wells. The
coefficients A, B, C and D can be determined as usual by means of the
boundary conditions at the interfaces and are the constants. The
requirement of continuity for the wave function and its derivative
demands that the functions satisfy the same conditions.
At x=0,
=A+B=C+D (10)
And
At x=a
And
15
Where a is width of well and b is width of wall
Equations from (10) to (13) have solutions only if the determinant of the
A,B,C,D vanishes or only if:-
This equation was introduced by the Kronig-penny first to solve for the
allowed energies in the square well periodic potential.
16
5. The Transfer Matrix Method
To investigate quantum mechanical tunneling one must extract the

transmission coefficient from the solution to the one-dimensional, time-
independent Schrödinger equation. The transmission coefficient is the
ratio of the flux of particles that penetrate a potential barrier to the flux
of particles incident on the barrier. It is related to the probability that
tunneling will occur. Consider a rectangular potential barrier of height
V0 as shown in Figure 1. The general solution of the Schrödinger
equation in each region is
x<
< x<
< x<
< x<
Now slandered Ben Daniel-Derk boundary conditions at each interface

given by following terms,
At first interface x=
17
Hence,
(a)
After taking the derivative and multiplying both sides by
Hence,
At second interface x=
(b)
At third interface x=
(c)
At fourth interface x=
(d)
18
With the help of matrix formation of these equations, we can interlink the
coefficients in following way,
Hence,
In this matrix there are 4 unknown which are not solved. Hence, here
we have to impose additional boundary conditions. The standard
procedure is that there assume all carrier approach the double barrier
19
from same side as biased device. Also, assume that ere are no further
heterojunction to right hand side of structure. Hence, no further relation
can occur and wave function beyond to structure can only have
travelling wave component moving to right.i.e. the coefficient of I must
be zero.
Therefore matrix
i.e. A=M11(L)
The ratio of transmitting to incident current is simply described by

transmission coefficient.
20
6. Results and discussion

Occupation factor for Quantum Wire:-
0.45
0.4
0.35
Occupation factor
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Energy, E (meV)
The electron occupation factor is a significant parameters which

indicates about the concentration of the electron in the quantum
region. The occupation factor has been calculated as function of
energy for different temperature. Here, it observed from the result shown
in the above figure that with the increase in energy the occupation
factor decrease. This decrease in the occupation factor is being
attributed to the tunneling of electrons from active region to a barrier
region. The Eigen energy is in relation with active region width is found to
be in inversely proportionationality. Thus, with lower values of Eigen
energy suggests that active region is more which is capable of
consisting more electron within active region.
21
Scattering rate:-
11
x 10
3
2.5
scattering rate, 1/tau (s-1 degree-1)
1.5
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
angle, theta (degree)
The scattering rate is vital parameter which reveals the possibility of

the electrons to be tunnelled down to barrier region within a time
period. The result in the above figure shows the variation of scattering
rate with respect to different angle made by electron moment with the
direction of electron proporgation within the active region. The initial
increase in the scattering rate up to 200 is due to the higher probability
of electron within quantum region. As, further increase in angle of
electron moment leads to the direct tunneling of electron which final
lets the electron to be escaped from the quantum region and therefore
contributes in lowering of scattering rate.
22
Probability density and structure of square quantum wire:-
Peak Value 13.42 with wire cross-section dimension 6X6 (nm) and barrier
width 10nm on both side
23
24
25
26
Peak Value 18.41 with wire cross-section dimension 10X10(nm) and

barrier width 10nm on both side
27
Square wire width along X and Y direction vs peak amplitude

of probability density.
Discussion:-
The above three dimensional figures have been plotted along X-axis
and Y-axis. The Schrödinger have been solved for two dimensions to
realize the probability of electron with confinement in two directions. The
results have been obtained for squared shape quantum wire
heterostructure formed by GaN as active region, while AlGaN as barrier
region. The results in different figure being plotted for different quantum
wire dimensions. The increase in the quantum wire cross-sectional
dimensions suggests that there is a increase in the probability density.
28
This fact can be easily understood from the results being plotted for
peak intensity of probability density as function of wire width. The
enhancement in the peak intensity is due to increase in electron
concentration within the active region. The image figures shown above
are for the clarity better visibility of the peak intensity which clearly
indicates the electron confinement at the centre of active region.
FWHM for square quantum wire:-
The above figure shows the variation of FWHM of quantum wire

along XY direction. It is being observed that the FWHm increases linearly
with increment in wire along X and Y direction simultaneously. The FWHM
founds to be 4.1 nm for wire width and thickness of 6 nm each. The
FWHM reaches to 6.2 nm for 10 nm of wire width and thickness. Thus, it is
clearly observed that a electron confinement is acheieved.
29
Probability density and structure of rectangular quantum

wire:-
Peak Value 15.7 with wire cross-section dimension 6X10(nm) and barrier
30
31
32
33
Peak amplitude of probability density vs x distance
Discussion:-
Here, the rectangle shape of quantum wire has been considered.

The wire thickness has been kept constant with 10 nm size, while, the
width has been varied from 6 nm to 9 nm of quantum wire. The peak
amplitude of electron probability has been found to be increasing with
the increase in the wire width. The increase in the amplitude is being
attributed to the lowering of Eigen energy. The surface image of
probability clearly shows the distribution of electron in a rectangular
manner. The intensity spread in image figure has been highlighted by
the rectangular border which shows a clearer picture of spread of
electron in active region.
34
FWHM for rectangular quantum wire:-
The variation of full width half maxima (FWHM) as a function of wire

width has been plotted. The above figure indicates that FWHM as direct
proportional relation with wire width. The increase in wire width causes a
higher concentration probability in the active region. Therefore, a more
concentration spread is being observed. One can conclude from the
above results that the broadness of probability density becomes more
with the increment of the quantum wire width.
35
Probability density with varying mole fraction:-
Mole fraction=0.25 Peak value= 21.67
Mole fraction=0.20 Peak value= Peak=20.97
36
37
38
Mole fraction vs peak amplitude of probability density
Discussion:-
As Al mole fraction increases probability density goes on increasing,

because increasing mole fraction means increasing the band offset
potential. This increasing band offset causes to fall electron in the wire
region (GaN) from AlGaN, to attain the equilibrium condition, and we
get the maximum probability density in the wire region. The nonlinear
increment in the peak amplitude of probability density has been
determined for Al mole variation from 5% to 25%. Almost a 6.5 (a.u)
change of peak amplitude has been observed during our analysis.
39
7. Conclusions and Future Scope

The changes in the width of the quantum wire dimensions (here, in
square or rectangular) means area of the wire region changes, and it is
observed that the peak value of probability density shows clearly
dependence on wire region dimension. With the increase in the area of
wire region peak value of probability density goes on increasing
attributed to the electron confinement in active region.
Further, it has been observed that the results of probability densities

as a function of structure of quantum wires indicate the electron
confinement in active region and losses beyond the wire region. The
results of probability density shows some additional peaks in the barrier
region which are attributed to the tunneling of electrons in barrier
region. However, these peaks in the barrier region are not dominant and
most of the confinement is within the active region.
The top view image (contour) of the wave function clearly indicates
the structure of the wire. It is clearly seen that if the widths of wire are
different means for rectangular shape wire the particle’s probability
density spread takes shape like the rectangle. Also, in case of the square
wire it is seen that the particle’s probability density spread takes shape
like the square.
Another major controlling parameter of peak of probability density

and losses in wire region is mole fraction. From the graphs of Probability
density with varying mole fraction it is observed that as we are
increasing the mole fraction then peak of probability density increase as
well the losses in wire region decreases.
Further there is scope, to enhance the capability for analyzing the

structures of quantum wire such as circular. This work is done with
solution of the Schrödinger equation, the work can be enhanced by
Schrödinger-Poisson self consistent equation
40
8. References
Books
1. Quantum well, wires and dots

by Paul Harrison
2. Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics,

For Solid State Electronics and Optics
by C. L. TANG, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
3. Semiconductor-Laser Fundamentals Physics of the gain

materials
by Weng W.Chow and Stephan W. Koch
4. Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices, Introduction to

Physics and Simulation
by JOACHIM PIPREK, University of California at Santa Barbara
Thesis
1. Development of Computer Simulation Tools for the Nitride
based Quantum well Ultra Violet Laser Diodes
by Dr.Edmund Samuel.
2. Carrier Transport Mechanism in Nitride based Quantum well
Laser.
By Harshala Gajare.
41

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A

“Analysis of Electron Confinement in GaN/AlGaN Quantum Nano-

North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon.

Ulhas Shamkant Sonawane

Master of Science in Electronics (2008-2009)

Under the Guidance of

Dr. D .S. Patil.

North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon

“Analysis of Electron Confinement in GaN/AlGaN Quantum Nano-wire

fulfillment of the Master Degree in Electronics.

Project Guide Department of Electronics

Date: Ulhas Shamkant Sonawane

Quantum wire (QWR) LASER:

Quantum wire lasers are generally fabricated through complex

Science to Technology: The basic flow of Science to

7. Test and Evaluation

If particle can confined along two directions in the structure i.e.

The main area of interest of this work is the analysis of quantum

Structure of the quantum wire is as shown in the figure (d).To form

Figure 3-D view of Quantum Wire structure

In this work we tried to study some properties of the GaN we

To study the processes in GaN based quantum wire we prefer the

Transfer Matrix method:-

Quantum mechanics proposed the nature electron as particle as

Kronig–Penney model is simplest analytical model for electron in a

2. Gallium Nitride Structure and Properties

Gallium nitride is a very hard material commonly used in bright LEDs

At ambient conditions, the thermodynamically stable structure is

Figure Wurtzite Lattice structure of GaN

The wurtzite structure consists of two interpenetrating hexagonal

direction is ABAB, meaning the mirror image but no in plane rotation in

Electronic Properties of GaN:-

• Large direct band gap of 3.44 eV that can be tailored to anything

Chemical Properties of GaN:-

• GaN is exceedingly stable compound and exhibits significant

Total Energy=Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

In the quantum mechanics while commenting about the energy it

Eigen function describes the state of the system.

Again in analogy with the classical mechanics the kinetic energy

Where, = quantum mechanical linear momentum operator.

Putting value of in equation (2),then put the value of in equation (1)

Where, is the potential energy of the system as a function of

Restricting this to two dimensional potential. Then the total potential

confinement potential plus potential along wire.

And eignfunction can be written as product of the two components.

Putting equation (5) and (6) in (4)

Writing the energy as a sum terms associated with two components of

gives the two different equations.

Along the x direction

Along the (y,z) direction

In the equation (9) is not acted upon by any operator and

similarly in equation (10) is not acted upon by any operator. And,

Therefore, final equations are as follows

Figure: Periodic Quantum Structure

can be solved explicitly in terms of elementary functions. The

Let the energy E of the electrons under consideration be less than ,

then let us put

Here, is periodic function in x with period of (a+b).

With reference to the bloch function is potential periodicity and

The solutions to (4) and (5) can be given as follows,

Solution is periodic, barrier of limited thickness - solution does not

demands that the functions satisfy the same conditions.

Where a is width of well and b is width of wall