What Is Sound? Sound is the result of changing air pressure over time.

This pressure creates a sine wave the rate at which a sine wave completes its cycle is called frequency, measured in hertz (Hz).

High frequencies equal short sine waves and high, shrill sound pitches; low frequencies equal long sine waves and deep bass, rich penetrating sound pitches.

The range of audible frequency for the human ear is approximately 64 Hz to 23,000 Hz. anything above this frequency range is called ultrasonic. Dogs, for example, have ultrasonic hearing up to 45,000 Hz, and the porpoise, incredibly, can hear up to 150,000 Hz. anything below this frequency range is called infrasonic or subsonic. Ferrets and elephants have infrasonic hearing as low as 16Hz. The Decibel: The Bel, named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell, was originally defined as the loss of signal level over one mile of telephone cable. A decibel is 1/10th of a Bel. Neither the Bel nor decibel have an explicit level, the formula for determining the ratio between two sounds in dB is: 10 log (p2/p1) dB, with p2/p1 as the ratio of power between two sources. Sound Pressure Level Sound pressure level (SPL) is the loudness of sound. The SPL range for the human ear is from zero to 120 decibels. For better perspective, the human threshold of pain is 130 decibels. Eardrums rupture at 190 decibels.

Death can occur at 200 decibels. The inside of a tornado, hurricane and nuclear bomb are 250+ decibels. Attenuation over Distance: Inverse Square Law The inverse square law describes how sound attenuates over distance. It states that volume (SPL) decreases 6 dB each time the distance from the sound source is doubled. level change in dB = 20 * log (D1/D2), Where D1 is the original distance and D2 is the new distance.

Rules of thumb pertaining to db: Sound pressure levels drop by 6 dB for every doubling of distance and increase by 3 dB for every doubling of power.

Types of sound system: 1- Background music system: Natural-sounding music reproduction requires a minimum frequency response range of 100 Hz 10 kHz that is wider than the basic speech range.

2- Foreground Music: Its a more prominent role in the spaces primary function (i.e., music in a bar or fitness center) than background music and is generally louder and more dynamic. The special demands of foreground music include the following: Depending on the application and client taste, the bass response should extend down to 60 Hz or lower, high frequency response to 16 kHz or higher. One or more subwoofers may be needed to provide additional bass output. 3- Voice/Music Combinations: Most installed sound systems are required to reproduce both speech and music. this means using good quality speakers and relatively close spacing. Types of speakers: There are four speaker types for distributed systems: ceiling, wall-mount, in-wall, and paging horns. Subwoofers are also used in some systems to augment the bass. 1-Ceiling speakers: Distribute sound unobtrusively from a relatively low ceiling over a large floor area. When installed with the proper spacing and sufficient amplifier power, a good quality ceiling speaker provides uniform coverage and satisfactory frequency response for live speech reinforcement and background music applications.

2- Wall-mount speakers: Which are generally full-range, multi-way systems, are often well suited for foreground music. They are also applicable if the ceiling is very high or is otherwise not suitable for mounting speakers. Speakers may be mounted directly to the walls surface.

3- in wall speakers: Installing the speaker inside a wall is unobtrusive and deters theft. However, installation can be costly and proper aiming and positioning are often problematic. and to overcomes this obstacle by using rotating speaker elements to aim sound where it is needed. Proper spacing is important, especially for speech intelligibility.

4- Paging horns: can achieve a higher SPL than ceiling or wall speakers, but have limited frequency response, lower sound quality, and higher distortion levels. They are seldom used for music applications but are commonly used outdoors where long sound projection distances are needed. They are also used in noisy environments where high sound levels are required for intelligible messages (i.e., large public spaces, warehouses, and factories).

5-Subwoofers: Distributed music systems are often faced with the challenges of delivering clear, high-fidelity sound with enough power to overcome high ambient noise levels at an affordable price. Meeting these requirements has typically involved giving up good bass response because small speakers cannot reproduce low frequencies at high levels. Since many contemporary musical styles require powerful bass reproduction, adding a subwoofer is a cost-effective way to meet this new demand.

Also Sound Speakers classified in to 2 main types: 1-Unidirectional speakers: A-round reflex horn loudspeaker. B- Square reflex horn loudspeaker. C- Cylindrical dynamic loudspeaker. D- Spherical dynamic loudspeaker. E-wall mount loudspeaker. F- Ceiling mount loudspeaker.

2-Omnidirectional speakers: C-2 Omni directional speaker's types are: A- two-ways box speakers. B- three-ways box speakers. D- four-ways box speakers. E- Sound column.

 Speech Intelligibility: speech range (about 350 Hz 5 kHz) and the effective signal-to-noise ratio of the system (noise can include echoes, reverberation, distortion, and even out-of-band signals such as excessive bass). Good frequency response depends on selecting high-quality speaker components and locating and aiming them correctly. Background noise is the most obvious: the sound systems normal operating level should be at least 1525 dB above the background noise level. Reflections: Field experience indicates that reflections from surfaces 710 ft from the source or listener blend more smoothly with the direct sound. Very close reflections, within 4 ft of the source or listener, cause audibly wide notches in frequency response due to phase cancellation and should be avoided or moderated using acoustically absorbent material Reverberation reverberation occurs in a large room (i.e., church, gymnasium, or auditorium) where repeated reflections merge Equalization is the process by which the amplitude of discrete frequency ranges is adjusted. The benefits of using equalization include improved speech intelligibility, enhanced sound quality due to a better spectral balance, and increased gain without feedback.

Divide into three types: 1- Graphic: Graphic equalizers affect certain preset frequencies (tones) and can only increase or decrease the volume of those frequencies. 2- Parametric: As graphic specification plus let you determine how much of the frequencies around this centre frequency you want to affect (this is called Q or Slope). 3- semi-parametric or a sweepable graphic equalizer: This allows you to tune in a frequency but not be able to determine what other frequencies you affect (this is preset by the manufacturer).

Determining Maximum Output: Sensitivity and Power Handling: In general, a speaker should be able to produce a sustained longterm average level 1525 dB higher than the background noise in its area. If the noise level is less than 45 dB SPL, the speaker should be able to produce a long-term average level of 70 dB SPL in the listening area, with undistorted peaks 1020 dB higher.

Three specifications are required to calculate the maximum SPL capability of a speaker in its environment: The speaker/transformers maximum continuous power rating, or the available amplifier power. The speakers sensitivity rating (dB SPL @ 1 m on-axis with 1 W input); (i.e., 1 W @ 1 m). The distance between the listener and the speaker. Example: A paging horn in an outdoor area needs to reach an average level of 90 dB SPL at 80 ft from the horn. A 30 W model is selected with a sensitivity of 112 dB, 1 W @ 1 m. To allow for short-term transients, 6 dB of headroom is added to the average level requirement, yielding a target level of 96 dB SPL.

Question: How much power is needed to reach the target level? The rated sensitivity is 112 dB SPL, with 1 W @ 1 m. Use the chart for level change with distance (Figure 5-1) to see how much the level is reduced at 80 ft compared to the reference distance of 1 m (answer: 27.7 dB, or about 28 dB). This tells us that 1 W sensitivity at 80 ft is 112 28 = 84 dB SPL.

This is 12 dB less than the target level of 96 dB. Use the chart for level change with power (Figure 5-2) to find the power required to increase the level 12 dB (answer: about 16 W).

Question: What is the maximum long-term average output capability of the speaker at 80 ft? The rated long-term average power handling is 30 W. Use the chart for level change with power input (Figure 5-2) to find that our maximum output with 30 W

at the reference distance of 1 m is approximately 127 dB SPL (112 + 15 dB). Use the chart for level change with distance (Figure 5-1) to see that at 80 ft, our maximum output will be approximately 99 dB SPL (127 28 dB). This gives 9 dB of headroom above the target level.

Coverage Angle Typically, distributed speaker systems and background music systems need

close to the listeners, for example in a low-ceiling room or pew-back speakers in a

Coverage Area and Ceiling Height: As the ceiling height increases, the area a speaker can cover increases, but the power required to reach the same volume at the listeners position also increases. If the ceiling is very high (i.e., over 20 ft) some speakers may not be able to handle the power required for that distance. For ceiling heights greater than about 25 ft, consider alternatives such as mounting speakers on columns and walls, or suspending them below the ceiling, to get them closer to the listeners. Low ceilings are also challenging: for a ceiling lower than 12 ft, use a speaker with a coverage angle of 120 or greater.

Frequency Response The following approximate frequency response guidelines are for specific applications and environments: Speech-only paging system (with or without emergency signaling) for a noisy environment: 350 Hz 5 kHz Speech-only indoor environment: 120 Hz 10 kHz Low-level background music: 100 Hz 10 kHz

 Foreground music, high-quality background music and audio-visual applications: 80 Hz or lower 16 kHz or higher. Achieving the desired lowfrequency response may require a subwoofer in addition to high-quality main speakers. Speaker Spacing Three standard speaker spacing methods are commonly employed in distributed systems. spacing distance is based on the radius of the coverage area, and how much adjacent speakers should overlap. No Overlap (spacing distance = 2r, where r is the radius of the speakers coverage area)

Edge-to-Center (also called center-to-center; spacing distance = radius of the coverage area): This is the highest speaker density commonly used in distributed systems and gives the best performance. Where the room acoustics are poor or background noise is high, this spacing may be required for intelligible speech.

wall-mount speakers work : When there is a facing wall up to 30 ft away Placed on facing walls and staggered so that each speaker is aimed at a point mid-way between two speakers on the opposite wall.

If the facing wall is more than 30 ft away, we recommend using ceiling or other speakers to cover the center of the room to avoid echoes that degrade intelligibility. In outdoor areas, it is best to place speakers back-to-back.

Coverage Area is a very conservative estimate of the triangular area within which coverage will not vary more than 3 dB (4 dB where the downward tilt is 10, due to the effects of distance), when averaged over the frequency range of 1 4 kHz. Maximum Spacing for Rated Coverage Depth: This number is equal to the width of the triangular coverage area at its wide end installation method: 1- direct connection (also called low impedance): or constant voltage (also called high impedance) amplifier/speaker interface. Direct connection to a low impedance amplifier allows up to two 8 speakers to be safely driven without resorting to series-parallel wiring.

Constant voltage speaker lines (i.e., 70.7 or 25 V) do not actually have constant voltage on them. Their line impedance is varied using transformers to achieve the same theoretical maximum voltage in any system. In order to make large sound systems cost effective and easy to design, constantvoltage systems were developed. Direct drive, low voltage speaker systems (like a home stereo system) would simply not be practical over long wire distances because of voltage drop.

a good practice to select an amplifier: whose rated output is at least 120% of the speaker Wattage total. If the speakers are connected directly (in a 4 or 8 system), the amplifier size should be at least equal to the speaker Wattage total.

Examples Design Of High-Quality Paging System:

A workspace needs reliable and intelligible paging in all areas, for both standing and seated listeners. The room is 30 x 40 ft with a 10 ft ceiling. TOA model F121CM speakers are selected for their wide dispersion.

The ceiling height for standing listeners (4 ft above listener height; h - l = 4). The spacing recommendations for this height range from 714 ft, depending on the desired uniformity of coverage.

Using a square pattern with minimum overlap, the spacing between speakers is 10 ft, which works out to three rows of four speakers (12 speakers total).

Since the workspace will have a minimal noise level, the target operating level is set slightly above the base level (75 dB) for paging, at 78 dB, with 10 dB of headroom, for a Lreq of 88 dB.

The speaker should choice with rated sensitivity of 90 dB, 1 W @ 1 m. The typical seated listener will be about 78 feet away from the nearest speaker. Using the attenuation with distance chart (see Figure 5-1 on page 22), this provides 82 dB with 1 W at the listener.

Using the level change with power input chart (see Figure 5-2 on page 22), we see that 4 W per speaker provides the 6 dB needed to reach the Lreq.

The speakers smallest available transformer tap above 4 W is 5 W. Add the speakers at 5 W each to yield a total of 60 W. Multiply by 1.2 (120%) to get the minimum amplifier power: 72 W.

Using the level change with power input chart (see Figure 5-2 on page 22), we see that 4 W per speaker provides the 6 dB needed to reach the Lreq. The speakers smallest available transformer tap above 4 W is 5 W. Add the speakers at 5 W each to yield a total of 60 W. Multiply by 1.2 (120%) to get the minimum amplifier power: 72 W. Outdoor Paging System Paging is needed in an outdoor area. The area is 100 x 200 ft (20,000 sq. ft), and the speakers will be mounted on poles along the center of the area (200 ft). mounting a speaker 10 ft above the listeners ear level and aiming it down by 10 results in a coverage area that extends 57 ft from the base of the speakers mounting surface. This positioning allows reaching the edges of our outdoor area from poles along the center line.

When mounted 10 ft above ear level (approx. 16 ft high), the rated coverage area of the SC-615T is 1713 sq. ft, suggesting that 12 horns are needed to cover the space smoothly. Ideally, the horns should be mounted on the central poles, backto-back, aiming outward.

Assume the measured noise levels in this outdoor setting are 70 dB (A-weighted). The operating level should be 90 dB, with 610 dB headroom, for a Lreq of 96 100 dB.

Choice a speaker as when mounted 10 ft above ear level and aimed down 10, it delivers 99 dB SPL to the farthest on-axis listener as SC-615T type

at 57 ft from the base of the speakers mounting surface. This is based on operation at the maximum transformer tap of 15 W, and is within our target range. Adding 12 speakers at 15 W yields a speaker total of 180 W. Multiply by 1.2 (120%) for a minimum amplifier rating of 216 W. For High-Quality Multi-Purpose System A multi-purpose room needs high-quality sound for video and A/V presentations, speech reinforcement, and background music for company functions. The room is 40 x 80 ft with a 12 ft ceiling. spacing recommendations range from 1021 ft for standing listeners (h l = 6 ft.) and 1428 ft for seated listeners (h l = 8 ft). Selecting a square pattern and spacing the speakers at 20 ft intervals puts us within both ranges and allows a simple layout of two rows of four speakers (8 total).

To deliver convincing, distortion-free movie sound, the system should be designed for a maximum average level of 85 dB at the listeners, with 10 dB of headroom for transient peaks, for a Lreq of 95 dB. To deliver convincing, distortion-free movie sound, the system should be designed for a maximum average level of 85 dB at the listeners, with 10 dB of headroom for transient peaks, for a Lreq of 95 dB. Conference Systems:

It Is Used To Provide A Direct Connection Between Conference's Chairmen And The Conference's Delegates. It Is Divided Into Three Main Systems (According To The Method Of Control of This Connection): 1- Open Conference Systems 2- Partially Open Conference Systems 3- Controlled Conference Systems

A- Open Conference Systems: This System Is Suitable For Conferences With A Limited Number Of Delegates To Speech Each Other Without Any Control Of The Conference's Chairman. The Sound System Permits Every Delegate to Speech to Other Delegates and Chairman By switching On A Talk Button in His Unit and talk through his Mic and to Finish His Speech, He Will switching of The Same Button to Switch off His Speech Circuit. Types of open Conference Systems: 1- without internal broadcasting In This Case Delegate And Chairman Unit Contains: -Mic. -Talk Button. 2- with internal broadcasting: This system is similar to the above system but we can monitor the conference by:

a- Adding Side Sound Columns in the Hall. See Fig.7 b- Or Providing The Delegates And Chairman Units With An Internal Speaker (Recommended). See Fig.8 In This Case Delegate And Chairman Unit Contains: -Mic. -Talk Button. -internal speaker. 3-with external broadcasting: See Fig.9 By adding a remote loud speaker to different remote locations.

4-with U shape: see fig.10 In this system we use a central power amplifier to connect the system with a remote microphone (which may be belong to the chairman and may be a wireless microphone)

B- Partially Open Conference Systems: This System Is Suitable For Conferences with a Limited Number of Delegates to Speech Each Other but Under the Control of the Conference's Chairman The Sound Systems Permits Every Delegate To Speech To Other Delegates And Chairman Under The Control Of The Chairman So That The Chairman Can Switch Off The Speech Circuits Of The Talked Delegate And Other Delegates And Activate His Speech Circuit By switching On A Priority Button On His Unit. Types of partially open Conference Systems: 1- Without internal broadcasting: In This Case Delegate Unit Contains: -Mic. And Chairman Unit Contains: -Mic. -priority button. 2- with internal broadcasting: -Talk Button. -Talk Button.

This system is similar to the above system but we can monitor the conference by: a- Adding Side Sound Columns in the Hall. as Fig.7 b- Or Providing The Delegates And Chairman Units With An Internal Speaker (Recommended). as Fig.8 In This Case Delegate Unit Contains: -Mic. -internal speaker. And Chairman Unit Contains: -Mic. -priority button. -Talk Button. -internal speaker. -Talk Button.

3-with external broadcasting: as Fig.9 By adding a remote loud speaker to different remote locations. C-Controlled Conference Systems: This System Is Suitable For Conferences With A Large Number Of Delegates To Speech Each Other But Under The Full Control Of The Conference's Chairman. This System Is Used When Speech Between Delegates Is Not Desired So In This System The Chairman Has A Control Panel (Permission Keys) Which Contains A Large Number Of Push Buttons And Lamps According To Max. Number of the Conference Hall Seats. And If Any Delegate Wants To Speech He Will switch On A request Button In His Unit Hence, His Lamp in The Chairman's Control Panel Switch On Then The

Chairman switch On The permission Button (which is below the lamp) Of This Delegate So, The Delegate Can Talk To Others Until The Chairman switch off The Button Again To Switch Off The Speech Circuit Of This Delegate. Types of Controlled Conference Systems: 1- with internal broadcasting: In This system we can monitor the conference by Providing the Delegates and Chairman Units with an Internal Speaker. see Fig.11 In This Case Delegate Unit Contains: -Mic. -talk button And Chairman Unit Contains: -Mic. -permission keys. -Talk Button. -internal speaker. -request Button. -internal speaker.

2-with external broadcasting: see Fig.12 By adding a remote loud speaker to different remote locations.

-General notes: A-it can be useful to use one or more recorder to record the events of the conference.

B-delegates units may be connected all in series or each row is connected in series then the rows are connected to the power amplifier separately.

Fig.11

Fig.12

So the intermediate devices in conference system are: 1-delegate unit. 3-mixer amplifier. 5-power supply. 7-loudspeakers. 9-recorders. Types of Microphone: A-Dynamic microphones They are the most common and the most basic types of microphones. They consist of a diaphragm attached to a coil that moves through a magnetic Field inducing a small electrical signal. They operate using similar principals to a Speaker and tend to have a limited frequency response, but are very rugged. B-Condenser microphones Have become more popular over the years because they have a very wide frequency response (tone) and are not as delicate or as expensive as ribbon microphones. They are, however, more delicate than dynamic microphones. They require a power source that can be an internal battery, an external power pack or phantom power that is provided by the mixer. They work by supplying a charge to a fixed plate that creates a capacitor. A thin diaphragm is mounted adjacent to the plate and induces voltage changes in the plate when subjected to sound vibrations. C-Ribbon microphones 2-chairman unit. 4-control panel. 6-output unit. 8-connection cables. 10-centeral amplifier.

Produce sound by stretching a thin metal ribbon across a gap of a strong Magnet. Sound moves the ribbon across the magnetic field creating electrical impulses. They have an excellent frequency response (tone) but tend to be very delicate and expensive. Since they are rarely used in basic P.A. systems, nothing more needs to be said about them. D-according to polar patterns: see fig.( 2 ) This refers to the directions that the microphone will pickup sound from. Polar patterns tend to be divided into two types: omni and uni-directional.

1-Unidirectional Microphone: are the most common and probably amount to more than 95% of all microphones sold. They range from shotgun (picking up sound from only straight in front of the microphone) to cardioid (picking up sound from in front of, or somewhat around the front of, the microphone in a heart shape pattern). Knowing the pattern of a microphone is important because it affects what area of sound that the microphone picks up from as well as its susceptibility to feedback. 2-Omni directional Microphone: Are rarely used because they pick up sound from all directions and often pick up sound from directions you dont want to have sound picked up from. D-Remote Microphone. E-Paging Microphone. F-Chime Microphone.

Refrence : TOA ELECTRONICS, INC. TEL: 800-733-7088 FAX: 800-733-9766