Dr.

Rajesh Roshan Dash Assistant Professor School of Infrastructure IIT Bhubaneswar

Necessity
The purpose of water treatment systems is to remove

existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the concentration of such contaminants to make water more acceptable for a desired end-use The purpose of water treatment systems is to bring raw water up to drinking water quality, for safe domestic, agricultural and industrial uses Wastewater treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff (effluents) and domestic to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment

 The particular type of treatment equipment required to meet these standards will depend to some extent on the source of water. Surface water tends to have more turbidity and a much greater chance of microbial contamination, so

filtration is almost always a necessity. Groundwater, on the other hand, is uncontaminated and has relatively little suspended solids, so filtration is less important. Groundwater, however, may have objectionable dissolved gases that need to be removed, and hardness removal is usually needed.

Common water treatment processes

Screening: to remove floating matter, debris Aeration: to remove taste and odour Plain Sedimentation: to remove suspended particles Sedimentation with coagulation: to remove fine suspended

particles with bacteria Filtration: To remove fine particles, colloidal matter and microorganisms Disinfection: to remove disease producing microorganisms Other processes:
To remove hardness (Softening) To remove colour (Decolourisation) To remove various metals, salts (Desalination, Defluoridation)

Schematic of a typical water treatment plant for surface water

Disinfection Source Screening Mixing tank Flocculation basin Settling tank Sand filter Fluoridation Addition of coagulant Sludge processing

Recommended Treatment for Different Water Sources Type of Source Groundwater Protected, deep wells; essentially free of faecal contamination Unprotected, shallow wells; faecally contaminated Surface water Protected, impounded upland water; essentially free of faecal contamination Unprotected impounded water or upland river; faecal contamination Unprotected lowland rivers; faecal contamination Disinfection Disinfection Filtration and disinfection Recommended Treatment

Filtration and disinfection Pre-disinfection disinfection or storage, filtration,

Unprotected watershed; heavy faecal contamination

Unprotected watershed; gross faecal contamination

Pre-disinfection or storage, filtration, additional treatment and disinfection

Not recommended for drinking water supply

Wastewater purification technologies

Preliminary treatment: to remove floating matter (dead

animals, tree branches, papers, wood, rags) , fats and oil Primary treatment: to remove organic solids Secondary or Biological treatment: biological decomposition of organic materials Final treatment: to remove organic load left and pathogens

Preliminary treatment
Screening: to remove floating matter (dead animals, tree branches, papers,

wood, rags) Grit Chambers: to remove grit Skimming tanks: to remove fat & oil Primary treatment
Sedimentation/ Settling tank: removal of suspended settleable organic

solids Septic tank: for small colonies Imhoff tanks: Secondary treatment
Chemical focculation and Sedimentation: removal of fine suspended not

settleable and colloidal organic solids Intermittent sand filters Concentional low rate/High rate tickling filters Activated sludge treatment Oxidation Pond/ditch

Location of physical unit operations in a wastewater treatment Plant flow diagram

Unit Operations
The following are important unit operations employed in water and Wastewater treatment

Nutrient or molecular transfer Interfacial contact Miscellaneous operations

Disinfection Copper sulfating Fluoridation Thermal desalination

Gas transfer
Aeration

Ion transfer
Chemical coagulation Chemical precipitation Ion exchange Adsorption

Solid concentration and stabilization

Thickening Centrifuging Chemical conditioning Elutriation Biological floatation Vacuum filtration Air drying Heat drying Sludge digestion Incineration Wet combustion

Solute Stabilization
Chlorination Liming Recarbonation Super-chlorination

Solids Transfer
Straining Sedimentation Flotation Filtration

Typical wastewater-treatment plant flow diagram incorporating flow equalization: (a) in-line equalization and (b) off-line equalization. Flow equalization can be applied after grit removal, after primary sedimentation, and after secondary treatment where advanced treatment is used

Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

The various pollutants entering an ecosystem through wastewater may belong to one of the following three groups: Degradable
Degradable pollutants include complex organic substances (e.g. sewage or industrial wastes) and dead organisms which can undergo gradual microbial decomposition.

Non-degradable (conservative)
Non-degradable substances are those which are inert to biological action and do not degrade with time. These include inorganic chemicals (e.g. chlorides), heavy metals ( e.g. mercury, lead), and certain refractory organics [e.g. polychloride biphenyles (PCB), DDT etc.]

Biological accumulative (persistent)

Biologically accumulative substances are those that tend to accumulate in the food chain. They include mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lead, manganese, pesticides, radioactive isotopes, and others.

Some Wastewater treatment methods

Commercial and Institutional Water Demand

Source
Shopping centers

Typical Domestic Water Use Water Use Toilet flushing Bathing Laundry Kitchen Other Percent of total use 40 30 15 10 5

Average daily water use

2.5-5.0 (based on total floor area) 900-1800 L/bed 70-140 L/student 340 L/site 800 L/site L/m2

Hospitals Schools Travel trailer parks Without individual hookups With individual hookups Campgrounds Mobile home parks Motels Hotels

Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. Manual on Water Supply and Treatment

Recommended Per Capita Water Supply Levels For Designing Schemes

Classification of towns/ cities
Recommended Maximum Water Supply Level (LPCD)

225-570 L/campsite 1000 L/unit 150-200 L/bed 225 L/bed

Towns provided with piped water supply but without sewerage system Cities provided with piped water supply where sewerage system is existing/ contemplated Metropolitan and Mega cities provided with piped water supply where sewerage system is existing/ contemplated

70 135

150

CPHEEO, MUD, GoI, Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Water Requirements for Institutions Institutions
Hospitals (including laundry) (a) number of beds exceeding 100 (b) number of beds not exceeding 100 Hotels Hostels Nurses homes and medical quarters Liters per head per day 450 (per bed) 340 (per bed) 180 (per bed) 135 135

Boarding schools/ colleges

Restaurants Air ports and sea ports Junction stations and intermediate stations where mail or express stoppage (both railways and bus stations) is provided

135
70 (per seat) 70 70

Terminal stations
Intermediate stations (excluding mail and express stops) Day schools/ colleges Offices

45
45 (25, no bating facility) 45 45

Factories
Cinema, concert halls and theatre

45
15

CPHEEO, MUD, GoI, Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Industrial Water Needs
Industry Automobiles Distillery Fertilizer Leather Paper Special quality paper Straw board Petroleum refinery Steel Sugar Textile Unit of production Vehicle Kiloliter alcohol Tonne 100 Kg (tanned) Tonne Tonne Tonne Tonne (crude) Tonne Tonne (Cane crushed) 100 Kg (goods) Water requirement in Kiloliters per unit 40 122-170 80-200 4 200-400 400-1000 75-100 1-2 200-250 1-2 8-14

Water Demand and Quantity

Before designing a proper water works project, it is essential to determine the quantity of water that is required daily. This involves the determination of the following items: (1). Population determination Normally, a design period of 20 to 40 years is selected. What will be the population at the end of the design period, is the basic question. This can be achieved by using various methods for population forecast. (2). Rate of demand The water consumption in a city may be conveniently divided into the following categories: (i) domestic (ii) trade (iii) agricultural (iv) public and (v) losses. The total consumption of water depends upon several factors, such as climatic condition, cost of water, living standards of the inhabitants, pressure in the pipeline, type of supply etc. The total quantity of water required divided by the total population gives per capita water demand.

The essential elements of water demand include average daily water consumption and peak rate of demand. Average daily water consumption must be estimated for two reasons:

(1) to determine the ability of the water source to meet continuing

demand over critical periods when surface flows are low or

groundwater tables are at minimum elevation, and

(2) for purposes of estimating quantities of stored water that would

satisfy demands during these critical periods.

While planning a water supply scheme, it is necessary to find out not only the total yearly water demand but also to assess the required average rates of flow (or drafts) and the variations in the rates. therefore, generally assessed and recorded: Total annual volume (V) in litres or million litres. Annual average rates of draft in litres per day, i.e., V/365. Annual average rates of draft in litres per day per person (i.e., litres per capita per day or lpcd), called per capita demand (q) Average rates of draft in litres per day per service, i.e., (V/365) x (1/no. of services) Fluctuations in flows expressed in terms of percentage ratio of maximum or minimum yearly, monthly, daily or hourly rates to their corresponding average values. The following quantities are,

Variation in Rate of Demand

The average daily per capita consumption is obtained by dividing the quantity of water supplied during the year by the number of days in the year and number of persons served. This per capita consumption or demand varies not only from year to year season to season, but more important from day to day and hour to hour. These variations are expressed as percentage of the annual average daily consumption. Some common values are as under: Maximum seasonal consumption: 130% of annual average daily rate of demand. Maximum monthly consumption: 140% of annual average daily rate of demand. Maximum daily consumption: 180% of annual average daily consumption.

Maximum hourly consumption: 150% of average for the day.

A convenient formula for estimating consumption is give by R. O. Goodrich: p = 180t-0.10 where p = percentage of annual average consumption for time t days from 2/24 to 360

Intakes
Intakes are the structures used for admitting water from the surface sources (i.e., river, reservoir or lake), and conveying it further to the treatment plant. Generally, an intake is a masonry or concrete structure with an aim of providing relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and objectionable floating material. Types of Intakes: Submerged intake

Exposed intake
Wet intake Dry intake

River intake
Reservoir intake Lake intake

Canal Intake

A water intake consists of the following components:

Intake structure A conduit with protection works

Inlets
Screens or gratings Gates and valves to regulate the flow The type of design of an intake structure depends on - the source of supply (whether river, canal or impounding reservoir) - the depth of water at currents, flood level and low water level of the source

Canal Intake

Intake well situated at the upstream toe of an earthen dam

Screening
Provided infront of pumps or

intake works to exclude large sized particles such as debris, animals, trees, branches, bushes etc Types
Coarse screens: consists of

parallel iron rods placed vertically or at slope of 4560o ,about 2-10 cm centre to centre Fine screens are perforated metals (wire mess), openings less than 1 cm wide

Typical mechanically cleaned coarse screens: (a) front-cleaned, front-return chain-driven, (b) reciprocating rake, (c) catenary, and (d) continuous belt

SEDIMENTATION
Most of the impurities suspended in water possess the specific gravity greater than that of water, i.e., unity (1.0). These are held in suspension due to turbulence in water. When this turbulence is retarded by offering storage to the water, the suspended matter tends to settle down at the bottom of the tank.

Theory of Sedimentation
The settlement of a particle in water, when brought to rest, is opposed by the following factors: Velocity of flow Viscosity of water Size, shape, and specific gravity of the particle

The settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by Stokes law, which takes the three factors into account. The final Stokes is expressed as:

g d2 Vs S s 1 18

for d < 0.1 mm

----- (3)

[for viscous flow and small sized particles, represented by Re < 0.5]
where Vs = velocity of settlement of particles in mps (assumed to be spherical) d = diameter of the particle in m Ss = Specific gravity of the particle = kinematic viscosity of water in m2/s Re = Reynolds Number = Vs .d/

Flow velocity v = Q/BH Setlling velocity vs = Q/BL = Q/As L = 3B

 Types Sedimentation tank

Horizontal flow Vertical or up flow

Continuous flow Intermittent flow

For manual sludge removal 0.8 m-1.2 m is the

minimum depth provided for storage of bottom sludge Width of tank 10-12 m Horizontal flow velocity 0.15-0.9 m/min Detention time = 4-8 h for plain sedimentation, 2-4 h for when coagulant is added Surface overflow rate = 12-18 m3/day/m2 of plan Schematic view of the area for plain sedimentation, 24-30 m3/day/m2 sedimentation process of plan area for sedimentation aided with coagulation

Simplified section view of a rectangular sedimentation tank

Simplified section of a circular sedimentation tank

Section view of a flash-mix and flocculation tank used in the coagulation process

Sedimentation with coagulation

Colloidal particles removed by changing them into flocculated

particles by coagulants in sedimentation tank

Coagulation is the chemical process which destabilize the

charged or colloidal particles

Flocculation is the slow mixing which promotes the

agglomeration of the stabilized particles to form floc

Chemicals used as coagulant: Ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride,

ferric sulphate, alum (aluminium sulphate), sodium aluminate

Chemical are effective in alkaline water, hence water is made

alkaline with addition of sodium carbonate/lime

Coagulant dose determined from JAR TEST

Filtration
Filtration involves the removal of suspended particles from the water by passing it through a layer or bed of a porous granular material, such as sand. As the water flows through the filter bed, the suspended particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the filter material, or filter media, as it is called.

During filtration, the turbidity and colloidal matter of nonsettleable type are removed. It precipitates the color, and the chemical characteristics of water are changed.
The bacterial content of water is considerably reduced due to the presence of an active zoological layer on the top of the filtering material.

Theory of Filtration

When water is filtered through the bed of filter media, usually consisting of clean sand, following actions take place: Mechanical straining Sedimentation Biological action Electrolytic action
Types of Filters Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
Rapid gravity filter Pressure filter
(a) Typical gradation of a rapid sand filter bed. Solids removal occurs primarily by straining action at the top of the sand bed. (b) Typical coarse-to-fine gradation in a mixed-media filter. It is preferable to the sand bed because it provides in-depth filtration

Slow Sand Filter

Cross-sectional view of a typical sand filter box

Schematic diagrams of a rapid filter in the (a) filtering cycle and (b) Backwash cycle of operation. Values A, B, C, D and E controls the flow. Valve E is opened briefly when filtering starts

Typical rapid multimedia filter waterway

Perspective view of a typical rapid filter facility

Supporting gravel layers for sand filters

Efficiency of various filters Slow sand filter Extent of bacterial removal >= 98-99% Remove turbidity upto 50 mg/L Rapid gravity filter Extent of bacterial removal = 80-90% Turbidity 35-40 mg/L

Pressure filter

General Features of Construction and Operation of Slow and Rapid sand Filters Item Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters

Design Features of Monomedium Filter Beds for Wastewater Treatment

Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, CPHEEO, MUD, India

Disinfection
Boiling water Treatment with excess lime (Dose 14-43 ppm, Eff. 99.3-100%) Treatment with ozone (2-3 ppm, res. 0.1 ppm, T=10 mins) Treatment with iodine and bromine (Dose= 8 ppm. T = 5 min) Treatment with UV-rays

Treatment with Potassium permanganate (1-2 mg/L, T= 4-6 h)

Treatment with silver (Electra-Katadyn Process) (0.05-0.1 mg/L, T=15
min-3h)

Chlorination (T=20 mins, residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/L) Free chlorine (Chlorine gas) Hypochlorite/Bleaching powder Chlorine dioxide

Water Softening
Temporary Hardness Boiling Addition of Lime Permanent Hadness Lime soda process Base Exchange/Zeolite process Demineralization process

Colour/ Odour/Taste removal

Aeration Using spray nozzles By trickling water over cascade Adsorption on activated carbon

Treatment with cupper sulfate

Treatment with oxidising agents such as potassium

permanganate, ozone, chlorination

Desalination
Evaporation/Distillation

Electrodialysis method
Micro, Nano, Utra Filtration Reverse osmosis

Freezing
Solar distillation method

Removal of Iron & Manganese

Aeration followed by coagulation, sedimentation &

filtration Using manganese zeolite Flouridation Sodium Fluoride Sodium Silico Fluoride Hydro-fluosilicic acid

Defluoridation Adsorption on activated alumina Ion Exchange Adsorption Nalgonda Techniques Reverse osmosis process

Arsenic Removal
Co-precipitation Adsorption Membrane Technology

Radioactivity removal
By phosphate coagulation Electrodialysis Addition of clay material Addition of metallic dust

Typical flow diagrams for biological processes used for wastewater treatment (a) activated-sludge Process (b) aerated lagoons, (c) trickling filters, and (d) rotating biological contactors

Screens/Racks

Skimming tank

hydrophobic

hydrophic

Grit Chamber

Biological Wastewater Treatment

The overall objectives of the biological treatment of domestic wastewater are transform (i.e., oxidize) dissolved and particulate biodegradable constituents into acceptable end products capture and incorporate suspended and nonsettleable colloidal solids into a biological floc or biofilm transform or remove nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus in some cases, remove specific trace organics constituents and compounds

For industrial wastewater, the objective is to remove or reduce the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds

Definitions of common terminology used for biological wastewater treatment Term Definition

Definitions of common terminology used for biological wastewater treatment Term Definition

Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment Type Common name Use

Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment Type Common name Use

Trickling Filter

Attached Growth Biological Treatment Processes

In attached growth processes, the microorganisms responsible for the conversion of organic material or nutrients are attached to an inert packing material. The organic material and nutrients are removed from the wastewater flowing past the attached growth also known as a biofilm. Packing materials used in attached growth processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand, redwood, and a wide range of plastic and other synthetic materials. Attached growth processes can also be operated as aerobic or anaerobic processes. Attached growth processes can be grouped into three general classes: nonsubmerged attached growth processes suspended growth processes with fixed-film packing submerged attached growth aerobic processes

Cutaway view of a Trickling Filter

Typical underdrain system for tower filter

Typical packing material for trickling filters: (a) rock, (b) and (c) plastic vertical-flow, (d) plastic cross-flow, (e) redwood horizontal, (f) random pack

Historical classification of trickling filters applications

Design characteristics Low or standard rate Intermediate rate High rate High rate

Roughing

BOD Removal design

The original design model for rock trickling filters was developed by the National Research Council (NRC) in the early 1940s at military installations. The NRC formulations were based on field data for BOD removal efficiency and the organic loading rate. For a single-stage or first-stage rock filter, the NRC equation is

E1

100 W1 1 0.4432 VF
------- (1)

where E1= BOD removal efficiency for first-stage filter at 20oC, including recirculation, percent W1= BOD loading to filter, kg/d V= volume of filter packing, m3 F= recirculation factor

The recirculation factor is calculated using the following equation

F
where F = recirculation factor R = recycle ratio, unitless

1 R / 102

1 R

----- (2)

The recirculation factor represents the average number of passes of the influent organic matter through the filter. The factor R/10 accounts for the fact that the benefits of recirculation decrease as the number of passes increase. Recycle ratio used generally vary from 0 to 2.0.

For a two-stage trickling filter system the BOD removal efficiency of the second stage is given as follows:

E2 1

100

----- (3)

0.4432 W2 1 E1 VF

where E2= BOD removal efficiency for the second-stage filter at 20oC, percent E1= fraction of BOD removal in the first-stage filter W2= BOD loading applied to the second-stage filter, kg/d The effect of wastewater temperature on the BOD removal efficiency is calculated as follows:

ET = E20(1.035)T-20
E20 = BOD removal efficiency at 20oC, percent

----- (4)

where ET = BOD removal efficiency at temperature T in oC, percent

Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment

Microorganisms are used to oxidize (i.e., convert) the dissolved and particulate
carbonaceous organic matter into simple end products and additional biomass, as represented by the following equation for the aerobic biological oxidation of organic matter. v1 (organic material) + v2O2 + v3NH3 + v4 PO43v5(new cells) + v6(CO2) + v7H2O ---- 1
where vi = the stoichiometric coefficient
microorganisms

In Eq. (1), oxygen (O2), ammonia (NH3), and phosphate (PO43-) are used to represent the nutrients needed for the conversion of the organic matter to simple end products [i.e., carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

Microbial Growth Kinetics Terminology

The biomass solids in a bioreactor are commonly measured As total suspended solids (TSS) and volatile suspended solids (VSS). The mixture of solids resulting from combined recycled sludge with influent wastewater in the bioreactor is termed mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) and mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). The solids are comprised of biomass, nonbiodegradable volatile suspended solids (nbVSS), and inert inorganic total suspended solids (iTSS). The nbVSS is derived from the influent wastewater and is also produced as cell debris from endogenous respiration. The iTSS originates in the influent wastewater.

Modeling Suspended Growth Treatment Processes All biological treatment reactor designs are based on using mass balances across a defined volume for each specific constituent of

interest (i.e., biomass, substrate, etc.).

The mass balance includes the flowrates for the mass of the

constituent entering and/or leaving the system and appropriate

reaction rate terms for the depletion or production of the constituent with in the system.

Schematic diagram of activated-sludge process with model nomenclature: (a) with wasting from the sludge return line and (b) with wasting from the aeration tank

Biomass Mass Balance

A mass balance for the mass of microorganisms in the complete-mix reactor can
be written as follows: Accumulation = inflow outflow + net growth
dX V QX 0 Q Qw X e Qw X R rgV dt
----- (1) where dX/dt = rate of change of biomass concentration in reactor measured as g VSS/m3.d V = reactor volume (i.e., aeration tank), m3 Q = influent flowrate, m3/d Xo= concentration of biomass in influent, g VSS/m3 Qw= waste sludge flowrate, m3/d Xe= concentration of biomass in effluent, g VSS/m3 XR= concentration of biomass in return line from clarifier, g VSS/m3 rg= net rate of biomass production, g VSS/m3.d

Flow diagram for an oxidation ditch

Schematic diagram of the complex biochemical reactions that take place in a wastewater stabilization pond or lagoon

An extended aeration type lagoon with separate settling and sludge return

Package plant for sewage water reclamation and reuse based on the extended aeration principle

Conceptual flow sheet showing waste treatment using an aquatic plant pond whose effluents are discharged into a river or on land. The hyacinths can be harvested and used either to generate biogas or can be solar dried or incinerated and used for various end products

Typical flow sheets for duckweed-based wastewater treatment systems

Some typical methods of irrigation used at the farm level

Advanced Wastewater Treatment

Advanced wastewater treatment is defined as additional treatment needed to remove suspended, colloidal, and dissolved constituents remaining after conventional secondary treatment. Dissolved

constituents may range from relatively simple inorganic ions, such as calcium, potassium, sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate, to an ever-

increasing number of highly complex synthetic organic compounds.

Classification of filtration processes used in wastewater management