Beruflich Dokumente
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Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459,ISO 9001:2008Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013)
Abstract--Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is related to identifying the presence of those defects, imperfections and discontinuities in the finished product which impair the performance level. Many defects are also generated during service. The nature of this defects differ according to the design, processing, fabrication and service conditions under which the components have to work. Knowledge of these defects with a view to detect and evaluate them and then minimizing them in the product is essential to achieve improve or acceptable level of quality. Improvements in the product quality increase its reliability and in turn the safety of the machines and equipment, thus bringing economic returns to the user. There is therefore a need to know the methods by which the defects in the products can be examined without affecting their performance. Keywords--Non destructive testing, Pressure vessel, Magnetic particle testing, ultra sonic testing, Ultra sonic flaw detector.
II.
E QUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS
I.
INTRODUCTION
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is the term used in connection to represent the techniques that are based on the application of physical principles employed for the purpose of determining the characteristics of materials or system and for detecting and assessing the in homogeneities and harmful defects without impairing the usefulness of such materials or components or systems.An NDT method ranges from the simple to the intricate. Visual inspection is simplest of all. Surface imperfection in visible to the eye may be revealed by penetrant or magnetic methods. If serious surface defects are found, there are often little points in proceeding further to more complicated examination of the interior by other methods like ultrasonic or radiography. The principle optical methods are visual or optical inspection, dye penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, eddy current testing, radiography testing, and ultrasonic testing.
2.1 Horizontallinearity or time-base linearity or sweep linearity: This process assumes that the horizontal scale is linear i.e., equal distances represent equal thickness. For example, if the 5th division on the horizontal scale represents 50mm 10th division represents 100mm, then the second division should represent 20mm and the 8th division should represent 80mm and so on. If this does not happen the horizontal scale is non-linear. Horizontal linearity is equipment characteristic and is independent of the probe. Horizontal non-linearity cannot be rectified by the operator. However a correction graph can be prepared showing scale division verses actual thickness. Horizontal linearity is important for measuring thickness or foraccurate flaw location.
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2.3 Correctness of amplifier gain control (db control): The gain control calibrated in dB helps to compare echo heights in terms of dB which of course can be converted into linear ratios, if required. The calibration of the dB control should be accurate. For example, an increase of gain by 6dB should increase the echo height by a factor 2 and a decrease of gain by 20dB should decrease the echo height by a factor of 10. (See appendix on dB versus linear ratio). If this does not happen, the dB control calibration (i.e. markings) is not alright. The amplifier linearity along with dB control calibration accuracy permit us to reliably compare the heights of any two echoes. 2.4 Resolution (spatial resolution): Resolution is the ability to show distinct and well separate echoes from defects which are close to each other.
The generation and detection of ultrasound is done by the device called transducers. A transducer is any device that is capable of converting energy from one form to another, a mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice versa. This is called PIEZO-ELECTRIC EFFECT. Only certain materials exhibit these characteristics of piezo electric effect. When these piezo electric materials are compressed, a voltage appears across their faces. If the compression is changed to dilation, the voltage still appears but the polarity changes. This is called PIEZO-ELECTRIC EFFECT.
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IV.
PROBE CONSTRUCTION
There are several types of transmitter probe in use but each type consists of a crystal, which is placed in contact, either directly or through a protective cover with the material under test. There are several materials, which may be used as transducer crystals, and these include natural quartz, bariumtitanate, and lead niobate and lithium sulphate. A step voltage, of short duration, is applied to the crystal and this causes the crystal to vibrate at its natural frequency. After the step voltage has been removed the crystal oscillation is required to die as soon as possible, and the crystal is usually backed by a damping material to assist this process.
DEMAGNETIZATION
REMOVAL OF PARTICLES
INTERPRETATION
DEMAGNETIZATION
POST CLEANING
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V.
a)Principle of magnetic particle testing: Magnetic Particle Testing is a sensitive method of locating surface and some sub-surface defects in ferromagnetic components. The basic processing parameters depend on relatively simple concepts. In essence, when a ferromagnetic component is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie in a direction approximately perpendicular to the field direction will result in the formation of a strong Leakage field (Flux leakage). This leakage field is present at and above the surface of the magnetized component, and its presence can be visibly detected by the utilization of finely divided magnetic particles. The application of dry particles or wet particles in a liquid carrier, over the surface of the component, results in a collection of magnetic particles at a discontinuity.
1) Magneticparticle testing:As the Pressure vessel was fabricated from a ferromagnetic material and hence Magnetic Particle Testing could be employed. Dry and fluorescent continuous magnetic particle testing was carried out. It was used to detect the surface and subsurface defects in the weld region. Current was passed through as in a straight conductor which created a circular magnetic field. Magnetization of the component was accomplished by making the component, a part of the electrical circuit by means of a hand yoke. Direct current (DC) was used to detect subsurface as well as surface defects. This type of magnetization was carried out over the entire weld region of the fabricated Pressure vessel. This magnetization was limited to the spacing between the legs of the magnetic yoke. The yoke used was of SIMS, Hyderabad make. The current used was half wave direct current (HWDC) with amperage of 800 Amps. Since the material being a soft material, continuous method was employed. The Dry Continuous method is very sensitive and will give indications of very fine defects.
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CALIBRATION dB SCANNING dB
49dB
49Db
56dB
49dB
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No significant indications were found on the circumferential seam weld at two parting plane, one each on left and right side when magnetic particle test was employed. Also Ultrasonic Inspection established that the welding done was under acceptable limits and no further machining process is required like grinding.
Figure 9: Graph showing Acceptable and reject able area for the component
Tan = S.D / d (S.D = Surface Distance) Sin = S.D / B.P B.P = Beam Path Cos = d / B.P (d = depth)
Depth t/4 t/2 3t/4 d1=5 d2=10 d3=15 S.D 13.73 27.47 41.21 B.P 14.70 29.41 44.11
VIII.
In the region of Long seam weld and circumferential seam weld few undercuts, porosity, porus along with hair line crack has been observed.
Magnetic particle testing could not be applied to its fullest at varying cross sections as the current selection was difficult. If high current was used then it would permanently magnetize the component and interfere with other accessories in vicinity. Ultrasonic testing could not be performed to its fullest at different contours. REFERENCES
[1 ] M.G. Silk, Ultrasonic Transducers for Non-Destructive Testing, Adam Hilger Ltd. [2 ] R. Halmshaw (Editor), Mathematics and formulae in NDT, British Institute Non Destructive Testing. [3 ] Baldev Raj, T. Jayakumar, M. Thivasimuthu, Practical Non Destructive Testing, Narosa Publishers, Second Edition. [4 ] J. L. Taylor, Basic Metallurgy for Non -Destructive Testing, British Institute Non Destructive Testing.
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