QUADRATIC MAPS AS DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS ON THE P-ADIC NUMBERS

MONICA NEVINS AND THOMAS D. ROGERS

Abstra t. We des ribe the traje tories of the su essive iterates of the square map and its perturbations
on the eld of p-adi numbers. We show that the y les of the square map on Qp arise from y les of the
square map on Fp , and that all nonperiodi traje tories in the unit disk are dense in a ompa t open subset.
7! 7!
We nd that the perturbed maps x x2 + ", with " inside the unit ir le, have similar dynami s to x x2 ,
but that ea h fundamental y le arising from Fp an further admit harmoni y les, for dierent hoi es of
p and ". In ontrast, the y les of the maps x 7! x2 + ", with " on the boundary of the unit ir le, are no
longer tied to those of the square map itself. In all ases we give an algorithm for omputing the nitely
many periodi points of the map.

1. Introdu tion

We are interested in dynami s over the p-adi elds Q p , for p a prime. Our starting point in this study |
inspired by the development of the orresponding problem on the real and omplex numbers over the past
30 years | is the analysis of the dynami s of the algebrai ally simplest of nonlinear systems, namely, the
family of quadrati maps f" (x) = x2 + " for j"jp  1. In this paper, we give a omplete global des ription of
the traje tories of elements x 2 Q p under the iterates of f" .
Denote the norm on Q p by j
jp ( f. Se tion 2) and write f"k = f" Æ


Æ f" (k times) for the k th iterate
of f" . Our main result is the following (Theorems 3.4 and 4.4).
Theorem. Let f" : Q p ! Qp be given by f" (x) = x2 + ", with j"jp < 1 (in luding " = 0). Then f" admits
exa tly two xed points Æp;" and p;" , with jÆp;" jp = jp;" 1jp = j"jp . If x 2 Q p satises jxjp > 1, then the
traje tory of f"k (x), k = 0; 1; 2; : : : , diverges to innity; whereas if jxjp < 1, the traje tory onverges to Æp;" .
If p = 2, then the traje tory of every x on the unit ir le jxjp = 1 onverges to p;" . For any other prime p,
if jxjp = 1, then x is either a periodi point, or its traje tory is eventually quasiperiodi . Further, there are
only nitely many periodi points.
In parti ular, one nds that the domains of attra tion in Q p are easily dened. When " = 0, the xed
points are evidently Æp;0 = 0 and p;0 = 1.
We a tually prove a far more pre ise result about the stru ture of the orbit spa e, as en apsulated in
Parts D and F of the proof of Theorem 4.4. In parti ular, we prove that ea h y le of the square map
x 7! x2 on the nite eld with p elements Fp gives rise to a so- alled fundamental y le of f = f0 on Q p
of equal (primitive) period, and that these are the only nite orbits of the square map on Q p . When we
onsider instead the traje tories of those maps f" on Q p with j"jp < 1 and " 6= 0, we nd, for all but some
\ex eptional pairs" (p; ) ( f. Table 6.1), orresponding fundamental y les; furthermore, when j"jp < 1,
fundamental y les may admit additional harmoni s (as p and " vary). Here we dene a harmoni y le
to be a nite orbit H of f" whose period is a multiple of that of the orresponding fundamental y le F
whose elements share leading oeÆ ients (in their p-adi expansion) with elements of F . We apply a general
theorem of Pezda [Pezda1994℄ (see Theorem 4.1), to dedu e the maximum possible length of a harmoni
y le of f" . Finally, we use a generalization of a result of Thiran, Verstegen and Weyers in [TVW1989℄ to
identify maps f" and fundamental y les F whi h admit no harmoni s at all.

Date : May 15, 2001.

1991 Mathemati s Subje t Classi ation. Primary: 37E15; Se ondary: 11S85.
Key words and phrases. p-adi numbers, dynami al systems.
The rst named author was supported by the Killam Trust.
1
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 2

The paper is organized as follows. In Se tion 2, we set our notation and summarize brie y the needed
properties and tools of the p-adi numbers for the onvenien e of the reader. Most of the results, with the
ex eption of Corollary 2.3, are standard. In Se tion 3 we analyse the dynami s of the square map f (x) = x2 ,
with a view towards the general ase. The analysis ulminates, in Se tion 4, with a des ription of the
traje tories of f" (x) = x2 + ", for j"jp < 1. The proof of Theorem 4.4 o upies most of this se tion. In
Se tion 5, we give a brief summary of the possible dynami s of the \boundary" ase f" (x) = x2 + ", with
j"jp = 1, and des ribe how the analysis of the proof of Theorem 4.4 may be applied to ompute y les of
these maps. Finally, in Se tion 6, we dis uss some of the open questions raised by our analysis, in luding the
dynami s of f" on Q p for an ex eptional prime p. We also dis uss the existen e of the nongeneri ases of our
algorithm, whi h rmly resist the appli ation of either Hensel's lemma or the limiting result of [TVW1989℄.

There are a number of papers on related questions of dynami s of polynomial maps, and quadrati maps
in parti ular. The paper [TVW1989℄ of Thiran, Verstegen and Weyers (and, losely related, the earlier,
but unpublished paper [Ben-Menahem1988℄ of Ben-Menahem) provide signi ant forays into the dynami s
of quadrati maps on Q p . In [TVW1989℄, they prove that fa , with jajp > 1, exhibits haoti behaviour,
and also onsider some examples of the dynami s of f" , j"jp  1. They prove a result (summarized here
in Theorem 4.2) about the la k of y les in a neighbourhood of a xed point, and then dis uss the the
quasiperiodi ity of f" in general as well, using the argument in the appendix of [Ben-Menahem1988℄. In
the present paper, we apply a generalization of their theorem. In ontrast to [TVW1989℄, however, we have
found a simpler proof of quasi-periodi ity, and our results about the dynami s of f" , j"jp  1 are proven in
omplete generality.
Other important papers whi h onsider quadrati maps of the form x 7! x2 + a (over number elds as
well as p-adi elds) in lude [Morton1992℄, [MS1994℄, [Narkiewi z1997℄, [Silverman1996℄, and [WR1994℄.
An analysis of te hniques whi h apply to a broad lass of p-adi analyti maps is studied by Lubin in
[Lubin1994℄. In parti ular, he denes notions of unipoten y and instability whi h bear lose relation to the
nongeneri ases of our algorithm. Also, he introdu es the \Lie logarithm" as a linearization tool, and as
su h it suggests that it might be possible to derive a far more general analysis of linearity near periodi points
than that presented in [TVW1989℄. Lubin's student Hua-Chieh Li has made a number of generalizations
of Lubin's results, in luding in parti ular the paper [Li1996℄; however, these results do not apply to our
quadrati maps. A number of papers by Khrennikov et al. dis uss p-adi dynami s in general as well as
appli ations (of the dynami s of the square map) to neural nets and memory pro esses (see, for example,
[DK1999, AKT1999, DGKS1999℄).
Another view of the study of p-adi dynami s | via the analysis of Julia sets, Fatou sets, and Sullivan's
theorem | has produ ed a number of signi ant and deep results. We would like to signal that some of
the key resear hers in this area are Benedetto (see, for example, [Benedetto2000℄) and Hsia [Hsia1996℄. A
more number-theoreti approa h to bifur ation theory over p-adi elds an be found in the work of Vivaldi
(see, for example, [Vivaldi1992℄ and [MV1995℄). These in lude, in parti ular, methods for understanding
the algebrai extensions of the ground eld for whi h y les of a given rational map will appear. It is from
this perspe tive that one has the learest pi ture of the ex eptional pairs (see Se tion 4), but we have hosen
not to present it here.
Last, but ertainly not least, is a deep paper of Pezda [Pezda1994℄, in whi h he proves an upper bound
for the possible periods of y les of polynomial maps with oeÆ ients in the unit ir le of Q p (or indeed in
the integer ring of any algebrai number eld). We ite his result in Theorem 4.1. Zieve has extended many
of Pezda's result in his (unpublished) thesis [Zieve1996℄. The results in this vein seem fundamental to the
generalization of our results to other polynomial mappings, or to algebrai extensions of the elds Q p | a
topi whi h the authors hope to return to in a subsequent paper.

2. p-adi Numbers

The p-adi numbers were dis overed by Kurt Hensel in 1897 in the ourse of his work on nding new
ompletions of the rational numbers. They an be dened as follows.
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 3

Let p be a prime number. If n 2 Z is a nonzero integer, then its p-adi valuation, denoted val(n), is the
largest integral power of p dividing n. Extend this valuation to all rational numbers m=n 2 Q by setting
val(m=n) = val(m) val(n) if m 6= 0, and set val(0) = 1. Then the p-adi norm is dened by
jxjp = p x
val( )

for any x 2 Q . This norm is nonar himedean, meaning that we have in pla e of the triangle inequality the
stronger relation jx + y jp  maxfjxjp ; jy jp g. Consequently (and in stark ontrast to the eu lidean norm),
the p-adi norm does not permit the a umulation of error, in the following sense. If ea h of k elements
fx1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk g have p-adi norm at most , then jx1 + x2 +


+ xk jp   as well. This property justies
the extensive use of modular arithmeti (\p-adi estimation") in p-adi al ulations, as in Se tions 3 and 4.
Completing the eld of rational numbers with respe t to this norm yields the eld of p-adi numbers,
denoted Q p . A on rete realization of Q p is as the set of all formal Laurent series in p with oeÆ ients in
the set f0; 1; 2; : : : ; p 1g:
1
X
Q p = fx = an pn j N 2 ; an 2 f0; 1; 2; : : : ; p
Z 6 0g [ f0g = Q p [ f0g;
1g ; aN =
n=N
with addition and multipli ation performed by starting at the lowest power of p, and \ arrying" su essively
higher powers of p. (Thus, for example, 1 = (p 1) + (p 1)p + (p 1)p2 +


, sin e adding 1 gives the
zero series.) For x 2 Q p as above, jxjp = p N . Two p-adi numbers are thus \ lose" with respe t to the
norm if their oeÆ ients an agree for all n < M , for some \large" M . Thus the norm on Q p is equivalent
to that onventionally used in symboli dynami s [Devaney1989℄, that is, maps on sequen e spa es (whi h
arry no inherent algebrai stru ture). 1
The distinguished subring of Q p dened by Zp = fx 2 Q p j jxjp  1g is alled the integer ring. It is an
integral domain. The set of invertible elements in Zp, alled its group of units is Zp = fx 2 Q p j jxjp = 1g.
The ring Zp ontains a unique maximal ideal pZp = fx 2 Zp j jxjp < 1g. The quotient of Zp by this
maximal ideal gives a eld, whi h we identify with the nite eld of p elements F p = Z=pZ in the obvious
way. (Similarly, we an identify the quotient rings Zp=pn Zp ' Z=pnZ for any positive integer n.) In this
ontext, we all F p the residue eld (or residue lass eld ) of Q p .
The eld Q p is unorderable, in essen e due to the modular arithmeti of F p . It has hara teristi 0 sin e
it ontains Q as a subeld. In fa t, Q is a dense, proper subset of Q p : Q embeds into Q p as the set of
elements whose p-adi oeÆ ients are eventually periodi (mu h in the same way that Q embeds into R).
Topologi ally, Q p is a Cantor set: totally dis onne ted but not dis rete. The p-adi s are also full of holes
in an algebrai sense: there is no nite eld extension of Q p whi h is algebrai ally losed. Not surprising,
therefore, is the sparseness of the set of periodi points under f" in Q p .
Nevertheless, nding roots of polynomials in Q p is often quite simple, with the help of Hensel's Lemma.
Theorem 2.1 (Hensel's Lemma). Suppose g(x) is a polynomial with oeÆ ients in Zp. If a 2 Zp is an
approximate root of g in the sense that
g(a)  0 mod p2r+1 ; where r = val(g 0 (a));
then there is a unique root b of g near a in the sense that
g(b) = 0 and b  a mod pr+1 :
Remark 2.2. In the spe ial ase where g0(a) has a onstant leading term (so val(g0 (a)) = 0), Hensel's
Lemma implies that it suÆ es to solve the polynomial equation in the residue eld F p in order to ensure the
existen e of a solution in Zp. In ontrast, the statement of the theorem is empty when a is a root of g 0 .
Hensel's Lemma is well-known and true in the more general setting of lo al rings; see, for example,
[Eisenbud1995, Thm.7.3℄. We will make use of a slight extension of Hensel's Lemma, as follows:
1 Another algebrai stru ture on this set an be imposed via omponent-wise addition mod p (that is, identifying it with the
eld Fp ((t)) of formal Laurent series in an indeterminate t); this has been onsidered in, for example, [SR1988℄ and [SR1991℄.
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 4

Corollary 2.3. Suppose g(x) is a polynomial with oeÆ ients in Zp, p 6= 2. If a 2 Zp is an approximate
root of g in the sense that
g(a)  0 mod p2r+1 ; where r  val(g 0 (a));
then there is a unique root b of g near a in the sense that
g(b) = 0 and b  a mod pR ;
where R = r + 1 if r = val(g 0 (a)) and R = 2r + 1 val(g 0 (a)) if r > val(g 0 (a)).
Proof. The existen e and uniqueness of the root b of g is given by Hensel's Lemma; what remains in question
is the a ura y to whi h the approximate root a estimates b, when r > val(g 0 (a)) = m. Write b = a + h, with
val(h)  m + 1; we wish to show that val(h)  2r + 1 m. Consider Taylor's expansion of the polynomial
g at b:
1 1
g(b) = g(a + h) = g(a) + hg0 (a) + h2 g00 (a) + h3 g000 (a) +


:
2 3!
By hypothesis, we have val(g (a))  2r + 1 and val(hg 0 (a)) = val(h) + m. We laim that all other terms of
the series have valuation not less than 2val(h).
Indeed, sin e val(g 00 (a))  0, and val(2) = 0 (sin e p 6= 2), val( 21 h2 g 00 (a))  2val(h). For the remaining
terms, note that val(n!)  n=(p 1) [Neukir h1986, III.1℄, so
1
 1

val( hn g (n) (a))  nval(h) val(n!)  n val(h) :
n! p 1
It follows that for all n  2 + 2(val(h)(p 1) 1) 1 , the orresponding term of the Taylor series has
valuation not less than 2val(h). Thus g (b)  g (a) + hg 0 (a) mod p2val(h) ; and sin e the Taylor series for g at
b is identi ally zero, we dedu e that val(g(a)) = val(h) + m, or that val(h)  2r + 1 m as required.
We remark that the stated existen e of an exa t root b is not merely abstra t | one an expli itly ompute
b to any desired pre ision. As a parti ular and important example, onsider the polynomial g(x) = xp 1 1.
Then g 0 (x) = (p 1)xp 2 , so jg 0 (x)jp = jp 1jp jxjpp 2 = jxjpp 2 . Thus, for any a 2 Zp, we have g 0 (a) 2 Zp.
It follows by Remark 2.2 that we should look for roots a of g in the residue eld F p . Sin e, by Fermat's
Little Theorem, every a 2 f1; 2; 3; : : : ; p 1g satises the equation g (a)  0 mod p, we dedu e by Hensel's
Lemma that ea h a gives rise to a unique root a 2 Zp of g with onstant term equal to a.
Example. Let p = 3, so that g (x) = x2 1. First let a = 1. As a2 = 1 in Z3, it is already a root; so 1 = 1.
Now let a = 2, whi h is no longer an exa t root. By Hensel's Lemma, we know that 2 takes the form
2 = 2 + b0 p + b00 p2 +


and satises 22 = 1. We ompute:
22 1  (2 + b0 p)2 1 mod p2
 22 + 2(2)(b0 p) + (b0 p)2 1 mod p2
 (1 + p) + (1 + p)(b0 p) + b02 p2 1 mod p2
 (1 + b0 )p mod p2 :
Setting this last equal to 0 (modulo p2 ) yields b0 = 2. We ontinue in this way and nd
2 = 2 + 2p + 2p2 + 2p3 +


= 1;
as expe ted.
The roots of the polynomial f (x) = xp 1 1 are alled the Tei hmuller representatives of f1; 2; : : : ; p 1g.
Together with 0, they give another anoni al hoi e of representatives in Zp of the onjuga y lasses of pZp in
Zp. The advantage of this hoi e is that the elements f1 ; 2 ; : : : ; p 1 g form a group under multipli ation

(isomorphi to F p ) in Q p . We will make use of these in Se tion 3.

Another tool we would like to introdu e now for use in Se tion 3 is the p-adi exponential map, as dened
by its Taylor series
x2 x3
exp(x) = 1 + x + + +


:
2! 3!
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 5

Re all that over the real numbers, exp is everywhere- onvergent, and gives a bije tion of R with R+ , the
positive real line. A moment's thought reveals that the exponential map annot be nearly so well-behaved
in Q p : if x = p 1 , for example, then ea h su essive partial sum of exp(x) has stri tly in reasing norm and
hen e the series annot onverge in Q p . Yet onvergen e in Q p is simple: a series onverges exa tly when
its sequen e of terms onverges to zero. A more areful look at the proof of Lemma 2.3 yields the following
well-known theorem (proven, for example, in [Koblitz1984, IV.1.℄).
Theorem 2.4. The fun tions exp and log(1 + x) = x x + 13 x2


give mutually inverse isomorphisms
1

(and homeomorphisms) between the multipli ative group 1+ pn Zp and the additive group pn Zp, for any n  1
2

if p is odd, and n  2 if p = 2.
For more detail on the p-adi numbers | their arithmeti , their algebra, or their topology | see, for
example, [Serre1973℄ or [Koblitz1984℄.

3. The Square Map on Q p

In this se tion we study the iterates of the square map f (x) = x2 on Q p (or Q p ). Let us rst treat the
spe ial (and simple) ase of p = 2 before pro eeding to p > 2, whi h analysis forms the bulk of this se tion.
Suppose p = 2. Let C2 = f1g denote the multipli ative y li group of order 2. We an onstru t a
group isomorphism
(3.1)  : Z  C2  22Z2 !  Q2

(n; ; x) 7 pn  exp(x):
!
Giving Z and the nite group C2 the dis rete topology, and 22 Z2 the topology it inherits as a subset of Z2,
 be omes a homeomorphism as well. Following the ommutative diagram
 f 
!
x? x?
Q2 Q2

? ?
g1
g2
g3
Z C 2
2
2
! C 2
Z2 Z 2
2
Z2

we dedu e that the square map is onjugate to  Æf Æ = g

g
g , where g
1
1 : Z ! Z and g3 : 22 Z2 ! 22 Z2
2 3 1
are linear maps given by multipli ation by 2, and g2 is the trivial map g2 () = 1 for  2 f1g. Note that
none of maps gi , i = 1; 2; 3 are surje tive; in parti ular, the image of g3 is 23 Z2  22 Z2, and su essive
iterates of g3 shrink this set even more. Thus, regardless of the values of  2 f1g and x 2 2Z2, we have
8
>
<0 if n > 0,
lim (g1t (n); g2t (); g3t (x)) = lim p2tn exp(2tx) = 1 if n = 0,
t!1 t!1 >
:1 if n < 0.
Hen e, 0 and 1 are attra tive xed points, with domains of attra tion the osets 0 + 2Z2 and 1 + 2Z2,
respe tively. All elements of Q 2 outside these domains have p-adi norm greater than 1, and their traje tories
diverge to innity. There are onsequently no dense traje tories of f on Q 2 , and no periodi points save the
xed points 0 and 1.

The dynami s of f on Q p , for p > 2, are far more interesting.

Suppose for the remainder of this se tion that p is odd. We onsider the well-known isomorphism of
groups and homeomorphism of topologi al spa es ( f. 3.1)
(3.2)  : Z  Fp  pZp ! pQ

(n; a; x) 7 pna exp(x);

!
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 6

where  refers to the Tei hmuller representatives in Zp. Following the ommutative diagram
p f 
!
x? x?p
Q Q

(3.3) ? ?
g1
g2
g3
Z  p  p
F p
Z !  p  p p Z F Z

we dedu e that the square map f (x) = x is onjugate to  Æ f Æ  = g

g
g , where g : ! and
2 1
1 2 3 1 Z Z

g : p p ! p p are given by multipli ation by 2, and g is the square map g (x) = x on p . While the
3 Z Z 2 2
2
F

rst two maps are linear, and do not give rise to periodi orbits, the map g2 does admit a omplex orbit
stru ture. Let us re all the De omposition Theorem of [Rogers1996℄.
Lemma 3.1. For ea h odd divisor d of p 1, let ordd 2 denote the order of 2 modulo d, and '(d) the Euler
phi fun tion at d. (So '(d) is the number of numbers less than d relatively prime to d.) Set ord1 2 = 1. For
ea h distin t su h d, we obtain '(d)=ordd 2 distin t y les of the square map g2 on F p of (primitive) period
(3.4) = ordd 2:
Furthermore, for any x 2 F p whi h is not itself a periodi point of g2 , the iterate g2k (x) is periodi , where k
is hosen su h that 2k is the largest even divisor of p 1.
Hen e, passing ba k to Q p via the isomorphism (3.2), we dedu e that all periodi orbits of f on Q p lie in
the nite subgroup of the Tei hmuller representatives, and that further the orbit stru ture of f admits an
expli it des ription for all p.

For the remainder of this se tion, let us give a full a ount of the quasiperiodi nature of the square
map on Zp. Re all that an element x is quasiperiodi if for every neighbourhood U of x, there exists a
t > 0 su h that f t(x) 2 U . We are motivated in part by pra ti al onsiderations: in appli ations, the
inevitable niteness of storage spa e requires us to onsider the \trun ated" p-adi s Q p modulo pn Zp, for
various degrees of pre ision n. (As mentioned in Se tion 2, no artifa ts or errors are introdu ed in doing
so.) Moreover, it is of interest to determine the randomness (or la k thereof) of the set of ith oeÆ ients of
elements of a traje tory under f .
To this end, let us rst onsider the a tion of g3 (x) = 2x on the strata of Q p , that is, on the open sets of
the form pr Zp (or, equally, their images in Q p modulo pn Zp for any n  r).
Identify the spa e pZp=p2 Zp with Fp , the nite eld with p elements. The element 0 is xed by multipli-
ation by 2. The orbit of the doubling map through an element a 2 F p is
O = fa; 2a; 2 a; 2 a; : : : 2n ag;
2 3 1

where n is the order of 2 modulo p. It follows that pZp=p2 Zp de omposes under g3 into (p 1)=n y li
orbits of period n, and one xed point. Case-by- ase omputation for the odd primes p < 100 yields the
data in Table 3.1.
On strata pZp=ps+1 Zp ' Z=psZ, s > 1, we ompute the number of y les of g3 as follows.
If n = ordp 2, and r = val(2n 1), then 2n = 1 + pr v , for some v 2 Zp. If s  r, then the order of 2 in
s r
Z=p Z is simply n. If s > r , then an indu tive argument, using the binomial expansion on 1 + p v , shows

that the order of 2 in Z=psZ is nps r . Moreover, whatever this order m, we have val(2m 1) = maxfr; sg.
Clearly, for p 6= 2, multipli ation by 2 preserves valuation, so g3 preserves ea h substratum pk Z=psZ '
Z=p
s kZ, for k  s. The period of the y le of g through z 2 Z=psZ (val(z ) = k ) is determined by the
3
order of 2 in Z=ps kZ. Hen e the periods of all the y les of g3 on Z=psZ are in the set
(3.5) f1; npk r j k = r; r + 1; : : : sg
where shorter periods arise for larger values of k , i.e. through elements of smaller p-adi norm.
We may now lift this to a result for the square map f using the diagram 3.3.
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 7

p ordp 2 # y les p ordp 2 # y les p ordp 2 # y les

= n = (p 1)=n = n = (p 1)=n = n = (p 1)=n
3 2 1 29 28 1 61 60 1
5 4 1 31 5 4 67 66 1
7 3 2 37 36 1 71 35 2
11 10 1 41 20 2 73 9 8
13 12 1 43 14 3 79 39 2
17 8 2 47 23 2 83 82 1
19 18 1 53 52 1 89 11 8
23 11 2 59 58 1 97 48 2

Table 3.1. Primes p, the order of 2 modulo p, and the number of y les of the doubling
map on F p .

Proposition 3.2. Let p be an odd prime, let n be the order of 2 in Z=pZ and set r = val(2n 1). The
possible periods of y les of the square map f (x) = x2 on sets of the form Zp=ps+1 Zp (s  1) are:
f ; l m(n, )pk r j r  k < s; = 1 or = ordd2 for some odd divisor d of p 1g;
where l m(n; ) is the least ommon integer multiple of n and .
Proof. Any y le of the doubling map g3 on pk Zp=ps+1 Zp lifts, via the exponential map, to an isomorphi
y le of the square map on 1 + pk Zp=ps+1 Zp, of period given by (3.4). We have already omputed the
possible periods of y les of g2 on F p (3.4). Finally, y les of f (x) = x2 on Zp=ps+1 Zp arise as produ ts of
y les of g2 and g3 , with periods equal to the least ommon multiple of the two.

In parti ular, the ith oeÆ ients of elements of a traje tory under f" are periodi , with (predi table)
period linearly in reasing with i. This information an be used to generate random sequen es from these
ith oeÆ ients; see, for example, [WS1998℄.
Remark 3.3. Those primes p for whi h the value of r in Proposition 3.2 is stri tly greater than 1 are alled
Wieferi h primes. They have been studied in onne tion with Fermat's Last Theorem (see [Silverman1988℄
and [Granville1985℄, for example). To date, extensive sear h (see [CDP1997℄, for example) has revealed only
two Wieferi h primes | 1093 and 3511 | and ea h of these gives only r = 2. Nevertheless, there is as
yet no indi ation that these are the only su h, and in fa t it seems possible that there be innitely many
Wieferi h primes.
Let us now pro eed to give a \global pi ture" of the orbit spa e of the square map on Q p , for any p.
By this we mean an understanding of the behaviour of the traje tory of any point x0 2 Q p under repeated
appli ations of the square map. Use the notation x1 = x20 , x2 = x21 , : : : , and xt for the t-th iterate of x0
under f .
Theorem 3.4. The square map on Q p has two xed points, 0 and 1. If x0 satises jx0 jp > 1, then its
traje tory diverges to innity; if jx0 jp < 1, its traje tory onverges to 0.
Let jx0 jp = 1; then jxt jp = 1 for all t. If p = 2, then this traje tory onverges to 1; for p > 2, 1 is not
an attra tive xed point. If x0 lies in the subgroup of Tei hmuller representatives, its traje tory be omes
periodi in nite time. The traje tory of any other x0 is eventually quasiperiodi and dense in some ompa t
open subset of Q p .
Proof. It remains for us to prove that, for p > 2, 1 is non-attra tive, and that any element x0 whi h is on
the unit ir le but not a Tei hmuller representative has a traje tory under f whi h is dense in a ompa t
open subset of Q p .
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 8

As before, set n = ordp 2 and r = val(2n 1). For any z 2 pZp, write m = val(z ), and dene
[
n [
n
V (z ) = z (2l + pr Zp) = (2l z + pm+r Zp);
l=1 l=1
a union of open sets ontained in the stratum pm Zp.
Lemma 3.5. The traje tory of z 2 pZp under the doubling map g3 is dense in V (z ).
Proof. V (z ) evidently ontains the full traje tory of z under the doubling map. Let M be any integer
(greater than m + r, say). To prove the lemma it suÆ es to show that the traje tory of z meets every
neighbourhood z 0 + pM Zp, where z 0 2 V (z ). Now V (z )  pm Zp; identify pm Zp=pM Zp ' Zp=pM m Zp. By
(3.5), the iterates 2l z take on npM m r distin t values modulo pM m Zp. Yet this is pre isely the number
of elements in V (z ) mod pM Zp: ea h of the n distin t open sets 2l z + pm+r Zp of V (z ) ontain pM m r
elements modulo pM Zp.
We are now ready to address the traje tories of an element u 2 1 + pZp under the square map, using the
ommutative diagram:
z7!2z
pZp ! p
x? ?? p
Z

log? yexp
u7!u2
1 + pZp ! 1 + pZp;
where the verti al arrows are isomorphisms and homeomorphisms.
First dene V (u) = exp(V (log(u))). The traje tory of u under the square map lies in V (u), and further,
by Lemma 3.5, this traje tory is dense. In parti ular, 1 annot be an attra tive xed point.
We now turn to the general ase of jx0 jp = 1. Use the isomorphism (3.2) to write x0 = (0; a0 ; z ), with
a0 2 Fp and z 2 pZp. By Lemma 3.1, repla ing x0 with some iterate xt if ne essary, we may assume that
a0 is an element of a y le of the square map in Fp . Enumerate this y le as S 0 = fa0 ; a1 ; : : : ; aq 1 g  Fp ,
where q is the order of 2 modulo d, for some odd divisor d of p 1 (Lemma 3.1). Then the traje tory of x0
lies densely in some subset of the open set S 0  V (z )  F p  pZp, sin e the traje tory of z is dense in V (z ),
and S 0 is nite.
More expli itly, set b = g d(q; n) to be the greatest ommon divisor of the periods of the two y les
(squares of a0 and powers of 2 modulo p). Then S 0  V (z )  Fp  pZp an be partitioned into b open
subsets su h that ea h ontains the dense traje tory of any of its nonperiodi elements. This ompletes the
proof.

4. Iterates of f" (x) = x2 + ", j"jp < 1

In this se tion we onsider the dynami s of the map f" (x) = x2 + ", where " is \small" in the sense that
j"jp < 1. Let us rst re all a theorem of Pezda (noting that f" satises the hypothesis). Denote by - y le
any primitive y le of a polynomial ontained entirely in an open ball of the form x + pZp, x 2 Zp.
Theorem 4.1 ([Pezda1994℄). Let f be a polynomial with oeÆ ients in Zp. Suppose rst that p > 3. If f
admits a y le of period n, then
(4.1) n = ab; where a j (p 1) and b  p.
Furthermore, the period of any - y le of f must divide p 1.
If p = 3, then the possible periods of y les are f1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 9g, and - y les annot have period 6 or 9. If
p = 2 then the possible periods of y les are just f1; 2; 4g, and - y les annot have period 4.
Pezda proves this result as a orollary to his more general theorem, whi h gives an upper bound on
the possible lengths of y les of polynomial maps on algebrai extensions of Q p . His proof, whi h is quite
te hni al and lever, involves rst redu ing to - y les in the prime ideal (eg pZp in Q p ), and then showing
that the periods of su h y les are highly onstrained. To show further, for Zp, whi h y le periods are
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 9

possible, he onstru ts from any given y le a series of determinants whose valuations must be multiples of
the period.
We next have the following theorem, summarized here from the text of [TVW1989℄.
Theorem 4.2. Let f" (x) = x2 + ", with j"jp  1, and let x~ 2 Zp be su h that f" (~x) = x~ and jf"0 (~x)jp = 1.
Set ! = f"0 (~
x) = 2~x, t the least integer su h that !t  1 mod p, and  = val(!t 1). Let  be the least
integer greater than =t. Then the map f" is topologi ally onjugate to the linear map L(Æ ) = !Æ on the
neighbourhood x~ + p Zp.
As suggested in [TVW1989℄, it is easy to generalize their result and prove it for any y le of the map f" .
Doing so gives us the following theorem.
Theorem 4.3. Let f" (x) = x2 + ", with j"jp  1. Suppose p > 2, and that f" admits a primitive y le
O = fz0; z1 ; : : : ; z 1g. Set ! = (f" )0 (z0 ), and let t be the least positive integer su h that !t  1 mod p.
Let  = val(! t 1), and let  be the least integer greater than =t. Then the only periodi points in the
union of the osets zi + p Zp, 0  i < , are those of the y le O.
Let us now pro eed to our main theorem, the proof of whi h will o upy the remainder of this se tion.
Note rst that sin e f" is not a homomorphism of multipli ative groups, the isomorphims (3.1) and (3.2) are
of no help here. Nevertheless, we have the following theorem, whi h shows that f" , j"jp < 1, should indeed
be dynami ally interpreted as a perturbation of the original square map.
Theorem 4.4. There are two xed points of f" , Æp;" and p;" , with jÆp;" jp = jp;" 1jp = j"jp < 1. Let
x 2 Q p . If jxjp > 1, then its traje tory under f" diverges to innity; whereas if jxjp < 1, its traje tory
onverges to Æp;" .
If p = 2, then the traje tory of every x su h that jxjp = 1 onverges to p;" . For all other p, if jxjp = 1,
then x is either a periodi point, or its traje tory is eventually quasiperiodi . In many ases, one an
algorithmi ally determine the nitely many periodi points, and al ulate them to any degree of pre ision. In
the remaining, very spe ial, ases, the algorithm may fail to terminate, leaving only an approximate pi ture
of the orbit spa e.
More pre isely, let n = ordp 2. Given a primitive - y le O of the square map in F p , if n does not divide
, then there exists a unique orresponding fundamental - y le of f" with leading oeÆ ients in O. Any
other periodi element of f" with leading oeÆ ient in O is a harmoni y le, and must have a period whi h
is a multiple of both and n.
Those pairs (p; ) for whi h n divides above are alled ex eptional pairs (see Table 6.1). Those quadru-
plets (p; "; ; x) to whi h our algorithm and Theorem 4.3 apply are alled generi ; we give examples of
non-generi quadruplets in Se tion 6.
Proof. Our proof pro eeds in several parts. In Part A, we ompute the xed points of f" , and in Part B, we
determine the traje tories under f" of all points x 2= Zp. In Part C, we onsider the spe ial ase of p = 2,
where we nd no periodi points besides the attra tive xed points.
The rest of the proof is devoted to onstru ting an algorithm for determining all periodi points of f" on

Zp, for p odd.

In Part D, we onsider y les of period , where is the period of a y le of the square map on the residue
eld. We onsider the -th iterate of f" , or rather, the fun tion
g ;"(x) = f" (x) x;
and des ribe the nonex eptional and generi quadruplets (p; "; ; x), i.e. those for whi h fundamental y les
exist and admit no harmoni s.
In Parts E and F, we ta kle those ases not treated in Part D. Spe i ally, for r;"  0 to be determined,
hoose a0 2 Zp su h that g;" (a0 )  0 mod p2r;" +1 . Write a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : : for the iterates of a0 under f" .
Then by the hain rule,
(4.2) 0 (a0 ) = f 0 (a0 )f 0 (a1 )


f 0 (a 1 ) 1 = 2 a0 a1


a
g;" 1:
" " " 1
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 10

To on lude by Hensel's Lemma that there is an exa t root of g;" (generally, a  - y le of f" ) near a0 , r;"
0 (a0 )). Predi ting this value r;" is the obje t of mu h of Part E. In Part F, we
must satisfy r;"  val(g;"
des ribe an algorithm for omputing all remaining y les, and explain the ir umstan es under whi h it may
fail to terminate.
Finally, in Part G, we prove that the nonperiodi elements are in fa t quasiperiodi .
A. Existen e of xed points: A xed point x = f" (x) must satisfy
p
1  1 4"
x= :
2
If p = 2, then val(4") = 2 + val(")  3, so we may apply Hensel's Lemma (to the fun tion g (x) = x2 1 4")
to dedu e the existen e of this square root. It takes the form 1 2"u, for some u 2 Z2. If p 6= 2, then
val(4")  1. Thus the p square root of 1 4" exists in Q p by Hensel's Lemma, sin e 1 has a square root in
F p . Here, one obtains 1 4" = (1 + "v ), for some v 2 ( 2) + pZp. Setting u = v=2 and simplifying,
we obtain that for any p, the two xed points are
Æp;" = "u and p;" = 1 "u:
for some u 2 1 + pZp.
B. Traje tories for jxjp 6= 1: It is lear that jxjp > 1 implies jf" (x)jp = jxj2p > jxjp ; hen e the traje tory
of su h an x diverges to innity. Now suppose that jxjp < 1. It follows that
8 2
<= jxjp if jxj2p > j"jp ;
>
jf" (x)jp = jx + "jp > j"jp if jxj2p = j"jp ;
2

:= j"jp if jxj2 < j"jp .

p
Sin e j"jp < j"jp (and the norm on Q p is dis rete), we dedu e that jf"n (x)jp = j"jp for all n suÆ iently large.
2

We show that from this point on, the traje tory approximates Æp;" .
Let m = val(")  1. Then sin e f"n+1 (x) = (f"n (x))2 + ", and val(f"n (x))2 = 2m, we have f"n+1 (x)  "
mod p2m . This last equivalen e holds also for the xed point x = Æp;" ; hen e in fa t f"n+1 (x)  Æp;" mod p2m .
To dedu e that f"n (x) omes arbitrarily lose to Æp;" as n ! 1, we have only to note the following. Given any
y 2 Q p su h that y  Æp;" mod pk (and thus y  0 mod pm ), it follows that y2  Æp;" 2
mod pk+m . Hen e
f" (y)  Æp;"
2
+ " mod pk+m ; but as Æp;" is a xed point of f" , we on lude that f" (y )  Æp;" mod pk+m .
Clearly then, Æp;" is an attra tive xed point, with basin of attra tion equal to pZp.
C. Determination of the orbit spa e for p = 2: Let a0 2 Z2 satisfy f" (a0 )  a0 mod 2 for some
> 0. From equation (4.2), we dedu e val(g 0 (a0 )) = 0 for all , and so we make take r = 1 in Hensel's
lemma (Theorem 2.1). Consequently, there exists a unique z 2 Z2 su h that g (z ) = 0 and z  a0  1
mod 2. Sin e z = 2;" ts this riterion, we dedu e that, for p = 2, there are no periodi points of f" besides
the xed points. Let us prove that 2;" is also attra tive.
Let x = 1+s, with s 2 2Z2, be an arbitrary element of Z2. If jsj2 > j"j2 , then f" (x) = 1+2s+s2 +" = 1+s0 ,
with js0 j2 < jsj2 . On the other hand, if jsj2  j"j2 , then the same al ulation yields js0 j2 = j"j2 . Hen e,
repla ing x with f"n (x) (n > 0) if ne essary, we may assume that jsj2 = j"j2 , and thus that x  1 + "
mod 2m+1 (m = val(")). As a parti ular ase, we dedu e that 2;"  1 + " mod 2m+1 . It thus suÆ es
to prove that if x 2 Z2 satises x  2;" mod 2k for some k > 1, then f" (x)  2;" mod 2k+1 . Write
x 2;" = 2k u, for some u 2 Z2. Then (x 2;" )2 = 22k u2 , whi h implies
x2 + 22;" = 22;" x + 22k u2 = 22;" (2;" + 2k u) + 22k u2 = 222;" + 2k+1 2;" u0
for some u0 2 Z2. Subtra t 222;" to on lude that f" (x) 2;"  0 mod 2k+1 , as required.
D. Fundamental y les, p odd, nonex eptional pairs: For the remainder, suppose that p 6= 2
and set n = ordp 2. Choose as in Lemma 3.1 and a orresponding (primitive) - y le of the square map
through a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; a 1 in F p (identied with arbitary preimages in Zp under the quotient map). Then, sin e
j"jp < 1, f" (a0 )  f0 (a0 )  a0 mod p, so the ai must approximate a (primitive) - y le of the perturbed
square map f" as well. To dedu e the existen e of a true - y le of f" with these leading oeÆ ients, we
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 11

0 (a0 )) using (4.2). We rst

must apply Hensel's Lemma, and thus in parti ular, we must evaluate val(g ;"
note that
(4.3) a0 a1


a 1  a a a


a 1  a  1
2 4
0 0 0
2
0
2
0
1
mod p;

where this nal equivalen es uses that f0 (a0 ) = a20 .
If 2 = 1 mod p | i.e. if n does not divide | then val(g ;" 0 (a0 )) = 0. So by Hensel's Lemma, there is
a unique z 2 Zp su h that g ;" (z ) = 0 and z  a0 mod p. In other words, we obtain a - y le of f" with
leading oeÆ ients in a - y le of f0 on F p | a fundamental y le of f" .
The uniqueness given by Hensel's Lemma pre ludes the existen e of any  - y les having leading oeÆ ients
in the set fa0 ; a1 ; : : : ; a 1 g, for any  divisible by but not by n. For  divisible by both and n, g;" (a0 ) = 0
0 (a0 )) > 0, implying that we would need a more a urate estimate of the - y le (if it exists) before
but val(g;"
Hensel's Lemma ould be applied. Su h a  - y le (having the same leading oeÆ ients as a fundamental
y le) is alled a harmoni y le. See Part F below.
E. Estimate of val(g;" 0 (z0 )) for  divisible by l m(n; ).: Let fz0; z1 ; : : : z 1 g be the elements of an
approximated  - y le of f" , with leading oeÆ ients taken from the set fa0 ; a1 ; : : : a 1 g, orresponding to
a - y le, dividing  .
Sin e n divides  , we may write
0
(4.4) 2 = 1 + pr u;
for some u 2 Z \ Zp, and r0  r = val(2n 1) > 0. Then
0 (z0 ) = 2 z0 z1


z
g;" 1 1 = 2 (z02
 1
+ "x) 1;
 pr 0 u
for some x 2 Zp. By (4.3) and (4.4), z02 1  z0  1 mod p. But sin e bp  b mod p for all b 2 F p , it is
true that z0u  1 mod p already. Writing z0u = 1 + y for some y 2 pZp, and applying the binomial theorem
r0 r0 0 0
to z0p u = (1 + y )p , we dedu e that in fa t z02 1  1 mod pr +1 . Write z02 1 = 1 + pr +1 x0 , for some
 

x0 2 Zp. Then
0 0
0 (z0 ) = 2 (z 2 1 + "x) 1 = (1 + pr u)(1 + "x + pr +1 x0 ) 1  pr u + "x mod pr +1 Zp:
 0 0
(4.5) g;" 0

0 0
So val(g;" (z0 ))  r unless a an ellation o urs in this nal sum. The o uren e of su h a an ellation
denes the nongeneri ase of our algorithm. Note that it depends not only on p,  and ", but also on the
hoi e of representatives zi of the approximate y le.
F. Remaining y les, p odd:
We are left with the following undetermined ases:
1. existen e of a fundamental y le for an ex eptional pair (p; ) (where 2  1 mod p);
2. existen e of harmoni y les;
3. existen e of harmoni s of harmoni s.
The short answer to (1) is that it depends on ". For example, for the ex eptional pair (p; ) = (251; 100),
there is a fundamental y le when " = 0 (of ourse) but there is none when " = p. See Se tion 6 for further
dis ussion.
A suÆ ient ondition for nonexisten e of (2) is given by Theorem 4.3. By (4.2) and (4.3), we have that
t = ordp ((f" )0 (z )) = ordp (2 ) = l m(n; ) > 1:
0 (z )) as a spe ial ase of Part E above (taking  = t). It follows that for a
We estimate  = val(g t;"
non-Wieferi h prime p, and a generi quadruplet (p; "; t; z ), the value  = 1 and hen e  = 1. So in these
ases, Theorem 4.3 implies that the given fundamental - y les have no harmoni  - y les for any  .
A suÆ ient ondition nonexisten e of (3) is given by Theorem 4.1, whi h gives an upper bound on the
possible values of  for whi h  - y les an exist. (In parti ular, we may dedu e that a fundamental y le
admits at most two harmoni y les.) Moreover, any su h  must admit a fa torization of the form (4.1).
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 12

To address the remaining ases, we need to look for y les of f" on a set of representatives Rr;" of
Z
0 (z0 )). Here, z0 should be an element of the desired
p=pr;" Zp, where this r;" is an estimate for val(g;"
y le or, equivalently, a suÆ iently pre ise estimate thereof. One obvious and easy set to use is
(4.6) Rrg = fn 2 Z j 1  n  p2r;"+1 ; p - ng:
This suggests the following re ursive pro ess:
1. obtain an estimate for r;" ;
2. nd a  - y le fz0 ; z1 ; : : : z 1 g in Rr;" ;
0 = val(g;"
3. evaluate r;" 0 (z0 )) dire tly, using (4.2);
0
4. if r;" > r;" , return to Step 1 with r;" 0 in pla e of r;" ; otherwise, evaluate the y le using Hensel's
Lemma.
This pro ess fails to terminate exa tly on a y le ontaining a root of both g;" and g;" 0 .
Of ourse, Theorem 4.3 still applies, and tells us that any harmoni y le must dier from the or-
responding fundamental y le in the rst  oeÆ ients, where  = r ;" + 1 for ex eptional pairs and
  r t;" =l m(n; ) + 1 otherwise. (Their oeÆ ients mod p must agree, of ourse.)
G. Quasiperiodi ity: Finally, onsider the ase where jxjp = 1 and x is not periodi . Repla ing x with
some iterate under f" if ne essary (as in Lemma 3.1), we may assume that its onstant term a0 is an element
of a y le in the nite eld; denote the elements of this y le by a0 ; a1 ;


a 1 . We wish to show that x is
a quasiperiodi point, i.e., that for every N > 0, there exists an M > 0 su h that f"M (x) lies in the oset
x + pN Zp.
Consider the traje tories of f" on the set of all osets of pN Zp whose representatives have onstant term
among a0 ; a1 ;


; a 1 . By Hensel's Lemma, applied to the polynomial hy (x) = f" (x) y , the inverse map
f" 1 exists and is well-dened on this set, sin e f" (x)  f" (y) mod pN implies x2  y2 mod pN . The
onstant terms are nonzero and have by denition unique square roots among the a0 ; a1 ;


a 1 , so we
dedu e that x  y mod pn . Hen e, the traje tories of f" on this oset spa e are y les, and in parti ular
there is some M > 0 su h that f"M (x) 2 x + pN Zp.
This ompletes the proof of Theorem 4.4.
5. Iterates of f" (x) = x2 + ", j"jp = 1
The orbit spa e of the maps f" (x) = x2 + ", j"jp = 1 are drasti ally dierent from those of the pre eding
two se tions; nevertheless, mu h of the analysis whi h permitted us a global general pi ture there arries
over to this boundary ase. Note that examples of this ase were onsidered in [TVW1989℄.
As noted in [TVW1989℄, if jxjp > 1, then the traje tory of f" through x diverges to innity. Thus the
question redu es again to a onsideration of the traje tories in Zp.
Consider rst the traje tories of f" on the residue eld F p . As f" is not equivalent to the square map in
p known general, uniform des ription of this orbit spa e. For example, not all f" admit
this ase, there is no
xed points, sin e 1 4" may or may not exist in Q p . However, the niteness of Fp implies the existen e
of some y les. Insofar as on erns us, they fall into two ategories.
The rst kind of y le is one whi h ontains the element 0 2 F p . (This is alled an attra tive y le in
[TVW1989℄.) Denote the elements of this y le fa0 = 0; a1 ; : : : ; a 1 g and onsider g ;" (x) = f" (x) x.
From (4.2), we dedu e that val(g ;"0 (a0 )) = 0, sin e the produ t a0 a1


a 1 is 0 modulo p. Hen e there
exists a unique - y le of f" with these leading oeÆ ients; even more, this uniqueness (together with the
exa tness of approximation modulo p) implies that there are no other y les (of any period) with these
leading oeÆ ients. In the terminology of the pre eding se tions: this ase gives rise to a single fundamental
y le, with no harmoni s.
The se ond kind of y le is one whi h lies entirely in Fp , and is similar to those en ountered in the proof
of Theorem 4.4. For j"jp = 1, however, the produ t a0 a1


a 1 is not ne essarily equal to 1 modulo p, sin e
the analysis of (4.3) does not apply. Hen e the valuation of g ;" 0 (a0 ) depends on the entire term in (4.2).
0
We have no a priori estimate of val(g ;" (a0 )) in this ase. Nevertheless, a oarser version of the analysis of
Parts D through F of the proof an be applied. If val(g ;" 0 (a0 )) = 0, then the y le gives rise, via Hensel's
Lemma, to a unique - y le in Zp. The only other possible periods of y les with leading oeÆ ients in the
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 13

set fa0 ; a1 ; : : : ; a 1 g are m, where m is a multiple of the order of 2 a0 a1


a 1 modulo p, and where, by
Pezda's Theorem 4.1, m admits a fa torization of the form (4.1). To nd a y le of period  , we use the
re ursive algorithm from Part F of the proof as before.
Note that the quasiperiodi ity argument in Part G of the proof of Theorem 4.4 goes through un hanged
for j"jp = 1 and hen e that under f" , all points in Zp are either periodi or eventually quasiperiodi .
6. Open Questions

In Se tions 3 and 4 we laid the foundations for the theory of fundamental y les. One is immediately
stru k by some open number-theoreti questions.

For one: is there an easy way to determine the order n of 2 in F p ? The distribution of these orders is
well-known, up to the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis; but determining the value of n in any given ase
remains diÆ ult. Using the Legendre symbol, one knows that 2 2  1 mod p if and only if p  1 mod 8
p 1

[Serre1973, Ch.1℄; but while this is helpful it is not enough to determine n ompletely.

For another: whereas a formula for the number and period of the orbits of the square map on F p is known,
several related questions remain open. For example, set (p) equal to the number of y les of the square
map on F p . It is onje tured that for ea h n  2, their are innitely many primes with (p) = n. (The ase
of (p) = 2 orresponds to Artin primes p, see [Rogers1996℄.) On the other hand, one expe ts only nitely
many p for whi h (p) = 1 (Fermat primes). What ee t does it have to repla e (p) with the number of
y les of f" , " 2 Z, as p varies? Or with the maximum number of y les over all "?

Related to this is the following more detailed question. For whi h ex eptional pairs (p; ) (see Table 6.1)
and whi h " does there exist a y le of the square map on F p whi h fails to indu e a orresponding funda-
mental y le of f" on Q p ? And when there fails to be a fundamental - y le, will there be a  - y le, for
some multiple  of (this time not ne essarily divisible by n)?
The onsideration of this lass of (large, easily hara terized) primes is potentially of interest in its own
right. In the ontext of this paper, we on lude that these primes are the ones for whi h the dynami s of
the square map x 7! x2 are unstable under perturbations. (See, for instan e, the example in Part F of the
proof of Theorem 4.4.)

Another open question, whi h seems more analyti than number-theoreti in nature, is the existen e of
an nongeneri quadruplet (p; ; "; z0 ). Two sets of ir umstan es an lead to an innite re ursion, but both
arise from the existen e of y les of f" on Q p , say through the elements fz0 ; z1 ; : : : z 1 g, for whi h
(6.1) ((f" )0 )t = (2 z0 z1


z 1 )t = 1
exa tly for some t > 0. If t = 1, this means that z0 is an exa t root of both g;" and its derivative, and that
Hensel's Lemma is powerless. If t > 1, it follows that r ;" = 0 and that a fundamental - y le exists | but
one annot a priori determine what harmoni s, if any, it admits. We an understand why this must o ur,
as follows. Suppose p 6= 2 and write
1
f" (z + h) = f" (z ) + h(f )0 (z ) + h2 (f )00 (z ) +



2
for the Taylor expansion of the polynomial at z . As f" (z ) = 0, and (f )0 (z ) = t , a t-th root of unity, we
an rewrite this as f" (z + h)  z + ht mod h2 Zp. Now iterate this expression t times, using the relations
f (f (z + h))  f (z + ht )  z + h2t mod h2 Zp. We on lude that for all h,
f" t(z + h)  z + h mod h2 Zp:
This holds for any h 2 Zp; in other words, f" t behaves approximately as the identity map. However, as
f" has only nitely many periodi points, a hieving a topologi al onjuga y between f" and the identity
map (the key ingredient to the proof of Theorem 4.3) is not possible. Thus, the nongeneri ases are
truly distinguished by a ondition that is highly unstable under perturbations of z0 and " | justifying our
suggestive terminology.
 DYNAMICS OF QUADRATIC MAPS ON Qp 14

p n = ordp (2) = ordd 2 p n = ordp (2) = ordd 2

251 50 100 5840251 650 89700
1459 486 486 6049243 4374 1006020
5419 42 42 6561001 54675 218700
39367 2187 13122 6876901 1620 76140
54001 180 900 8039359 8427 1314612
110251 350 2100 9106063 329 45402
116381 5060 5060 10113049 339 47460
148997 772 18528 13357177 5547 77658
181549 164 7380 17231831 8855 106260
213751 1125 4500 17360407 413343 826686
246241 108 108 22366891 78 156
268501 100 8900 26558929 24057 240570
446473 351 1404 27338681 2020 333300
730021 2116 23276 28934011 13122 551124
1299079 6561 196830 29327761 7590 15180
2010583 1701 47628 34229539 57918 115836
3037501 202500 202500 35175001 7500 82500
3618757 324 1944 47904049 26973 107892
4390021 10092 70644 48912491 110 1063260
5419387 4374 126846 56337751 3675 44100
5521693 236 102660 74967931 810 4997700
5746001 520 7800 96468751 459375 1837500

Table 6.1. The ex eptional pairs (p; ) up to 1  108, al ulated using ARIBAS [ARIBAS℄.
Here, d denotes an odd divisor of p 1 (not given).

Unfortunately, neither of these ases an easily be distinguished from one in whi h the equation (6.1)
holds only modulo ps Zp, for some large s > 0, ex ept in spe ial ases, as follows.
Example 1. Let p = 3 and onsider the map f" , with " = 43 = 1+p p (thus j"jp < 1). The xed point
z = 3;" = 1 12 p satises (2z )2 = 1 exa tly. Hen e this is an example of an \nongeneri " ase.
Example 2. Let p = 7 and onsider a 2- y le fz0 ; z1 g of f" with leading oeÆ ients in the set f2; 4g. Then
" = z02 z0 1 and z1 = z0 1. This quadruplet (7; "; 2; z0) is nongeneri exa tly when (22 z0z1 )t = 1
for some t; here one an take t = 3. Applying Hensel's Lemma to the fun tion g (x) = 64x3 ( x 1)3 1
with approximate root x = 2, we nd a unique solution z0 (and hen e a unique nongeneri quadruplet).
The eorts of the pre eding examples may be dupli ated for any 2- y le or xed point; but for higher-
order y les, it is more diÆ ult to nd an exa t relation between " and z0 , and thus to isolate the nongeneri
ases algebrai ally.
We are left with many unanswered questions. In what sense does the behaviour of f" around z dier
from its behaviour in the generi ase? Does every prime p admit some hoi e of " for whi h there is a y le
satisfying (6.1)? How an we nd su h "? Do we dare imagine that they are in some sense boundary values,
su h that the behaviour of the quadrati maps fÆ an be predi ted by the relation of Æ to "?
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E-mail address : mnevinsalum.mit.edu, tdrogersgpu.srv.ualberta. a
Department of Mathemati s and Statisti s, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada K1N 6N5; and Department
of Mathemati al S ien es, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G1